ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

1. UNIT1
INTRODUCTION TO
AN
A
TOMYANDPHYSIOLOGY

2. CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTIONTOAN
A
TOMICALTERMSAND
ORGANIZA
TIONOFTHEHUMANBODY

3. INTRODUCTION
ANATOMY
Anatomy is the science which deals with the structure of human body. The term
anatomy is derived from a Greek word “anatome” meaning cutting up.
DIVISION OFANATOMY
Gross/Cadaveric/Macroscopic Anatomy
The study of the structure of the human body by cadaveric dissection (dead
bodies) with the naked eye. It can be studied by region (regional) such as the
upper and lower limbs, the thorax, abdomen, head and neck, and the brain, or
by system (systemic) such as the skeletal system, muscular system, nervous,
respiratory, digestive, reproductive, and endocrine systems.

4. HISTOLOGY/MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
The study of human bodily structures by using a microscope.
EMBRYOLOGY/DEVELOPMENTALANATOMY
The study of growth and development of human body from
fertilization through birth.
Surface anatomy
Radiologic anatomy
Living anatomy
Genetic anatomy
Applied anatomy

5. INTRODUCTIONTO
ANA
TOMICALTERMS
ANATOMICAL POSITION
The position in which a person is
standing straight with eyes looking
forwards, upper limbs by the sides,
face and palms of the hands directed
forwards, both feet together.

6. PALMER AND DORSAL SURFACE

7. PROXIMAL AND DISTAL

8. PALMER AND DORSAL
SURFACE
PRONE POSITION
SUPINE POSITION

9. LITHOTOMY
POSITION
ANATOMICAL PLANES

10. TERMS RELATED TO ANATOMICAL PLANES
Median/Midsagittal Plane
Vertical plane passing through the center of the body, splitting it into equal
right and left halves.
Sagittal/Paramedian Plane
Plane parallel to median or mid sagittal plane situated to one or other side of
the median plane.
Coronal Plane
A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior
(back) halves at a right angle to the median or mid sagittal plane.

11. Horizontal/Transverse plane
Planes are at right angle to sagittal or median plane which divides
the body into upper and lower parts.
Oblique Plane
Planesotherthan coronal, transverse, and midsagittal are referred
to as oblique planes.

12. TERMS RELATED TO BODY MOVEMENT
JOINT
A joint is a point or junction of the body where two or more than two
bones meet and are able to bend. Some joints have no movement
(sutures of the skull), some have only slight movement (superior
tibiofibular joint), and some are freely movable (shoulder joint).
FLEXION
It is the movement that reduces the angle between two bones or body
parts so that their ventral surface comes close to each other. For
example, flexion at the elbow decreases the angle between the ulna and
humerus.

13. EXTENSION
Straightening, It is the movement that increases the angle
between two bones or body parts usually take place in
posterior direction. For example, extension at the elbow
increases the angle between the ulna and humerus.
FLEXION AND EXTENSION

14. ABDUCTION
It is movement of a limb away from the midline of the body, for
example spreading of fingers and toes is abduction.
ADDUCTION
It is the movement of the limb toward the midline of the body, for
example drawing together of fingers and toes is adduction.

15. ROTATION
Any movement of a part of the body around its long axis. Medial rotation is the
movement of the body part towards the midline where as lateral rotation is the
movement of the body part away from the midline.
CIRCUMDUCTION
Combination in sequence of the movements
of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction

16. PRONATION
Medial rotation of the forearm so that
the palm of the hand faces posteriorly
(Opposite to anatomical position).
SUPINATION
Lateral rotation of the forearm so that palm
of hand faces anteriorly
(Anatomical position).

17. PROTRACTION
It is the movement of the jaw in forward
direction to stick out the chin.
RETRACTION
It is the movement of the jaw in the
backward direction to pull the jaw.
INVERSION
It is the movement of the foot
towards the median plane so that sole
faces towards medial direction.
EVERSION
It is the movement of the foot away from the
median plane so that sole faces towards lateral direction.

18. DORSAL FLEXION
The flexion of the ankle joint in
which the dorsum of foot bent
towards anterior surface of the
leg.
PLANTER FLEXION
The extension of the ankle joint
in which the planter aspect of the
foot faces backwards.

19. CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL DIVISION
A microscopic anatomy is a visual, colorful science. The light
source for the early microscopes was sunlight. In modern
microscopes, electric illumination is used as the main light
source.
During embryonic development, the cells divide and multiply to
form new cells, tissues, and organs. In an adult organism,
however, not all cells retain the ability to further divide and
reproduce. As a result, different populations of cells are
recognized based on their ability or inability to divide and
reproduce.

20. Nerve cells in the nervous system and muscle cells (skeletal
and cardiac) continue to divide during embryonic
development. Once these cells establish the organs in postnatal
life, however, their ability to further divide ceases and they
cannot be replaced if they are damaged or destroyed.

21. INTRODUCTION
Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit
of the living matter and is capable of carrying on the
processes of the life independently. The main function
of these cells is to maintain a proper homeostasis in
the organism. Cell can be divided as prokaryotic and
eukaryotic kingdom.

22. CELL
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
ANIMALS
PLANTS

23. STRUCTURE OF CELL
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
CELLMEMBRANE
Cell membrane is also known as plasma membrane is the outer
covering of the cell. The membrane isolates the individual cell
and takes part in the maintenance of the internal environment
by active transport of ions and nutrients.

24. CELL, ITS
CYTOPLASM
AND
ORGANELLES

25. NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the most easily spotted, membrane bound organelle
and a characteristic feature of a eukaryotic cell. It houses the
cell’s genetic material DNA condensed in the form of
chromosomes

26. CYTOPLASM
It is the gel like, clear colored solution made up of proteins,
ions, enzymes and organelles all surrounded by plasma
membrane. Each cell cytoplasm contains numerous organelles,
each of which performs a specialized metabolic function that is
essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and cell life such
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus
or Golgi complex, lysosomes, ribosomes, centrioles,
centrosomes and peroxisomes.

27. Centrosome
Centrosome is an area in the cytoplasm which is near the
nucleus. It houses a pair of centrioles which are important for
cell division. The centrioles are barrel-shaped organelles made
up of microtubules. During the mitosis, centrioles form the
region from where the mitotic spindle arises.

28. Golgi complex
Golgi complex or golgi apparatus is a membranous cytoplasmic
organelle constituting of flattened stacks of various types of
membranes. Some are called cisternae and others are in the
form of tubules and vesicles. Perinuclear in location, these are
located right next to endoplasmic reticulum. The vesicles
leaving ER enter the golgi complex as cis-cisternae (cisternae
nearest to ER) and leave at the trans-cisternae (cisternae
farthest of ER)

29. Membrane bound vesicles
Lipid bilayer bound small sacs involved in various functions of
storage and transportation within the cell is termed as
membrane bound vesicle. These originate either from the
plasma membrane or the ER/golgi complex. Mostly these
contain enzymes, proteins, toxins, or other molecules.

30. MITOCHONDRIA (LEFT) AND CELLULAR
LOCATION (RIGHT)

31. TISSUES
EPITHELIAL
TISSUE
MINIMAL INTERCELLULAR MATERIAL
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
ABUNDANT EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
MUSCLETISSUE CONTRACTILE PROPERTIES
NERVOUSTISSUE
CONDUCT ELECTRICAL IMPULSE

32. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
The epithelial tissue, also known as epithelium, is made up of
sheets of cells that cover the external surfaces of the body and
line the interior cavities of organs, glands, and ducts. The
epithelium is made up of densely packed cells with little
intercellular material. They are found on the thin basement
membrane that divides the epithelium from the connective
tissue beneath it.

33. FUNCTION OF EPITHELIUM

34. SHAPES OF EPITHELIAL CELLS

35. CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM
Simple epithelium
 Simple
squamous
epithelium.
 Simple
cuboidal
epithelium
 Simple columnar
 Epithelium
 Pseudostratifie
d columnar
 Epithelium
Stratified epithelium
 Stratified
squamous
epithelium
 Keratinized
 Non-keratinized
 Stratified
cuboidal
epithelium
 Stratified
columnar
Epithelium
 Transitional epithelium

36. SURFACE PROJECTION OF THE EPITHELIAL
CELLS
Epithelial cells show some specialized structure on their apical
surfaces for specific functions. These structures are cilia,
microvilli, stereocilia, villi and flagellae.

37. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Among the four basic tissues (epithelium, connective tissue
proper, muscle and nervous tissues (Fig. 41)) connective tissue
is the most abundant tissue in the human body. Connective
tissue consists of:
• Cells
• Extracellular matrix
• Ground substance
• Fibres

38. VARIOUS TYPES OF CELLS AND FIBERS IN
THE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

39. CARTILAGE
Cartilage is a form of connective tissue in which the cells and fibres are
embedded in a gel like matrix. It is a specialized connective tissue
characterized by elasticity and flexibility.
FEATURES OF CARTILAGE
Lacks blood supply (avascular), lymphatic and nerves.
The chondrocyte cells occur singly or in groups within spaces called
lacunae.
 Cartilage consists of ground substance, fibers and cells
(chondrocytes).

40. TYPE OF CARTILAGE
HYALINE CARTILAGE
It is the most abundant type of
cartilage in human body. All long
bones are performed this cartilage.

41. ELASTIN CARTILAGE
Chondrocytes single not in groups,
large, numerous and closely packed
in lacunae covered by
perichondrium. The matrix consists
of elastic fibers and ground
substance. Elastic cartilage found in
Auricle, pinna of ear, external
auditory meatus, auditory tube,
epiglottis, corniculate, cuneiform
and apices of arytenoid cartilage.

42. FIBROCARTILAGE
Chondrocytes are fewer and in row
between the layers of collagen with
in lacunae. Fibro cartilage has
many collagen fibers embedded in
a small amount of matrix.
Fibrocartilage found in Articular
discs pubic symphysis, inter
vertebral discs (annulus fibrosus),
temporomandibular joint and knee.
Collagen fibers oriented in the
direction of stress.

43. MUSCULAR TISSUE
The muscle can be identified by their structure and function. Each
muscle type shows the morphological and functional similarities as well
as difference. There are three types of muscle tissue in the body:

44. GLANDS
Body contains variety of glands. These glands develop from epithelial
cells that extend from the surface into underlying connective tissue. The
material secreted by the gland is usually a liquid (enzyme, hormone,
mucus or fat). They are classified as
1. Exocrine glands
2. Endocrine glands

45. EXOCRINE GLANDS:
Exocrine glands are connected to the surface epithelium by
excretory ducts, into which their secretory products pass to the
external surface. Exocrine glands are either unicellular or
multicellular.

46. 1. CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE GLANDS
According to the Branching of the Duct
Simple glands
Compound glands
2.ACCORDING TO NATURE OFTHEIR SECRETIONS
Merocine
Apocrine
Holocrine

47. ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine glands do not have excretory ducts. The
endocrine glands have lost their connection to the
surface epithelium and their secretory products are
delivered directly in to the blood.

48. MAJOR SURFACE AND BONY LANDMARKS
IN EACH BODY REGION, ORGANIZATION OF
HUMAN BODY
The study of the external characteristics of the body is known as surface
anatomy (also known as superficial anatomy or visible anatomy). It is
concerned with anatomical aspects that can be observed without
dissection. Along with endoscopic and radiological anatomy, it is a
branch of gross anatomy. The science of surface anatomy is a
descriptive one.

49. TECHNIQUES TO EXAMINE
SURFACE ANATOMY

50. SURFACE LANDMARKS
Anterior Axillary Fold
Posterior Axillary Fold
Coracoid Process
Deltoid
Sternal Angle (Angle of Louis)
Breast
Nipple
Apex Beat of Heart
Axillary Artery
Brachial Artery
Brachial Vein
Cephalic Vein

51. INJECTION SITES
Deltoid
(commonly
used for adult
vaccinations)
Dorsogluteal
Ventrogluteal
Rectus
femoris
Vastus
lateralis

52. COMMON BONE MARKINGS
ANGLES
Sharp bony angulations that may serve as bony or soft tissue
attachments but often are used for precise anatomical description.
Examples include the superior, inferior, and acromial angles of the
scapula and the superior, inferior, lateral angles of the occiput.
BODY
This usually refers to the largest, most prominent segment of bone.
Examples include the diaphysis or shaft of long bones like the
femur and humerus.

53. CONDYLE
Refers to a large prominence, which often provides structural
support to the overlying hyaline cartilage. Examples include the
knee joint (hinge joint), formed by the femoral lateral and medial
condyles, and the tibial lateral and medial condyles.
CREST
A raised or prominent part of the edge of a bone. Crests are often
the sites where connective tissue attaches muscle to bone. The
iliac crest is found on the ilium.

54. DIAPHYSIS
Refers to the main part of the shaft of a long bone. Long bones,
including the femur, humerus, and tibia, all have a shaft.
FACET
A smooth, flat surface that forms a joint with another flat bone
or another facet, together creating a gliding joint. Examples can
be seen in the facet joints of the vertebrae, which allow for
flexion and extension of the spine.

55. TROCHANTER
A large prominence on the side of the bone. Some of the largest muscle
groups and most dense connective tissues attach to the trochanter. The
most notable examples are the greater and lesser trochanters of the
femur.
TUBEROSITY
A moderate prominence where muscles and connective tissues attach.
Its function is similar to that of a trochanter. Examples include the tibial
tuberosity, deltoid tuberosity, and ischial tuberosity.
TUBERCLE
A small, rounded prominence where connective tissues attach.
Examples include the greater and lesser tubercle of the humerus.

56. APPLICATION AND IMPLICATION IN
NURSING
Wounds of the skin heel quickly
Cartilages do not break whereas bones do
Deltoid is a preferred site for intramuscular injection in the
upper limb
Mark of pregnancy
Healthy females feel less cold compared to healthy males
Mark of pregnancy

57. CHAPTER 1
General
Physiology-
Basic Concepts

58. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the study of normal body function. It explains how
different systems of the body are organized and how they
interact with each other to perform different functions. It also
explains how these functions are maintained by different
controlling mechanisms in normal conditions and how they are
adjusted when body tries to adapt to a changing environment.
The knowledge of physiology extends from molecules to cell
and organs and finally to bodily systems.

59. MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

60. BODY FLUIDS
Water is the most abundant compound of the human body,
comprising about 60–70% of adult body weight. Due to the
specific arrangement pattern of oxygen and hydrogen atoms,
the water is a polar molecule and can combine with a variety
of negatively and positively charged ions. Due to this property
the water is considered as a universal solvent. Various
electrolytes of the body remain dissolved in the body water and
form the body fluid.

61. BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
INTRACELLULAR COMPARTMENT
This is conceptualized as the total space present within all the cells.
The fluid presents in this compartment is termed as the intracellular
fluid (ICF).
EXTRACELLULAR COMPARTMENT
This is conceptualized as the total space available outside the cells.
The fluid present in this compartment is termed as the Extracellular
Fluid (ECF). The extracellular space and the extracellular fluid
within it are further classified into three main divisions:

62. INTERSTITIAL SPACE
This represents the total space present in between the cells.
Accordingly, the fluid present in this space is called interstitial
fluid (ISF).
INTRAVASCULAR SPACE
This is the space present within the blood vessels. The fluid present
in this space represents the plasma portion of the blood.
TRANSCELLULAR FLUID
This represents the fluid present in different body spaces. About
5% is the transcellular fluid. Usually, any increase in transcellular
fluid indicates a pathological condition.

63. DISTRIBUTION OF BODY FLUID IN RELATION TO FAT
AND MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle cells hold more water; and fat cells have less water content.
So, when muscularity is increased, the body water content
increases and when body fat increases, the body water content is
decreased. About 50% of body water remains in muscle tissue.
Females have less amount of total body water due to higher
content of body fat. TBW bears a constant relationship with the
fat-free body mass also called lean body mass (LBM) and it has
been estimated that the total body water is 70% of LBM,
irrespective of age and gender.

64. ELECTROLYTES
Chemically, electrolytes are substances present in body fluids,
that become ions; either positively or negatively charged in
solution and acquire the capacity to conduct electricity.
Electrolytes in body fluids include potassium (K), sodium (Na),
chloride (Cl), magnesium (Mg) and phosphate (HPO4). Plasma
concentrations of K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and phosphate are very low
compared with their concentrations in cells and bone.

65. MAJOR INTRACELLULAR ELECTROLYTES
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Phosphate

66. CONCEPT OF HOMEOSTASIS
There is every possibility that the properties of ECF can change.
This is because the ECF represents an open system. It is exposed to
the external environment through the skin, lungs, and GI tract. So,
external changes will influence ECF. When there is increased
sweating due to increased environmental temperature, it can
deplete ECF volume and loss of sodium ions. Again, decreased
oxygen in atmosphere can reduce the normal oxygen level of the
blood leading to hypoxic (less oxygen supply to the cells)
condition. Furthermore, internal pathological conditions can also
alter ECF conditions. A close interrelation exists between ECF and
ICF, cell function and organ function.

67. CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK CONTROL
According to model of homeostatic control, the output from effectors
affects the initial change of the variable. This is called feedback
mechanism . It is of two types:
Negative feedback mechanism
Positive feedback mechanism
In the negative feedback mechanisms, the parameter if increased
initially is reduce back to normal, or if decreased initially is increased to
its original state by the effects produced by the effectors. Therefore, the
negative feedback mechanisms dampen the initial effects of the stimulus
or the stimulus itself.

68. In positive feedback, if initially, the parameter was increased it
is increased further or if initially it was decreased, it is
decreased further. Therefore, the positive feedback the effect
produced by the effectors intensifies the initial effects of the
stimulus or the stimulus itself.

69. MEMBRANE AND GLANDS
MEMBRANES
Membranes are boundaries, Cell membrane acts as cell boundaries.
Similarly, membranes are present outside and inside of different organs,
and body cavities and tubes. Two basic membrane types are mucous
membrane and serous membrane.

70. BASIC MEMBRANE
TYPES
 Mucous Membranes
 Serous Membranes

71. GLANDS
A gland consists of one or more epithelial cells that produce
and secrete a product. Goblet cell, which is a mucus-
secreting cells within the columnar epithelium lining of the
digestive tracts an example of a single cell gland. Most of
the other glands of the body, like sebaceous gland, salivary
glands, endocrine glands, glands of stomach etc. are made
of multiple cells.

72. CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Membrane Structure
This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell
from its surrounding environment.
Composition of Cell Membrane
Membrane is composed of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
Proteins are most abundant followed by lipids and
carbohydrates. Membrane lipids are composed of
phospholipids (major amount) and cholesterol (fewer amount).

73. FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE
Barrier
Transport
Cell to cell interaction
Signaling
Metabolic function
Support
Cell recognition and antigenic property

74. MEMBRANE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Membrane transport is a collective term for various
mechanisms by which substances move in and out of the cell
across the cell membrane. Transport processes maintain
intracellular (ICF) fluid volume and composition that are vital
for maintaining cellular function and hence life.

75. DIFFERENT TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of solution from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration through a selective
permeable membrane which allows the solvent but not the solutes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism and does not require any
carrier molecule. It is a process of spontaneous passive movement
(without requiring any energy) of molecules from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

76. Active Transport
Active transport, as the name implies, requires energy for
transport. Energy is required because movement occurs against
the concentration gradient. This process also requires a carrier
protein molecule. Active transport can be of two different
types: Primary Active transport and Secondary Active
transport.

77. ENDOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis is an energy-using process by which cells engulf
molecules in vesicles formed by the in folding of the cell
membrane.
Endocytosis occurs in three different ways:
1. Phagocytosis
This is called cell eating. First the molecule to be internalized
is attached with the cell membrane, next, the in folding of the
membrane surrounds the particle and forms a food vacuole,
which is then engulfed.

78. 2. Pinocytosis
This is called cell drinking. The cell membrane pinches in to
engulf a portion of ECF containing solutes required by the cell.
This process is non-specific; any solutes in the solution will be
engulfed.

79. 3. Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
It involves some membrane receptor proteins for transportation.
The receptors have specific receptor sites that bind to specific
molecules. The receptor-molecule then cluster on the cytoplasm
side and remain covered with another class of proteins called coat
proteins in form of pits. The coated pits then pinches off as a
vesicle, taking with it high concentrations of the specified
molecule but also some other molecules from the ECF. After the
molecules are delivered to their destination, the receptor proteins
are recycled to the plasma membrane.

80. EXOCYTOSIS
Exocytosis is the process in which the cell releases materials to
the outside by discharging them in membrane-bounded
vesicles. Therefore, it is the reverse of endocytosis. Exocytosis
can be constitutive (occurring all the time) or regulated.

81. CELLCYCLE
Cell division is an ongoing process that contributes to growth and
repair. Most body cells have limited lifespan, and by cell division,
these worn-out cells are replaced by new cells.
In eukaryotic cells, cell cycle can be defined as the ordered sequence of
events taking place between two successive cell divisions. It can be
broadly divided into two events:
• Growth phase
• Mitotic phase

82. Growth Phase
The growth phase is further of G1, S and G2 phases.
•G1: It begins with the ‘birth’ of the cell right after previous mitosis
and before the start of DNA replication.
•S phase: It is the one in which centrioles and DNA replicate. By now
the DNA is visible as sister chromatids.
•G2: Next follows the G2 phase marked by the appearance of
mitotic spindle. This entire sequence of G1, S and G2 phases is
known as interphase.

83. Mitosis
Mitosis is essentially the process of replicating the cellular
chromosomes and then segregating these into two identical
daughter cells (Fig. 13). It is thus a means of reproduction (for
organisms with asexual means of reproduction), growth and
replacement of the old worn-out cells with new ones. Mitosis is
divided into five phases – interphase, prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase. The telophase is followed by cytokinesis.

84. STAGES OF
CELL
CYCLE

85. DISEASE AND ILLNESS
Disease is a state of the body characterized by altered normal structure and
function of the bodily systems with deleterious consequences. The homeostatic
imbalances are the root cause of diseases. In disease, the feedback regulations
become nonfunctional or they fail to normalize the altered condition. A disease
may be described in relation to the following terms:
Etiology: Cause of the disease
Pathogenesis: The nature of the disease process and its effect on
normal body functioning
Complications: The consequences which might arise if the disease
progresses
Prognosis: The likely outcome of a disease

86. Etiology
GeneticAbnormalities, Either Inherited or Acquired
Infection by Micro-organisms
Physical and ChemicalAgents
Malnutrition

87. APPLIED ASPECTS (DISORDERS
RELATED TO MEMBRANES)
Peritonitis
This is the inflammation of the peritoneum, the serous
membrane that lines the digestive organs and the wall of the
abdominopelvic cavity.
Pneumothorax
A pneumothorax or collapsed lung occurs when air
accumulates in the pleural cavity surrounding the lings. This
can cause due to trauma and chronic lung disease.

88. APPLICATIONS IN NURSING
Intravenous (IV) therapy or IV infusion is the infusion of fluid
directly into the venous circulation of a patient, usually via a
cannula. This therapy is indicated when a patient suffers from
dehydration, electrolyte imbalance or blood loss due to
haemorrhage.
Safe administration of intravenous fluid requires the knowledge
of the role of electrolytes and water in the body, the mechanism
for movements between different body compartments and how
fluid balance is maintained.

89. Calculating the drip rate is an important step before IV
administration. The drip rate determines the speed at which
the fluid is infused into the patient’s venous circulation and
it refers to the number of drops that enters into the filling
chamber per minute.
Intravenous fluids are based on their tonicity. They can be
isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic. They can also classified
as colloid or crystalloid.

90. THANK
YOU