This document analyzes academic writing patterns in essays written by Italian students. It begins with an abstract and table of contents. The introduction provides background on challenges Italian students face with academic writing in English due to influences from their native language and lack of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) training.
The document then reviews relevant literature on academic writing conventions and patterns. These are compared to patterns found in an analysis of 38 essays written by Italian students. Recurrent writing issues in the students' essays are identified and categorized. The analysis aims to understand students' academic writing needs and how to address them.
The nature of second language writing (L2) has become clearer nowadays. Broadly speaking, we may say that research conducted in the areas of linguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology and sociolinguistics has helped us to gain a better understanding of how the ability to write is likely to be learned. We are now aware that writing is not a decontextualized activity but rather it is embedded in the cultural and institutional context in which it is produced (Kern 2000; Hyland 2002). Additionally, it involves a dynamic interaction among the three basic elements that play a part in the writing act, namely the text, the writer and the reader, which requires writers’ consideration of all them in order to write accordingly
Attribution And Authorial (Dis) Endorsement In High- And Low-Rated Undergradu...Zaara Jensen
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed how undergraduate ESL students of varying writing abilities used attribution and authorial endorsement in their persuasive academic essays. The study examined essays from high-rated and low-rated students to identify differences in their use of linguistic resources that convey attribution and stance toward sources. The research found that high-rated essays used evaluative language and positioned themselves in relation to sources more successfully. This indicates an important pedagogical area for instructing ESL students on interpersonal language skills needed for academic writing.
Authorial Presence In L 1 And L 2 Novice Writing Cross-Linguistic And Cross...Scott Bou
This study analyzed authorial presence markers in argumentative essays written by Turkish students in English and Turkish, and compared them to essays written by American students in English. The study used three sets of essays: 1) English essays by American students, 2) English essays by Turkish students, and 3) Turkish essays by the same Turkish students. Interviews with 10 Turkish students provided insight into their use of markers in L1 and L2 writing. The analysis focused on self-mentions, attitude markers, and boosters to examine similarities and differences in authorial presence across the three datasets.
Analysis Of MA Thesis Writing Problems And Perceptions Of Postgraduate EFL Le...Darian Pruitt
This document summarizes a study that analyzed writing problems in MA thesis proposals written by Iranian EFL students. The study classified problems into macro (discoursal) and micro categories. For macro problems, the most frequent were reference issues (8.53%) and lexical cohesion (6.91%). Other common macro problems included lack of coherence, inappropriate word choice, and poorly segmented paragraphs. The study aimed to identify problem types and compare them to students' perceptions of difficulties, gathered through a questionnaire.
This document discusses deciding on the degree of emphasis for different micro skills in writing classes based on an analysis of student error frequencies. The researcher analyzed essays from 300 students to identify 13 common error types. Based on the error occurrence rates, the researcher suggested a hierarchy of error types to focus on and strategies for teaching writing skills pre-writing, writing, and post-writing. The researcher aimed to determine which micro skills and errors should receive more emphasis to help students improve their writing.
A Study Of Lexical Ties Used In Medical Science Articles Written By Iranian A...Lindsey Sais
This document summarizes a study that compared the use of lexical ties in medical science articles written by Iranian and English authors. The study analyzed 20 research articles (10 written by native English speakers and 10 written by Iranian authors) to examine the frequency of two types of lexical ties (reiteration and collocation) in the abstracts, introductions, and discussions/conclusions. The results found no statistically significant difference in the use of lexical ties between the native and non-native authored articles. The document provides background on lexical ties and previous related studies before describing the methodology used to analyze the frequency of lexical ties in the two corpora of articles.
An Exploratory Study On Authorial (In)Visibilty Across Postgraduate Academic ...Sabrina Ball
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed how postgraduate students from Turkey, Britain, and Turkish students writing in English establish their authorial presence in discussion sections of dissertations. The study analyzed 90 dissertations total from the three groups, looking at both explicit mentions using first-person pronouns and implicit mentions using passive voice and impersonal constructions. The quantitative analysis found that Turkish students and Turkish students writing in English preferred implicit mentions to create a more impersonal impression, while British students used more explicit mentions for a more self-prominent academic prose. The qualitative analysis provided some evidence that all three groups used explicit and implicit mentions to accomplish common discourse functions in discussion sections.
The document discusses the academic writing difficulties encountered by English as a second language (ESL) learners. It summarizes a small-scale survey of 20 postgraduate students from four different nationalities studying in Australia. The survey found that the students faced similar challenges in academic writing regardless of their educational backgrounds. The most common difficulties were related to language use, coherence, and cohesion. Other challenges included writing in their own voice, finding relevant topics and sources, and referencing and citations. The factors that may contribute to these difficulties included a lack of previous experience with academic writing conventions and expectations of their institution.
The nature of second language writing (L2) has become clearer nowadays. Broadly speaking, we may say that research conducted in the areas of linguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology and sociolinguistics has helped us to gain a better understanding of how the ability to write is likely to be learned. We are now aware that writing is not a decontextualized activity but rather it is embedded in the cultural and institutional context in which it is produced (Kern 2000; Hyland 2002). Additionally, it involves a dynamic interaction among the three basic elements that play a part in the writing act, namely the text, the writer and the reader, which requires writers’ consideration of all them in order to write accordingly
Attribution And Authorial (Dis) Endorsement In High- And Low-Rated Undergradu...Zaara Jensen
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed how undergraduate ESL students of varying writing abilities used attribution and authorial endorsement in their persuasive academic essays. The study examined essays from high-rated and low-rated students to identify differences in their use of linguistic resources that convey attribution and stance toward sources. The research found that high-rated essays used evaluative language and positioned themselves in relation to sources more successfully. This indicates an important pedagogical area for instructing ESL students on interpersonal language skills needed for academic writing.
Authorial Presence In L 1 And L 2 Novice Writing Cross-Linguistic And Cross...Scott Bou
This study analyzed authorial presence markers in argumentative essays written by Turkish students in English and Turkish, and compared them to essays written by American students in English. The study used three sets of essays: 1) English essays by American students, 2) English essays by Turkish students, and 3) Turkish essays by the same Turkish students. Interviews with 10 Turkish students provided insight into their use of markers in L1 and L2 writing. The analysis focused on self-mentions, attitude markers, and boosters to examine similarities and differences in authorial presence across the three datasets.
Analysis Of MA Thesis Writing Problems And Perceptions Of Postgraduate EFL Le...Darian Pruitt
This document summarizes a study that analyzed writing problems in MA thesis proposals written by Iranian EFL students. The study classified problems into macro (discoursal) and micro categories. For macro problems, the most frequent were reference issues (8.53%) and lexical cohesion (6.91%). Other common macro problems included lack of coherence, inappropriate word choice, and poorly segmented paragraphs. The study aimed to identify problem types and compare them to students' perceptions of difficulties, gathered through a questionnaire.
This document discusses deciding on the degree of emphasis for different micro skills in writing classes based on an analysis of student error frequencies. The researcher analyzed essays from 300 students to identify 13 common error types. Based on the error occurrence rates, the researcher suggested a hierarchy of error types to focus on and strategies for teaching writing skills pre-writing, writing, and post-writing. The researcher aimed to determine which micro skills and errors should receive more emphasis to help students improve their writing.
A Study Of Lexical Ties Used In Medical Science Articles Written By Iranian A...Lindsey Sais
This document summarizes a study that compared the use of lexical ties in medical science articles written by Iranian and English authors. The study analyzed 20 research articles (10 written by native English speakers and 10 written by Iranian authors) to examine the frequency of two types of lexical ties (reiteration and collocation) in the abstracts, introductions, and discussions/conclusions. The results found no statistically significant difference in the use of lexical ties between the native and non-native authored articles. The document provides background on lexical ties and previous related studies before describing the methodology used to analyze the frequency of lexical ties in the two corpora of articles.
An Exploratory Study On Authorial (In)Visibilty Across Postgraduate Academic ...Sabrina Ball
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed how postgraduate students from Turkey, Britain, and Turkish students writing in English establish their authorial presence in discussion sections of dissertations. The study analyzed 90 dissertations total from the three groups, looking at both explicit mentions using first-person pronouns and implicit mentions using passive voice and impersonal constructions. The quantitative analysis found that Turkish students and Turkish students writing in English preferred implicit mentions to create a more impersonal impression, while British students used more explicit mentions for a more self-prominent academic prose. The qualitative analysis provided some evidence that all three groups used explicit and implicit mentions to accomplish common discourse functions in discussion sections.
The document discusses the academic writing difficulties encountered by English as a second language (ESL) learners. It summarizes a small-scale survey of 20 postgraduate students from four different nationalities studying in Australia. The survey found that the students faced similar challenges in academic writing regardless of their educational backgrounds. The most common difficulties were related to language use, coherence, and cohesion. Other challenges included writing in their own voice, finding relevant topics and sources, and referencing and citations. The factors that may contribute to these difficulties included a lack of previous experience with academic writing conventions and expectations of their institution.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
Attitude In Students Argumentative Writing A Contrastive PerspectiveSara Alvarez
This article reports on a case study that analyzed the use of evaluative language in one Chinese EFL student's argumentative writing in both English and Chinese. It focuses on the subsystem of "attitude" from appraisal theory. The study found similar patterns in the use of "appreciation" items but differences in "affect" and "judgement" between the student's English and Chinese essays. It proposes that understanding EFL/ESL students' use of evaluative language requires considering both linguistic and socio-cultural perspectives.
An Introduction To Applied Linguistics IntroductionLori Moore
Applied linguistics (AL) is a new interdisciplinary field that draws on theories from linguistics and other disciplines like psychology and sociology to address real-world language problems. While there is no single agreed upon definition, AL generally involves using knowledge about language learning and use to solve practical problems. It is problem-driven rather than theory-driven. Common areas of focus include second language acquisition, literacy, language policy, and translation. Theories in AL come from various contributing disciplines. AL approaches problems by asking questions from linguistics, psychology, and other fields to better understand the issue and potential solutions.
A Genre-Based Approach To Writing Instruction In EFL Classroom ContextsKatie Naple
This summary provides an overview of a study that explored how 14 Japanese university students improved their understanding of genre structure and language features for writing argumentative essays through a 15-week English writing course using a genre-based approach.
The study administered pre- and post-surveys and analyzed students' self-reflection texts using 12 criteria to evaluate changes in their genre awareness and writing skills. The preliminary results showed that the students' comprehension of the generic structure and lexicogrammar of the target genre improved, particularly for the second and third paragraphs. Increased understanding of textual, interpersonal, and experiential meaning in the texts correlated with gains in students' self-efficacy and confidence in writing. The analysis indicated that a genre
Functional English Design for Domestic Migrant Workersidhasaeful
This paper aimed at: (1) describing the content of Functional English Design (FED) materials and (2) describing the appropriateness of the FEDas the English training materials for the migrant workers' candidates (MWC). This study used ADDIE (Analysing, Designing, Developing, Implementing and Evaluating) model involving totally 200 MWC in the 4 PPTKIS (namely authorized private boards in which duties serves the Indonesian workers' placement and protection abroad).The data were taken from the documentation, the trainees’ English training achievements using the FED and peer-debriefing. The gathered data was analyzed using: Content Analysis and Mean-difference computation of the trainees' test results descriptively. This study found: (1) the content of the FEDthatdeveloped“Imparting and seeking factual information” with “Minimum–adequate language Functions” was matched with the trainees needs and (2) the FED was appropriate to use as an alternative English materials since it was designed based on the result of needs analysis beside the test result in significant improvement i.e. the Mean Difference of the oral pre and post-test was 2.25 within the scoring standard scale of 0-10, while the Md of the written pre-post-test was 13.35 within the scoring standard scale of 0-100. Besides, the peers debriefing stated that the FED was recommended for use in the 4 investigated PPTKIS.
A Comparative Study Of The Discourse Marker Types In The Body Section Of The ...Angie Miller
The document summarizes a study that examined the types of discourse markers used in the body sections of research papers written by students from two colleges at De La Salle University in Manila. It found that students from the College of Engineering, who wrote descriptive papers, used addition and contrast markers more, while students from the College of Liberal Arts, who wrote argumentative papers, preferred addition, contrast and consequence markers. The study has implications for the teaching materials used for different fields of study.
Analysis Of The Quot Gone With The Wind Quot And Its Simplified Version In ...Renee Lewis
This document analyzes and compares the original novel "Gone with the Wind" and its simplified version in terms of their lexical structures. It finds that the simplified version has a lower percentage of similar words, content words, and key words compared to the original. It also has a higher density and lower consistency ratio, indicating it is more compact but may decrease its pedagogical value for vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. The document used a software program called Wordsmith 4.0 to digitize and analyze the word lists and frequencies in the two versions.
The document discusses a small-scale survey that investigated the academic writing challenges of English as a second language (ESL) learners. The survey involved 20 postgraduate students from four countries studying in Australia. Two questionnaires were used to gather data on the students' writing difficulties, strategies, and attitudes. The results suggest that students face similar challenges regardless of their educational backgrounds. The most common difficulty was with language use, coherence, and cohesion. Other challenges included expressing their own voice, finding relevant topics and sources, and to a lesser extent, referencing and citations. A key factor contributing to these difficulties was lack of experience with academic writing conventions in their home countries.
Academic Culture - Students And Culture ShockShannon Green
This document discusses academic culture shock that students experience when entering university. It notes that each academic discipline has its own culture, norms, and discourse practices that students must learn. This can be challenging for students from a different linguistic or cultural background. The document identifies several factors that contribute to culture shock for non-native English speaking students, including differences in rhetorical styles across languages and genres, varying writing assignments across disciplines, and discipline-specific vocabulary, citation practices, and levels of hedging. Overall, the document examines how moving into an academic community requires students to adapt to a new cultural and linguistic context.
A Corpus Analysis Of Metadiscourse Markers Used In Argumentative Essays By Pa...Nathan Mathis
The document analyzes the use of metadiscourse markers in 124 argumentative essays written by Pakistani undergraduate students. It finds that interactive metadiscourse markers were used more frequently than interactional markers. Transition markers were the most common, while endophoric markers were least frequent. The results have pedagogical implications for understanding writing conventions and developing students' writing skills through appropriate use of metadiscourse devices.
This document summarizes a study that examines the relationship between oral and written discourse in second language English speakers. The study hypothesizes that there is a positive working relationship between the two. Data was collected from a French doctoral student, including a writing sample and recorded speech sample. While the results showed a weak relationship, analysis of the speech without fillers revealed native-like patterns. The document reviews theories on language acquisition and the influence of first language on second language learning.
A Contrastive Study Of Hedging In Environmental Sciences Research ArticlesAnita Miller
This document summarizes a study that compares the frequency and types of hedges used in the Discussion sections of research articles in Environmental Sciences. The study analyzed 60 research articles written in English by English researchers, Iranian researchers writing in English, and Iranian researchers writing in Farsi. The study found no significant differences in hedge use between English and Iranian authors writing in English. However, it did find significant differences between English and Farsi written articles, which may be due to differences in how certainty is expressed in Farsi versus international academic discourse norms. The study used Salager-Meyer's taxonomy to analyze hedges.
A Study Of Pakistani English Newspaper Texts An Application Of Halliday And ...Jennifer Daniel
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the use of cohesive devices in Pakistani English newspaper texts based on Halliday and Hasan's model of cohesion. The study examined weekly articles from The Daily Dawn newspaper by Cyril Almeida. It found the most frequently used cohesive devices were referencing, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion like reiteration. Reference from grammatical cohesion occurred more than other cohesion subcategories. Many literary terms in the articles helped uncover political contexts. Overall, lexical cohesion like reiteration and collocation were dominant, suggesting the texts' cohesion came mainly from semantic vocabulary linkage rather than grammar.
This chapter discusses definitions of discourse and discourse analysis, including "little d" discourse referring to language in context and "big D" discourse as specialized language of social groups. It outlines structural and functional approaches to discourse analysis and describes various disciplines and main approaches. Context and models of communication are examined, including Hymes' 16 contextual features and Halliday's three parameters of context. The development of the concept of communicative competence from Hymes to Canale and Swain to Celce-Murcia is summarized.
AN ANALYSIS OF COHESION OF EXPOSITION TEXTS AN INDONESIAN CONTEXTSheila Sinclair
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the cohesion of exposition texts written by 11th grade students in Indonesia. The study analyzed 6 student texts (2 low achievers, 2 mid achievers, 2 high achievers) based on their schematic structure and linguistic features like theme progression and cohesive devices. The results found that all students demonstrated an understanding of exposition structure but only high achievers used complex theme patterns. In terms of cohesive devices, all students used simple references, lexical cohesion, and conjunctions. However, the texts had grammatical errors and needed more elaboration, suggesting students need more guidance to write at a professional level. The study recommends further research on teaching writing using systemic functional linguistics
A Cross-Linguistic Study On The Reflection Of Metadiscourse Markers In The Ac...Fiona Phillips
The document is a research paper that analyzes metadiscourse markers used in dissertation acknowledgements written by Iranian and native English authors. It explores the extent to which interactive and interactional metadiscourse features are employed based on Hyland's model of metadiscourse. The study analyzed 90 dissertation acknowledgements (45 Iranian, 45 native English). It found that while Iranian and native English authors both followed the standard rhetorical moves, Iranians used fewer attitude markers. Otherwise, no significant differences were found in the use of interactive metadiscourse features between the two groups. The results provide insights into how Iranian researchers can improve their acknowledgement writing.
The study investigated collaborative writing in an ESL classroom. Students were given a choice to write individually or in pairs on a short writing task. Pairs produced shorter but better quality texts than individuals in terms of task fulfillment, accuracy, and complexity. Collaboration allowed students to share ideas and provide feedback to each other. Most students viewed the collaborative experience positively, though some had reservations.
Analyzing Verbs In The Discussion Section Of Master S Theses Written By Irani...Jim Jimenez
This study analyzes the verbs used in the discussion section of 60 master's theses written by Iranian students studying English as a foreign language. The theses were categorized based on their research approach as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods. The verbs were analyzed based on their reporting or nonreporting status, as well as their tense, aspect, and voice. The findings showed there were no differences in verb use across the different research approaches, except for a higher use of progressive aspect for reporting verbs in qualitative theses and passive voice for nonreporting verbs in mixed methods theses. The study aims to contribute to understanding of verb use in academic writing by non-native English speakers.
Applying Corpus-Based Findings To Form-Focused Instruction The Case Of Repor...Justin Knight
The document summarizes a study that compared how reported speech is presented in English language textbooks versus how it is used in real language based on corpus data. The study found that textbooks focus mainly on indirect reported speech and backshifting verbs to past tense, but neglect many structures used in natural language. Corpus data from two studies of reported speech was then used to identify 10 principles for how it should be taught. The document proposes applying these corpus-based findings to design classroom activities and materials for teaching reported speech that are grounded in theories of second language acquisition.
The document provides a 5-step process for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net:
1. Create an account with a password and valid email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline, and attaching a writing sample.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications, history, and feedback and place a deposit.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize final payment if pleased, with free revisions available.
5. Request multiple revisions to ensure satisfaction, with plagiarized work resulting in a full refund.
IELTS Academic Essay Writing Tips For A Better ScoreJeff Brooks
The document provides tips for getting a better score on the IELTS Academic Essay Writing exam. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Ensure the paper meets expectations and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction and get a refund for plagiarized work. The document stresses choosing HelpWriting.net for high-quality, original content and customer satisfaction.
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The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
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This article reports on a case study that analyzed the use of evaluative language in one Chinese EFL student's argumentative writing in both English and Chinese. It focuses on the subsystem of "attitude" from appraisal theory. The study found similar patterns in the use of "appreciation" items but differences in "affect" and "judgement" between the student's English and Chinese essays. It proposes that understanding EFL/ESL students' use of evaluative language requires considering both linguistic and socio-cultural perspectives.
An Introduction To Applied Linguistics IntroductionLori Moore
Applied linguistics (AL) is a new interdisciplinary field that draws on theories from linguistics and other disciplines like psychology and sociology to address real-world language problems. While there is no single agreed upon definition, AL generally involves using knowledge about language learning and use to solve practical problems. It is problem-driven rather than theory-driven. Common areas of focus include second language acquisition, literacy, language policy, and translation. Theories in AL come from various contributing disciplines. AL approaches problems by asking questions from linguistics, psychology, and other fields to better understand the issue and potential solutions.
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This summary provides an overview of a study that explored how 14 Japanese university students improved their understanding of genre structure and language features for writing argumentative essays through a 15-week English writing course using a genre-based approach.
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The document summarizes a study that examined the types of discourse markers used in the body sections of research papers written by students from two colleges at De La Salle University in Manila. It found that students from the College of Engineering, who wrote descriptive papers, used addition and contrast markers more, while students from the College of Liberal Arts, who wrote argumentative papers, preferred addition, contrast and consequence markers. The study has implications for the teaching materials used for different fields of study.
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This document analyzes and compares the original novel "Gone with the Wind" and its simplified version in terms of their lexical structures. It finds that the simplified version has a lower percentage of similar words, content words, and key words compared to the original. It also has a higher density and lower consistency ratio, indicating it is more compact but may decrease its pedagogical value for vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. The document used a software program called Wordsmith 4.0 to digitize and analyze the word lists and frequencies in the two versions.
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The document is a research paper that analyzes metadiscourse markers used in dissertation acknowledgements written by Iranian and native English authors. It explores the extent to which interactive and interactional metadiscourse features are employed based on Hyland's model of metadiscourse. The study analyzed 90 dissertation acknowledgements (45 Iranian, 45 native English). It found that while Iranian and native English authors both followed the standard rhetorical moves, Iranians used fewer attitude markers. Otherwise, no significant differences were found in the use of interactive metadiscourse features between the two groups. The results provide insights into how Iranian researchers can improve their acknowledgement writing.
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1. ANALYSIS OF ITALIAN STUDENTS' ACADEMIC WRITING
Partrizia Giampieri
Msc. Applied Linguistics
Aston University
Birmingham, UK
Abstract
For many Italian students, reaching expert-like academic writing standards can be very challenging.
Students are often confronted with difficulties due to influences of their native language, and to a
lack of exposure to a second target language. This project research is aimed at exploring whether it
is possible to address students' academic writing needs and how. To this aim, an in-depth analysis of
Italian essays was carried out, in order to bring to the surface the most recurring writing
shortcomings, which were, amongst others, mostly grammatical.
2. Table of Contents
Introduction page 3
Academic writing patterns and conventions page 4
1.1 Literature findings in academic writing page 4
1.2 The research phases page 7
1.3 Writing patterns in Italian students' essays vis-à-vis literature findings page 8
1.4 Concluding remarks on academic writing patterns page 11
Issues in academic writing page 12
2.1 Recurrent mistakes in Italian academic writing page 12
2.1.1 Type of mistakes page 12
2.1.2 Mistake frequency page 18
2.2 Concluding remarks on writing issues page 20
Reference List page 22
3. INTRODUCTION
Despite an increasing number of Italian universities offering programmes in English (Maraschio &
De Martino, 2012; Solly, 2008), researchers argue that Italian students are still provided with poor
prior teaching on EAP (Crawford Camiciottoli, 2010; Fortanet-Gómez & Räisänen, 2008).
EAP (English for Academic Purposes) emerged from ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and
focusses on promoting the students' learning on courses within higher education institutions (Scott,
2001). EAP is in fact aimed at equipping them with the necessary communicative skills, in order to
participate in academic contexts (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2002:2).
By analysing academic writing in depth, it is generally assumed that one of its hallmarks is clarity
(Bennet, 2009:48), substantiated by short sentences of ideally 20 words (Dunleavy, 2003:114-115)
and a clearly identifiable Subject-Verb-Object component (ibid.). Therefore, academic literacy
entails having “clear and stable views of what is appropriate” (Silva, 1990:17) in a specific
academic context. Furthermore, notwithstanding its informal and objective style, academic writing
should not be reduced to a mere avoidance of the first person, or to an extended use of the passive
voice (Sharpling, 2002:87ff), as otherwise claimed (Allison, 1997:53; White, 2000:133). Academic
literacy implies in fact developing schemata for academic discourse (Randaccio, 2013); using the
technical language of the discipline, as well as coherence and cohesive devices to unfold the
writer's argumentation (Bennet, 2009). The complexity of academic writing is claimed by several
scholars (Thompson, 2001; Berman&Cheng, 2001; Bennet, 2009), who suggest that the ability to
write well at academic level is not naturally acquired; on the contrary, it can only be learned by
means of formal instructions (Myles, 2002:1). For instance, it is claimed that explicit corrective
feedbacks on students' grammar mistakes are of paramount importance for the improvement of
academic writing competencies (ibid:14ff).
In addition, it is argued that L2 (second language) students find it more problematic to write
fluently than their native-speaking peers (Berman & Cheng, 2001; Ellis et al.2008). This occurs for
several reasons (Berman & Cheng, 2001; Myles, 2002:1ff). For instance, L2 students are likely to
find academic lexical bundles or multi-word sentences hard to learn (Biber et al.2004; Hyland,
2008:7; Ellis et al.2008). As a matter of fact, it is claimed that only repeated exposure to language
patterns can improve learning in the long run (Nunan, 1991:148).
Researchers also claim that students are prone to transfer their writing skills, either good or
deficient, from their L1 (first language) to L2 (Randaccio, 2013:17; Friedlander, 1990:109-10).
Therefore, skills or strategies which were never acquired in students' L1, could never be transferred
to L2. One way to improve learning, in these cases, would be by a repeated exposure to L2 forms
(Nunan, 1991), and consciousness raising activities (Willis & Willis, 1996; Ellis, 2002). These are
3
4. aimed at helping students to note the gap (Tomlinson, 1998) with their interlanguage system
(Selinker, 1972). In this way, can implicit language knowledge be fostered (Ellis, 2002).
Other pitfalls for L2 students are claimed to be writing conventions, which, most of the times, are
culturally determined (Mauranen, 1993; Thompson, 2001:74). For this reason, they increase the
possibilities for non-native speakers (NNS) to make mistakes, or to write texts which do not comply
with English academic standards (Thompson, 2001).
Nonetheless, there is a general assumption that, at expert level, EAP is a field of expertise where
NS-NNS distinctions can become “blurred” (Gabrielatos, 2005:6; Kosem, 2010:50). As a matter of
fact, both categories of students can be defined as “learners of academic writing in general” where
“their writing can be compared with that of experts” (Gabrielatos & McEnery, 2005:313).
This paper has been written with a view to bringing to the fore the most recurring issues in Italian
academic writing. Therefore, it is aimed at exploring whether literature findings on academic
writing patterns share a common ground with those used by Italian students.
On these grounds, the research project carried out can be considered feasible, relevant and useful
for the academic community.
ACADEMIC WRITING PATTERNS AND CONVENTIONS
Before giving an in-depth account of the students' writing issues and of their academic writing
styles, relevant literature findings must be drawn on.
This paragraph will hence provide a comprehensive literature review on academic writing patterns
in order to compare them, at a later stage, with those emerged in the students' essays. Then, it will
be possible to bring writing issues to the fore.
1.1 Literature findings in academic writing
According to literature, academic writers use many devices to convey their arguments and to
interact with the reader; in particular, they use metadiscourse resources (Hyland & Tse, 2004).
Metadiscourse can be defined as the ways writers deploy interactional devices to acknowledge the
presence of the reader, and to show their expertise in the field of interest (Hyland, 2010). One of
such mechanism is hedging. Hedging is a device used by writers to withhold their complete
commitment to a proposition, or to present a claim with caution (Hyland, 2011:199ff). In other
words, hedges soften the impact of the writer's statements, and signal his or her anticipation of the
reader's possible opposition (Hyland, 1995:33-34). Information is presented as an opinion, rather
than a fact (Hyland, 2011:199, quoting Hyland, 1998). Hedging may take the form of lexical verbs
4
5. (such as: appear, suggest, propose), which are the most prominent according to Hyland (1995:36);
modal auxiliary verbs (such as: may, can, could etc.), and adjectival, adverbial and nominal modal
expressions (such as: probable, probably, probability etc.). There are also many other forms, such
as the admission to lack of knowledge; reference to a model, theory or methodology; reference to
limiting conditions etc. (Hyland, 1994:240; Hyland, 1995:35ff).
Other devices used in academic writing are boosters. Differently from hedges, boosters express
certainty, or mark the writer's involvement with the topic (Hyland, 2011:199). They also serve the
purpose of expressing solidarity with the readers (ibid.). Therefore, they are used to underpin shared
information or shared knowledge. Words like: sure, certainly, definitely, prove etc. are some clear
examples of boosters (Hyland, 2011:198ff).
Strictly connected with boosters are attitude markers, which convey the writer's appraisal, or his/her
surprise; agreement or frustration, rather than commitment (Hyland & Tse 2004:168; Hyland,
2010:129; Hyland, 2011:199). Examples of attitude markers are: unfortunately, I agree,
surprisingly, etc.
Researchers argue that academic conventions and metadiscourse devices vary heavily across
disciplines (Hyland & Tse, 2007; Hyland, 2010). According to the academic conventions followed,
a distinction could in fact be made between soft and hard sciences. Literature reports that hedges,
boosters and attitude markers are particularly used in soft disciplines. This is mainly due to the fact
that soft-knowledge fields are more interpretative (Hyland, 2011:205). Consequently, the writer's
claims have to be expressed more cautiously than in hard-knowledge studies (ibid.). Therefore, soft-
knowledge writers have to “work harder (..) to persuade them (the readers)” (Hyland, 2010:137,
emphasis added). It was not by chance, but for reasons of uniformity, that the students who
participated in the project were in arts and humanities.
Other metadiscourse devices which, according to literature, abound in soft disciplines are: self
mentions, reader pronouns, personal asides and questions (although mostly rhetorical). According
to some researchers, self mention (expressed by first person pronouns and possessive adjectives) is
the key mechanism used by writers to promote their competent identity, and to gain accreditation
for their statements (Hyland & Tse, 2004:172). Some other scholars claim instead that the author's
voice should be avoided (Allison, 1997), or used very cautiously in view of the different
conventions between subjects (Crème & Lea, 2008:132). Reader pronouns, as well as the inclusive
we, express peer solidarity and, at the same time, anticipate possible objections (Hyland, 2011:200).
They are aimed at guiding the reader through the flow the writer's argument and have, for this
reason, a “Machiavellian purpose” (ibid.:209). Personal asides allow the writer to interrupt a stated
claim and to offer a personal point of view (Hyland, 2011:201). Briefly, they are aimed at
5
6. enhancing the reader-writer interaction.
Finally, questions, although mostly rhetorical, are considered key devices used to involve readers in
the development of a claim and to stimulate their curiosity. In other words, they are aimed at
establishing, or reinforcing, a peer relationship (Hyland, 2011:202).
As it can be clearly inferred, appeals to sharedness and peer solidarity are frequent in soft sciences.
According to literature, there are in fact many devices that writers use to remark their shared or
informed knowledge. These are mainly adverbs or expressions such as obviously, well known etc.
(Hyland, 2011:201).
Also reformulations and exemplifications act as useful interactional devices, as they are mostly
aimed at creating a “coherent, reader-friendly prose” (Hyland, 2007:266). Reformulations are ways
to re-state or re-elaborate a concept, and are introduced by: or, put another way, etc.
Exemplifications are used instead to cite examples, or to better explain a claim or an argument
(such as, like, e.g., etc.) (ibid.:270-271).
According to literature, few are the metadiscourse devices which cannot be found in soft-science
writing. These are, for instance, directives. As a matter of fact, directives in the soft disciplines are
mostly used for textual reference (e.g. see/refer to table 3) (Hyland, 2011:201; ibid.:211).
In literature, reader pronouns, personal asides, questions and directives are referred to as
engagement devices; whereas hedges, boosters, attitude markers and self mention as stance devices
(Hyland, 2011). This distinction is mainly due to the writer's attitude. With engagement, the writer
tries to build a connection with the reader. For this reason, he or she often intervenes, in order to
participate in the unfolding argument. With stance, the writer is instead more prone to express his or
her personal evaluations (Hyland, 2008; Hyland, 2011).
Another useful device at the writer's disposal, is the passive voice. The passive voice confers a more
formal, objective and informational style, which is the hallmark of academic prose (White,
2000:133; Biber & Conrad, 2004:374). According to Conrad & Biber (2009), for instance, the
“passive voice is much more common in academic writing than in conversation and fiction”
(ibid.:46). Sharpling (2002) claimed instead that academic prose cannot be merely reduced to
“using the passive voice at all times” (ibid.:88). Contrasting though they might seem, these claims
are actually complimentary, as they point out that the passive voice is one of the multifaceted
devices of academic prose, whose use may vary with time and across disciplines (Bennet, 2009:48-
50).
Finally, although with some divergences, researchers suggest avoiding long complicated sentences
and writing short, clear sentences, of an ideal length of 20 words (Dunleavy, 2003:114-117; Bennet,
2009:47-48).
6
7. In the next paragraph light will be shed on the differences between the students' writing patterns
and those outlined in literature. It goes without saying that the research findings will strictly refer to
the corpus of the essays collected. As a matter of fact, a corpus “can only tell us what is or is not
present” (Bennet, 2010:3).
1.2 The research phases
Before the research project could start, a preparatory phase took place with the view to informing
the students about the research project and to obtaining, if they agreed, their informed consent.
To this aim, students from four different universities were involved, in particular: students from one
school of social and political science, at master's level, and students from three schools of language
mediation (interpreting and translation studies: two at bachelor's and one at master's level). Two
schools were located in Northern Italy, and two others in the centre. As it can be clearly inferred,
the collected essays pertained to the field of arts and humanities. The reason lay in the fact that
academic writing and conventions, as well as metadiscourse devices, vary heavily across disciplines
(Hyland & Tse, 2007; Hyland, 2010); uniformity was hence at stake. Given my geographical
proximity, I could only collect the essays of the students located in the centre of Italy. The essays of
the students in the north of Italy were collected and forwarded to me by their lecturers.
The participation in the project and in all the activities which followed, was entirely based on the
students' free will. Students were thoroughly informed about the aim of the project (i.e. exploring
ways to improve their academic writing skills), and assured of their anonymity. Furthermore, they
were informed that they could abandon the project at any time.
After the preparatory acknowledgement phase, the students' essays were collected. The gathered
corpus was composed of 38 essays. Each essay counted approximately 400 words. Topics related to
the student's personal experience on everyday situations, such as: “advantages and disadvantages of
living in a small town”; “advantages and disadvantages of our technological society” etc. Topics
had been chosen in order to analyse the students' academic writing; their word choices; their ability
to bear on the subject; the flow of their discourse and how they connected sentences and phrases
together.
At first, the students' essays were analysed in order to underpin academic writing patterns, if any,
and with a view to comparing them with literature findings. Then, recurring issues were pinned
down for further analysis. The students' writing patterns and shortcomings were entered in an excel
file, for evaluation purposes. In the next paragraph, the students' writing patterns will be outlined
and compared with those in literature.
7
8. 1.3 Writing patterns in Italian students' essays vis-à-vis literature findings
In this section, the Italian students' writing patterns will be underpinned.
Fig.1 shows the most relevant patterns.
For the purposes of this research, some writing devices were grouped. This was the case, for
instance, of: boosters and attitude markers; reformulations and exemplifications; questions and
personal asides. The reason for this choice was mainly organisational, being such devices almost
identical, or serving the same (or a similar) metadiscourse function.
From Fig.1 above, it becomes apparent that boosters and attitude markers were the most preferred
devices. Some representative examples are reported here below (spelling, syntax or grammar errors,
if any, have been left intentionally):
essay_1: a wonderful story
essay_4: very interesting, but it has terrible implications
essay_11: what has been painfully apparent
In his research on academic hedging, Hyland claimed that “lexical verbs constituted the greatest
range of items” (1995:36). In contrast to his findings, Italian students clearly preferred auxiliary
modals to lexical verbs. As a matter of fact, Fig.1 shows that 87% used modals; whereas “only”
50% used other hedging mechanisms. This last category encompasses: lexical verbs; personal
opinions; adverbial, adjectival or nominal modal expressions.
If only lexical verbs were considered, these would count for 32% (see Fig.1a), which is still far
from the 55.7% claimed by Hyland (ibid.).
8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Fig. 1 Students' academic writing patterns
boosters / attitude
markers 90%
hedging: modals 87%
reformulations / exempli-
fications 58%
inclusive “w e” 53%
hedging:other devices
50%
author's voice 42%
reader pronouns 32%
questions / personal
asides 32%
shared know ledge (26%)
active voice (“people
say”) 13%
passive voice 13%
9. Fig.1a represents the varieties of hedging devices, other than modals, in Italian students' writing.
Given the fact that the same phrase encompassed more hedging categories, the sum of the hedging
devices other than modals is higher than 50%. As a matter of fact, 50% represents the percentage of
students who used at least once other hedging devices. Therefore, the above values should be
interpreted as follows: 87% of students used modal devices; 32% used lexical verbs (such as: seem,
suppose, think); 18% used expressions such as: in my opinion, to me; 13% used adverbial or
adjectival modal expressions, such as likely, possible. This distribution is better represented in the
excerpts below:
essay_3: in my opinion this is a key point as I think
essay_34: and it's probably for this reason that (…) this latter seems to be
Only in a few cases were modals used incorrectly, either for grammar mistakes (as in 1. here below)
or for an improper use (lack) of hedging devices (as in 2.):
1)essay_30: and I have could to weight the advantages
2)essay_15: a correct use of them increase the own personal culture (“could” before “increase”
would make this sentence smoother and cautious)
Italians were also prone to explain their points of view and re-phrase their statements, in order to
make concepts clearer for their readers. Reformulations and exemplifications were in fact used in
9
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Fig. 1a: Hedging devices in students' writing
Modals 87%
Lexical verbs 32%
Personal opinion
18%
Adverbs/Adjectives
13%
10. 58% of their essays:
essay_16: here by “well-being” is meant
essay_24: when you live in Milan, for example,
What was also apparent, was an overwhelming use of devices aimed at conferring a sense of
togetherness. In this respect, the inclusive we (personal pronouns and adjectives) accounted for
53%.
Students also displayed a certain acknowledgement of the reader's presence, who was often referred
to. Reader pronouns accounted in fact for 32%.
The author's voice, aimed at conveying the writer's own views, accounted for 42%:
essay_9: we all should be worried (...) our century is
essay_16: we have to be very careful with any answer we give
essay_22: you may go there and ask
essay_24: when you live in a big city, you forget what silence is.
essay_1: my personal experience in sport. I started
essay_2: the first point I would like to focus on is
What was probably at stake, was the students' endeavour and willingness to convey their points of
view, while remarking their clear intentions to create an understanding with their readers (Hyland,
2011:204). In other words, students were not only personally involved in the topic, but they also
urged for sharedness and approval. This became manifest in references to shared knowledge (26%):
essay_9: it's normal to be scared about what could happen
essay_21: if we consider the well-known NASA
Other interesting writing devices were questions and personal asides, used to involve the reader or
to convey personal points of view:
essay_24: are you a fashion-addicted?
10
11. essay_16: . Far away is this time.
essay_22: seeing a doctor or a psychologist – as soon as possible – is
As argued by scholars, questions were only rhetorical. Most of the times, in fact, they were
answered immediately, or used to present the writer's claim (Hyland, 2011:207).
On the contrary, directives were practically absent (ibid.:211). As a matter of fact, they were only
used in two essays:
essay_9: imagine someone..
essay_35: if you aren't fond of thrillers, don't start
1.4 Concluding remarks on academic writing patterns
In the light of the patterns outlined in paragraph 1.1, it can be easily inferred that Italian students
interacted intensively with their readers. By doing so, they mostly acted in “Machiavellian” ways
(Hyland, 2011:209). As a matter of fact, they used devices to make the reader follow their points of
view, but, at the same time, they cared for the reader's needs and expectations.
Students also displayed an extended use of hedging devices, in order to soften the impact of their
claims. At the same time, however, they showed a great deal of personal involvement in their
statements. This was confirmed by an almost nonexistent passive voice (13%). As claimed in
literature, the passive voice is a form of hedging, which shows a certain detachment to an
argumentation (Hyland, 1995). When students were not aimed at conveying their full commitment,
they preferred resorting to people or someone as phrase subjects:
essay_9: someone says
essay_15: individuals who
essay_16: people tend to think
Speculatively, this could be the consequence of a lack of fluency in the use of the passive voice, or
of the students' unawareness of its central role in academic prose.
In conclusion, what mainly emerged from the outlined analysis, was the urge to increase the passive
voice, and the consequent call for a reduced use of the personal pronoun. However, it could not go
unnoticed that the proposed topics revolved around the students' personal lives and points of view.
This probably justified an extended use of the author's voice.
The argumentation which follows will give an in-depth account of the students' most recurrent
11
12. mistakes.
ISSUES IN ACADEMIC WRITING
In this paragraph the students' most recurrent writing shortcomings will be brought to the fore. Two
different approaches will be outlined: one highlighting the type of mistakes made; the other
considering their frequency of occurrence. In this way, will it be possible to fully understand the
underlying reasons for the student's mistakes.
2.1 Recurrent mistakes in Italian academic writing
The most recurring writing issues will be now brought to the fore. In the 38 essays, 719 mistakes
were found. Amongst these, 542 were classified as grammar or lexical, showing mostly cohesion,
collocation and punctuation mistakes. The remaining 177 were classified as non-grammar/non-
lexical, and contained, for instance, non-academic words; sentences incomplete or obscure due to
L1 influences, etc. Phrases were considered incomplete when the Subject-Verb-Object unit was not
clearly identifiable (Dunleavy, 2003:114), or when a missing adjunct, for instance, compromised
the phrase unit. Phrase were considered obscure when the meaning of a phrase was not
straightforward (Dunleavy, 2003), and its clarity was compromised.
It would be tempting to jump to premature conclusions and state that the grammar mistakes made
by students at bachelor's level outnumbered those at master's level. This, however, was not the case.
Both categories of students made the same types of mistakes. What was instead different, was their
frequencies. Students from some schools showed a better language proficiency than others. This
contributed to reducing the numbers of mistakes they made, but not the type.
2.1.1 Type of mistakes
The first analysis which follows, brings to the fore whether essays contained certain types of
mistakes or not, irrespective of their frequency. For example, if essay_1 showed 10 cohesion
mistakes, this was not relevant, at this stage. The first analysis only revealed that student_1 made
cohesion mistakes, which was counted as 1 in the data collection and filing. In this way, was it
possible to know how many students made the same mistakes.
12
13. Fig.2 shows the most recurring mistakes in the corpus of the 38 collected essays. In particular, it
highlights that: 79% of students (30 out of 38) made cohesion mistakes; 74% (28 students out of
38) made mistakes in punctuation and collocations. The same percentage also referred to students
who wrote phrases obscure or incomplete, probably because of influences of L1 (named Itanglish in
this research). 66% (25 students out of 38) wrote plural nouns instead of singular and vice-versa;
61% (23 students) wrote non-academic words; 55% wrote long sentences; 53% made mistakes in
conjunctions or transitions; 45% made spelling mistakes, and 42% forgot phrase subjects or placed
them wrongly.
For the purposes of this research, sentences were considered long when they exceeded 30 words
and too long when they exceeded 40 words (Dunleavy, 2003:114ff). 30 was still considered a
feasible limit. As suggested by Dunleavy (2003:115), in fact, when a sentence is between 20 and 40
words, students should starting assessing whether it could be split into two. Sentences were
considered obscure when the Subject-Verb-Object unit, if not the whole phrase, was unclear.
Sentences were incomplete when some parts (excluding the subject, which was considered apart)
were missing, such as adjuncts. Incomplete sentences, as it will be outlined, were mostly the result
of collocation mistakes.
According to literature, cohesion “is concerned with the way in which parts of written texts fit
together” (Crème & Lea, 2008:158). Cohesion depends not only on logical connections (Bennet,
2009:46-47), but also on the writer's evaluation of his or her own claims (Thompson & Zhou,
2000:121). The students' cohesion mistakes, however, were mainly referable to logical connections.
The value of 79% could in fact be disaggregated in mistakes in: 1)definite articles (which were the
most recurrent); 2)possessive adjectives and 3)other types. Here follows some excerpts:
13
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fig. 2 Students' recurrent mistakes in academic writing
Cohesion 79%
Punctuation 74%
Collocations 74%
Itanglish 74%
Nouns (s/p) 66%
Non-EAP 61%
Sentences too long 55%
Conjunctions/Trasitions
53%
Spelling 45%
Subject 42%
14. 1a)essay_24: the sounds of the nature
1b)essay_31: the governments should help
2)essay_2: the Italian economy (...) which are their features?
3)essay_27: restaurants should provide special places for both smokers and non-smokers. In fact,
this law is not respected (no previous mention to which law)
Some possible reasons for cohesion mistakes, were probably due to influences of L1 (Randaccio,
2013:17-18). In particular, as claimed by scholars, article use is considered difficult or hard to retain
for students (Pica, 1983; Williams, 1995). For this reason, scholars claim that a good way to learn it
is by developing article usage in communicative contexts (Pica, 1983). Therefore, it could be
possible that a repetitive exposure to the use of the definite article in communication-oriented
classes could help students to develop fluency.
Punctuation mistakes accounted for 74%, (i.e. 28 essays out of 38 contained wrong or no
punctuation marks). This was probably due to interferences of the students' L1 (Randaccio,
2013:19), or to a lack of knowledge in the students' L1. It is in fact claimed that if writing skills are
not acquired in learners' L1, they can never be transferred to L2 (Friedlander, 1990:110).
Here are some clarifying excerpts.
(the words underlined highlight where a punctuation mark would be required or should be
removed):
essay_5: in addition to that China is deeply
essay_6: it is a good administration which was
essay_10: , which has been ruled since December 2011, by
essay_30: on the other hand I
As it can be clearly inferred, the use of punctuation marks was not fully mastered. In this respect,
literature abounds in examples on how to help students to write more fluently at academic level
(Crème & Lea, 2008:160ff; Zemac & Rumisek, 2003; Bailey, 2003; Swales & Feak 2012:27ff).
Amongst the numerous examples, are those related to transitions, where specific punctuation rules
apply (Conrad & Biber, 2009:85; Zemach & Rumisek, 2003:83ff). Punctuation marks before and
after transitions were in fact forgotten most of the times:
14
15. essay_29: , therefore finding a job is
Collocations, defined as “words which are frequently used together” (Tomlinson, 1998:33), were
another issue at stake. In this respect, students made frequent mistakes in: nouns, adjectives or
verbs followed by prepositions:
essay_2: get out from the crisis (...) regarding to the impact of
essay_9: in according with the
essay_30: a big city is not sure by night
From the excerpts above, it was self-evident that many mistakes were due to L1 influences. In
essay_30, for example, sure was used instead of safe. This was probably due to the fact that the two
adjectives could be translated in much the same way in Italian. Therefore, L1 influences played,
unfortunately, a pivotal role in the word choice.
In some other cases, little prior knowledge of collocates prevented students from completing their
sentences, or from choosing correct word pairs:
essay_5: as far as the Chinese veto, (“is concerned” is missing)
For this reason, incomplete sentences were also due to collocation mistakes.
Literature suggests using corpora, and in particular concordance lines, in order to foster students'
awareness. Learners can in fact use corpora to note what occurs and what does not occur. In this
respect, researchers claim that “searching for absence may be as relevant and as rewarding as
searching for presence” (Swales, 2006:27). The reason lies in the fact that “increased awareness
will lead to increased proficiency” (Tomlinson, 1998:42).
Some other phrases were obscure. This happened when the clarity of the Subject-Verb-Object unit
was compromised. Most of the times, influences of L1 prevented students from writing clear,
straightforward sentences:
essay_6: as a consequence of global economic crisis, which it may Europeans countries, including
Italy, the national government decides to delete those provinces
essay_8: chieftaincy has been contending unsuccessfully with these
essay_16: the first sense of this sentence is this one according to me
15
16. One of the major L1 influences were very long phrases. The longest sentence was composed of 79
words; whereas the average word count was 49:
essay_10: despite the condemnation of the United Nations Security Council, as a result of the third
nuclear test that took place in February, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is now
threatening to perform new atomic tests, in order to obtain economic aids and the status of nuclear
country.
Also some non-academic words were used, such as: 1)informal verbs or expressions;
2)contractions, and 3)incorrect pronouns:
1)essay_12: to sum up
1)essay_25: I totally agree with
2)essay_25: I don't (...) I can't
3)essay_15: persons that have been
Literature abounds in advice on how to avoid non-academic words (Conrad & Biber, 2009; Swales
& Feak, 2012). Therefore, it would be advisable to suggest that students refer to literature, before
engaging in academic writing. This would partly compensate for their academic shortcomings.
Although quite relevant in their value (66%), the majority of the mistakes in nouns were either due
to 1)oversight (no agreement with the subject); 2)uncertainty or lack of knowledge (or, again,
oversight?); 3)incorrect use of nouns after superlatives and 4)influences of L1 (or lack of
knowledge?):
1)essay_6: they have different economy
2)essay_15: examined in different way
2)essay_18: have negative effect on children
3)essay_5: one of the world's biggest oil supplier
4)essay_28: by reducing our wastes
4)essay_11: a mean to protest against (...) with regards to the past
As it can be clearly inferred, mistakes in nouns and in the use of (in)definite articles were strictly
connected.
A prolonged exposure to the target language (Nunan, 1991; Ellis et al.2008) is claimed to tackle the
16
17. students' shortcomings, in these cases.
Conjunctions and transitions were another relevant source of mistakes, although to a lesser degree
(53%). Mistakes could be pinned down as follows: 1)lack or redundancy; 2)wrong position in a
phrase; 3)wrong selection; 4)interference of L1:
1)essay_4: there have also been further negative impacts, the traditional.. (“for instance” before
“the traditional” would make the phrase smoother)
2)essay_15: could be also global
3)essay_2: this system can rely on the connection with the local economy, as well as this can mean
4)essay_30: besides of this people
Surprisingly, students also made spelling mistakes (45%), which confirmed a certain absence of
care for details:
essay_1: keep on traing
essay_29: in addiction a big city
essay_35: accomodate
essay_37 fourty
In some other cases (42%), subjects were: 1)missing (in particular: subject fillers, as in 1a.);
2)written twice, or 3)wrong:
1a)essay_14: on the one hand is possible to
1a)essay_36: as could seem
1b)essay_4: who had more one child had to (those who had..)
2)essay_6: which it may
3)essay_36: The ones who like (those who..)
Other less relevant mistakes concerned the use of: auxiliaries; the third person s; the possessive
case; comparatives and superlatives; ing forms; past-tense verbs; adjectives instead of nouns and
vice-versa; nouns instead of verbs and vice-versa, etc.:
essay_3: which would made up by
essay_9: equipments' production
17
18. essay_14: such economics sectors
essay_15: that have been being
essay_16: as happy or sad than love
essay_19: on 11st
of March
essay_19: the improve of
2.1.2 Mistake frequency
Insofar, the most recurring mistakes have been underpinned in order to bring to the fore how, and in
what areas, the students' academic writing needs could be catered for. To this aim, Fig.2 highlighted
the most relevant mistakes made by students. As it could be clearly noticed, these were mostly
grammar.
The previous paragraph revealed figures indicating how many students made the same mistake, out
of a total of 38 students/essays. In other words, mistakes were only counted as being present or not,
irrespective of their frequencies.
In order to provide a more exhaustive account of the students' academic writing issues, hence to
suggest more effective ways to address them, another analysis is now called on. This will be aimed
at providing a more in-depth account of the mistake frequency and distribution on each category.
The focus of the analysis will hence shift from students/essays to mistake frequency. What is here
referred to as “mistake frequency”, is the result of the sum of all mistakes in each category (e.g.
cohesion), divided by the number of phrases containing mistakes (i.e. 719). Fig.3 reveals for
instance that cohesion mistakes accounted for 14%, being made 103 times, out of a total of 719
phrases (103/719). Punctuation accounted for 10%, as they were made 76 times (76/719), and so
on.
18
Fig. 3 Mistake frequency
Cohesion 14%
Itanglish 13%
Punctuation 11%
Collocation 10%
Nouns (s/p) 8%
Non-EAP 7%
Spelling 5%
Subject 5%
Conjunctions/Transistions
5%
Others 22%
19. As it can be clearly noticed, the data gathered by this second in-depth analysis parallel the first one.
The most recurrent mistakes were in fact (Fig.3): cohesion (14%); Itanglish (i.e. L1 influences on
writing processes: 13%); punctuation (11%), and collocations (10%), followed by nouns, non-
academic words, spelling, subject mistakes etc. Under “others” were scattered mistakes, which
were outlined above, such as: auxiliaries; the third person s; the possessive case; comparatives and
superlatives; ing forms; past-tense verbs; adjectives instead of nouns and vice-versa; nouns instead
of verbs and vice-versa, etc. They will not be discussed further, because they were not
representative in view of their low frequency. For example, past tense verbs accounted for less than
4%; the possessive case for 2%; the third person -s for 1%; auxiliaries for less than 1% etc.
The chart here below summarises the most relevant figures; whereas Fig.2 is reported once more
for comparison purposes:
Mistake category % of students
who made mistakes
(out of 38 students/essays)
mistake distribution
amongst categories
(out of 719 wrong phrases)
Cohesion 79% 14%
Itanglish 74% 13%
Punctuation 74% 11%
Collocations 74% 10%
Nouns s/p 66% 8%
Non-academic words 61% 7%
Conjunctions/Transitions 53% 5%
Spelling 45% 5%
Subject 42% 5%
19
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fig. 2 Students' recurrent mistakes
Cohesion 79%
Punctuation 74%
Collocations 74%
Itanglish 74%
Nouns (s/p) 66%
Non-EAP 61%
Sentences too long
55%
Conjunctions/Trasitions
53%
Spelling 45%
Subject 42%
20. Either by counting the percentage of mistakes made by students in the first analysis, or by
considering the frequency of mistakes by category, it can be inferred that the research results
remained unvaried. As a matter of fact, the Italian students' shortcomings resulted in being of the
same type, in both cases. Cohesion, punctuation and collocation mistakes, together with influences
of L1, played in fact a pivotal role.
2.2 Concluding remarks on writing issues
It is now possible to draw some conclusions based on the data analysed above. The most striking
evidence is that the majority of mistakes were of grammatical nature. In particular, mistakes in
cohesion, collocation and punctuation/transitions were the most frequent, together with recurrent
Itanglish words or expressions (mostly: obscure, incomplete phrases), and sentences too long.
These issues could be the result of the fact that, as argued by Friedlander (1990:109-10), students
did not master certain grammar rules in their L1. As a consequence, they were unable to transfer
knowledge into L2. This probably happened with punctuation mistakes. In addition to that, L1
interference played a pivotal role in some other linguistic aspects and writing processes (Randaccio,
2013:19). As a consequence, L1 influence led sometimes to cohesion mistakes, which were
probably due to little prior knowledge of cohesion devices. L1 influence led also to sentences
obscure, incomplete, and too long.
Mistakes in collocations were mostly referable to the students' lack of knowledge of formulaic
expressions or word collocates. Collocations, as claimed in literature, are hard to learn, especially
for NNS (Ellis et al.2008). A possible way for students to learn collocations could be found in a
focussed analysis of concordance lines in specialised corpora (Hyland & Tse, 2007).
A poor care for details played also an important role, leading to spelling mistakes; erroneous plural
(or singular) nouns; subjects “forgotten” etc. It could however be debatable whether these were
actually careless mistakes, or ascribable instead to a wider category of influences of L1, or to poor
language knowledge.
In conclusion, the above-outlined analysis highlighted the possibility to cater for the students' needs
with a threefold approach.
Firstly, it highlighted that it was necessary to tackle the students' grammar shortcomings. This could
be carried out by helping students to notice the mistakes they personally made, which would help to
raise their consciousness and foster learning. In this respect, literature on course and materials
design abounds in examples and ways to teach authentic grammar (see the next chapter). Therefore,
designing materials on punctuation, transitions and, possibly, collocations was called on. In much
the same way, noticing activities were also called for, in order to raise the students' consciousness
20
21. and help them to reduce influences of L1, to avoid non-academic expressions, or to increase the use
of the passive voice. Corrective actions on “connecting devices” (Crème & Lea, 2008:158), or
“cohesive devices” (Zemach & Rumisek, 2003:82), was also necessary, in order to address the
students' cohesion mistakes (in particular those in the definite article).
Secondly, the analysis highlighted that the students' language exposure needed improvements, in
order to increase their vocabulary. Ellis et al.(2008) claimed in fact that “The acquisition of
linguistic knowledge and its fluent use, like other skills, is affected by frequency of exposure and
practice” (ibid.:389). Prolonged exposure could hence help students to improve their knowledge of
collocates. This could however be carried out only over an extended period of time, which was not
possible in this research project.
Thirdly, students needed to be called for more preciseness and accuracy, which would both reduce
spelling mistakes and, possibly, other careless mistakes.
21
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