AN
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
PRINCIPLES
OF
MORALS
AND
LEGISLATION
by
Jeremy Bentham
1781CHAPTER I.
OF THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY.
I. Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters,
pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as
well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right
and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to
their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think:
every effort we can make to throw off our subjection, will serve but to
demonstrate and confirm it. In words a man may pretend to abjure their
empire: but in reality he will remain. subject to it all the while. The
principle of utility[1] recognizes this subjection, and assumes it for the
foundation of that system, the object of which is to rear the fabric of
felicity by the hands of reason and of law. Systems which attempt to
question it, deal in sounds instead of sense, in caprice instead of reason,
in darkness instead of light.
But enough of metaphor and declamation: it is not by such means that moral
science is to be improved.
II. The principle of utility is the foundation of the present work: it will
be proper therefore at the outset to give an explicit and determinate
account of what is meant by it. By the principle[2] of utility is meant that
principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever.
according to the tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the
happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same
thing in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness. I say of every
action whatsoever, and therefore not only of every action of a private
individual, but of every measure of government.
III. By utility is meant that property in any object, whereby it tends to
produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness, (all this in the
present case comes to the same thing) or (what comes again to the same
thing) to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness to
the party whose interest is considered: if that party be the community in
general, then the happiness of the community: if a particular individual,
then the happiness of that individual.
IV. The interest of the community is one of the most general expressions
that can occur in the phraseology of morals: no wonder that the meaning of
it is often lost. When it has a meaning, it is this. The community is a
fictitious body, composed of the individual persons who are considered as
constituting as it were its members. The interest of the community then is,
what is it? -- the sum of the interests of the several members who compose
it.
V. It is in vain to talk of the interest of the community, without
understanding what is the interest[3] of the individual. A thing is said to
promote the interest, or to be for the interest, of an individual, when it
tends to add to the sum total o.
I am Ahmed M. I am a Philosophy Law Assignment Expert at lawhomeworkhelp.com. I hold a master's in LLB, from The New York University, Abu Dhabi. I have been helping students with their assignment for the past 8 years. I solve assignments related to Philosophy Law.
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GuidanceUtilitarianism Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart MillUti.docxwhittemorelucilla
Guidance
Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
Utilitarianism associates the notion of “good” in relation to “happiness” or “pleasure,” if we can understand these words in the widest possible sense. See below for Bentham's appeal to "pain and pleasure" as the "masters" of humankind. This view of what is “good” is referred to as “hedonism.” Hedonism is a word which some may be familiar with in a negative, pejorative sense. This is not surprising, since the idea of “hedonism” have long been used disparagingly as a charge against people who seem to seek their own pleasure, without concern for the welfare or interests of others. Concern for happiness or pleasure does not need to be taken in such a narrow way. Many religious traditions from Buddhism, Christianity (particularly the “Puritans” who immigrated to the Americas from England) and Islam, amongst others, have emphasized denial of bodily pleasure and enjoyment, preferring sacrifice of self and denial of the body as ideals, making the idea of “hedonism” as source for ethical judgment seem contradictory to many people. These religious traditions tend to portray the pursuit of pleasure as “sinful,” distracting from what they take to be more important pursuits like worshiping of a God, or preparation for death. But even many versions of these religious traditions also seek or promise some form of “happiness” or “pleasure” to those who follow their ways (though, such happiness is often supposedly found in another realm after death.)
The joys or pleasures we seek are not always the immediate product of our actions. We may in fact choose to do less than pleasant things for the sake of achieving some sought goal, which will then bring about happiness. We might consider the example of going to the dentist and getting our teeth drilled as one such activity. *(Note, I would like to contend from my own experience that if one uses local anesthesia and has a competent dentist, there shouldn't really be pain involved.)
The following excerpt from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy adds some important, general considerations regarding the philosophy of utilitarianism:
"utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good. There are many ways to spell out this general claim. One thing to note is that the theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action is understood entirely in terms of consequences produced. What distinguishes utilitarianism from egoism has to do with the scope of the relevant consequences. On the utilitarian view one ought to maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of others as well as one's own good.
The classical utilitarians, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, identified the good with pleasure, so, like Epicurus, were hedonists about value. They also held that we ought to maximize the good, that is, bring about ‘the greatest amount of good for the greatest number’.
Utili ...
Guidelines· Read the article at least twice before taking any.docxshericehewat
Guidelines:
· Read the article at least twice before taking any notes on it.
· Begin your presentation by stating your name and the title of your article.
· Explain the main point of the article or the central claim the author is trying to convey. For this part, you should be able to summarize in one sentence what the point of the article is, i.e. the conclusion. Use your own words to explain this, do not just read a quote from the article.
· Do not just summarize the entire article.
· I would like you to incorporate at least two interesting points that the author makes, which supports their premises. You may use quotes in this presentation, however, keep it to a minimal.
· You must note one of the thinkers we studied in this course and how they would react to this article.
· Try to relate an example to actual life.
Grading Rubric
Overall 20 pts.
Premise 1 15 pts.
Premise 2 15 pts.
Thesis Statement 15 pts.
Example 15 pts.
Thinker to Relate 20 pts.
Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
J hn Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the leading English philosophe
o K ' h' 1 r of the nineteenth century. Whereas _ant s et ica system concentrates
exclusively on the reason for an act10n and does not take account of
its results, Mill's system focuses only on consequences. Mill defend
utilitarianism, the view that the supreme principle of morality is to ac:
so as to produce as much happiness as possible, each person counting
equally. By "happiness" Mill means pleasure and the absence of pain.
He grants, however, that some pleasures are more worthwhile than oth-
ers. "It is ... better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." His
evidence for this claim is that anyone who knew the lives of both would
choose the former rather than the latter.
Utilitarianism provides a means of dealing with the quandary of
conflicting obligations. For instance, suppose you promised to meet
someone for lunch but on the way encounter a child in need of imme-
diate aid. What should you do? Utilitarianism solves the problem by
telling you to give priority to helping the child because that course of
action will produce more happiness. Shouldn't we keep our promisesr
Mill says that usually we should because the practice of keeping one's
promises produces important social benefits. An exception should be
made, however, on those occasions when more happiness will be pro-
duced by not keeping a promise.
What Utilitarianism Is
· · · creed which accepts as the foundation of morals "utility"
or t e greate
st
happiness principle" holds that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to h d to
d h promote appiness· wrong as they ten pro uce t e reverse of ha · ' e
PPllless. By happiness is intended plea5ur
From John Stuart Mill, Utilitari~ism 0863).
118
CHAPTER 15 UTILITARIANISM 1] 9
and the absence of pain· by h · · · ·
. , un app1ness, pain ...
PRELIMINARY LOGIC AND DIALECTIC.BY the ancients, Logic and .docxChantellPantoja184
PRELIMINARY: LOGIC AND DIALECTIC.
BY the ancients, Logic and Dialectic were used as synonymous terms; although logizesthai, "to think over, to consider, to calculate," and dialegesthai, "to converse," are two very different things.
The name Dialectic was, as we are informed by Diogenes Laertius, first used by Plato; and in the Phaedrus, Sophist, Republic, bk. vii., and elsewhere, we find that by Dialectic he means the regular employment of the reason, and skill in the practice of it. Aristotle also uses the word in this sense; but, according to Laurentius Valla, he was the first to use Logic too in a similar way.1 Dialectic, therefore, seems to be an older word than Logic. Cicero and Quintilian use the words in the same general signification.2
This use of the words as synonymous terms lasted through the Middle Ages into modern times; in fact, until the present day. But more recently, and in particular by Kant, Dialectic has often been employed in a bad sense, as meaning "the art of sophistical controversy"; and hence Logic has been preferred, as of the two the more innocent designation. Nevertheless, both originally meant the same thing; and in the last few years they have again been recognised as synonymous.
It is a pity that the words have thus been used from of old, and that I am not quite at liberty to distinguish their meanings. Otherwise, I should have preferred to define Logic (from logos, "word" and "reason," which are inseparable) as "the science of the laws of thought, that is, of the method of reason"; and Dialectic (from dialegesthai, "to converse" - and every conversation communicates either facts or opinions, that is to say, it is historical or deliberative) as "the art of disputation," in the modern sense of the word. It is clear, then, that Logic deals with a subject of a purely à priori character, separable in definition from experience, namely, the laws of thought, the process of reason or the logos; the laws, that is, which reason follows when it is left to itself and not hindered, as in the case of solitary thought on the part of a rational being who is in no way misled. Dialectic, on the other hand, would treat of the intercourse between two rational beings who, because they are rational, ought to think in common, but who, as soon as they cease to agree like two clocks keeping exactly the same time, create a disputation, or intellectual contest. Regarded as purely rational beings, the individuals would, I say, necessarily be in agreement, and their variation springs from the difference essential to individuality; in other words, it is drawn from experience.
Logic, therefore, as the science of thought, or the science of the process of pure reason, should be capable of being constructed à priori. Dialectic, for the most part, can be constructed only à posteriori; that is to say, we may learn its rules by an experiential knowledge of the disturbance which pure thought suffers through the difference of individuality manifest.
I am Ahmed M. I am a Philosophy Law Assignment Expert at lawhomeworkhelp.com. I hold a master's in LLB, from The New York University, Abu Dhabi. I have been helping students with their assignment for the past 8 years. I solve assignments related to Philosophy Law.
Visit lawhomeworkhelp.com or email info@lawhomeworkhelp.com. You can also call on +1 678 648 4277 for any assistance with Philosophy Law Assignments.
GuidanceUtilitarianism Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart MillUti.docxwhittemorelucilla
Guidance
Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
Utilitarianism associates the notion of “good” in relation to “happiness” or “pleasure,” if we can understand these words in the widest possible sense. See below for Bentham's appeal to "pain and pleasure" as the "masters" of humankind. This view of what is “good” is referred to as “hedonism.” Hedonism is a word which some may be familiar with in a negative, pejorative sense. This is not surprising, since the idea of “hedonism” have long been used disparagingly as a charge against people who seem to seek their own pleasure, without concern for the welfare or interests of others. Concern for happiness or pleasure does not need to be taken in such a narrow way. Many religious traditions from Buddhism, Christianity (particularly the “Puritans” who immigrated to the Americas from England) and Islam, amongst others, have emphasized denial of bodily pleasure and enjoyment, preferring sacrifice of self and denial of the body as ideals, making the idea of “hedonism” as source for ethical judgment seem contradictory to many people. These religious traditions tend to portray the pursuit of pleasure as “sinful,” distracting from what they take to be more important pursuits like worshiping of a God, or preparation for death. But even many versions of these religious traditions also seek or promise some form of “happiness” or “pleasure” to those who follow their ways (though, such happiness is often supposedly found in another realm after death.)
The joys or pleasures we seek are not always the immediate product of our actions. We may in fact choose to do less than pleasant things for the sake of achieving some sought goal, which will then bring about happiness. We might consider the example of going to the dentist and getting our teeth drilled as one such activity. *(Note, I would like to contend from my own experience that if one uses local anesthesia and has a competent dentist, there shouldn't really be pain involved.)
The following excerpt from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy adds some important, general considerations regarding the philosophy of utilitarianism:
"utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good. There are many ways to spell out this general claim. One thing to note is that the theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action is understood entirely in terms of consequences produced. What distinguishes utilitarianism from egoism has to do with the scope of the relevant consequences. On the utilitarian view one ought to maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of others as well as one's own good.
The classical utilitarians, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, identified the good with pleasure, so, like Epicurus, were hedonists about value. They also held that we ought to maximize the good, that is, bring about ‘the greatest amount of good for the greatest number’.
Utili ...
Guidelines· Read the article at least twice before taking any.docxshericehewat
Guidelines:
· Read the article at least twice before taking any notes on it.
· Begin your presentation by stating your name and the title of your article.
· Explain the main point of the article or the central claim the author is trying to convey. For this part, you should be able to summarize in one sentence what the point of the article is, i.e. the conclusion. Use your own words to explain this, do not just read a quote from the article.
· Do not just summarize the entire article.
· I would like you to incorporate at least two interesting points that the author makes, which supports their premises. You may use quotes in this presentation, however, keep it to a minimal.
· You must note one of the thinkers we studied in this course and how they would react to this article.
· Try to relate an example to actual life.
Grading Rubric
Overall 20 pts.
Premise 1 15 pts.
Premise 2 15 pts.
Thesis Statement 15 pts.
Example 15 pts.
Thinker to Relate 20 pts.
Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
J hn Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the leading English philosophe
o K ' h' 1 r of the nineteenth century. Whereas _ant s et ica system concentrates
exclusively on the reason for an act10n and does not take account of
its results, Mill's system focuses only on consequences. Mill defend
utilitarianism, the view that the supreme principle of morality is to ac:
so as to produce as much happiness as possible, each person counting
equally. By "happiness" Mill means pleasure and the absence of pain.
He grants, however, that some pleasures are more worthwhile than oth-
ers. "It is ... better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." His
evidence for this claim is that anyone who knew the lives of both would
choose the former rather than the latter.
Utilitarianism provides a means of dealing with the quandary of
conflicting obligations. For instance, suppose you promised to meet
someone for lunch but on the way encounter a child in need of imme-
diate aid. What should you do? Utilitarianism solves the problem by
telling you to give priority to helping the child because that course of
action will produce more happiness. Shouldn't we keep our promisesr
Mill says that usually we should because the practice of keeping one's
promises produces important social benefits. An exception should be
made, however, on those occasions when more happiness will be pro-
duced by not keeping a promise.
What Utilitarianism Is
· · · creed which accepts as the foundation of morals "utility"
or t e greate
st
happiness principle" holds that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to h d to
d h promote appiness· wrong as they ten pro uce t e reverse of ha · ' e
PPllless. By happiness is intended plea5ur
From John Stuart Mill, Utilitari~ism 0863).
118
CHAPTER 15 UTILITARIANISM 1] 9
and the absence of pain· by h · · · ·
. , un app1ness, pain ...
PRELIMINARY LOGIC AND DIALECTIC.BY the ancients, Logic and .docxChantellPantoja184
PRELIMINARY: LOGIC AND DIALECTIC.
BY the ancients, Logic and Dialectic were used as synonymous terms; although logizesthai, "to think over, to consider, to calculate," and dialegesthai, "to converse," are two very different things.
The name Dialectic was, as we are informed by Diogenes Laertius, first used by Plato; and in the Phaedrus, Sophist, Republic, bk. vii., and elsewhere, we find that by Dialectic he means the regular employment of the reason, and skill in the practice of it. Aristotle also uses the word in this sense; but, according to Laurentius Valla, he was the first to use Logic too in a similar way.1 Dialectic, therefore, seems to be an older word than Logic. Cicero and Quintilian use the words in the same general signification.2
This use of the words as synonymous terms lasted through the Middle Ages into modern times; in fact, until the present day. But more recently, and in particular by Kant, Dialectic has often been employed in a bad sense, as meaning "the art of sophistical controversy"; and hence Logic has been preferred, as of the two the more innocent designation. Nevertheless, both originally meant the same thing; and in the last few years they have again been recognised as synonymous.
It is a pity that the words have thus been used from of old, and that I am not quite at liberty to distinguish their meanings. Otherwise, I should have preferred to define Logic (from logos, "word" and "reason," which are inseparable) as "the science of the laws of thought, that is, of the method of reason"; and Dialectic (from dialegesthai, "to converse" - and every conversation communicates either facts or opinions, that is to say, it is historical or deliberative) as "the art of disputation," in the modern sense of the word. It is clear, then, that Logic deals with a subject of a purely à priori character, separable in definition from experience, namely, the laws of thought, the process of reason or the logos; the laws, that is, which reason follows when it is left to itself and not hindered, as in the case of solitary thought on the part of a rational being who is in no way misled. Dialectic, on the other hand, would treat of the intercourse between two rational beings who, because they are rational, ought to think in common, but who, as soon as they cease to agree like two clocks keeping exactly the same time, create a disputation, or intellectual contest. Regarded as purely rational beings, the individuals would, I say, necessarily be in agreement, and their variation springs from the difference essential to individuality; in other words, it is drawn from experience.
Logic, therefore, as the science of thought, or the science of the process of pure reason, should be capable of being constructed à priori. Dialectic, for the most part, can be constructed only à posteriori; that is to say, we may learn its rules by an experiential knowledge of the disturbance which pure thought suffers through the difference of individuality manifest.
Introduction to Philosophy 101 HomeworkSection 3 Deductive Argum.pdffazilfootsteps
Introduction to Philosophy 101: Homework
Section 3: Deductive Arguments and Standard Form/Short Answer
Directions: Put the following deductive arguments into standard form and determine whether the
arguments are of the form modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunctive syllogism, or hypothetical
syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
1.
2.
___________________________________________________
3.
Form:
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
1.
2.
_____________________________________________________
3.
Form:
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
1.
2.
________________________________________________________
3.
Form:
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
5. Why does Socrates claim that he is the wisest in all of Athens?
6. Explain Socrates’ idea of truth. Does truth exist?
7. Explain Dqescartes’ method of doubt and the rational truth he discovers.
8. According to Berkeley, “if a tree falls in the woods, does it make a sound?” Explain this in
terms of his philosophy.
9. When referring to the theory of Dualism, what is the problem of interaction?
10. Briefly define Physicalism.
Solution
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
Form: modus ponens
P: Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles
Q: that eating beef is morally wrong.
If P Q and P are true, then Q is true, by modus ponens.
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
Form:disjunctive syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
Form: modus tollens
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
The Sophists were orators, public speakers, mouths for hire in an oral culture. They were gifted
with speech. They were skilled in what becomes known as Rhetoric. They were respected,
feared and hated. They had a gift.
Rousseau Reading - On the Social ContractDan Ewert
Excerpts from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's On the Social Contract meant to illustrate his version of the social contract and its necessity. Questions follow the reading for helping guide the student into getting out of the reading what needs to be gotten.
9.5 Moral TheoriesAll moral claims are grounded in some moral th.docxransayo
9.5 Moral Theories
All moral claims are grounded in some moral theory. It is the nature of such claims that they are based on a system of beliefs about what is right and wrong, just and unjust.
The table below lists a handful of the moral theories you are most likely to encounter in ethical arguments today. It’s important to note that each one has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Moral theories give you general guidelines, but you still usually have to apply moral reasoning in individual cases to test them out. For example, none of these theories explicitly claim that killing is wrong. The theories are more about how you would ground your claim that killing is wrong.
Moral theories are also not mutually exclusive. The argument that killing is wrong could be grounded in all of these theories.
Whether they know it or not, everyone has a moral theory. It is inescapable. Even if their moral theory is that there are no morals, that still represents a moral theory. But not all moral theories are equal—some hold up to critical thinking better than others.
You may see wisdom in all of these perspectives, or you may strongly identify with a single one. Regardless, it's important for you to recognize the potential weaknesses in any moral theory you favor, and it's helpful for you to understand why others find legitimacy in the moral theories they employ.
Theory
Criticisms
Kantian Ethics
· Immanuel Kant put forth the categorical imperative, which states that you should only act on moral principles that you would be willing to turn into universal laws mandating that everyone act the same way.
· This is a version of the question, “How would you like it if everyone did that?”
Any two people who want to get married should be able to.
· This theory is so absolute that it sometimes goes against moral common sense.
It’s wrong to kiss my spouse because I would not like it if everyone kissed my spouse.
Utilitarianism
· The morally right course of action is the one that will produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.
· The only thing that matters is the consequences of the action, not the intentions behind the action (the ends justify the means).
· Ignores people’s rights, duties, and intentions.
· Could be used to justify an act that most would consider morally wrong because it inflicts harm on one person unjustly, even if it brings great happiness to many others.
It’s okay to steal money from my neighbor and take my family on a vacation, because then my whole family would be happy, and only my neighbor would be harmed.
Ethical Egoism
· Doing whatever is best for your own interests or would make you happy.
· This is not necessarily the same thing as doing whatever you want in the moment, because that might not be in your best interests in the long term.
· Can be used to justify terrible actions.
Ethical Altruism
· Doing whatever is best for others or would bring the greatest amount of happiness to people besides yourself.
· Some.
Mission CriticalHumanities 1BFallacies and Non-RaIlonaThornburg83
Mission Critical:
Humanities 1B
Fallacies
and
Non-Rational Persuasion
1. Fallacious Appeals
2. Ad Hominem Attacks
3. Fallacious Generalizations
4. Post Hoc Reasoning
5. Straw Man Fallacy
6. Shifting the Burden of Proof
7. Circular Reasoning
8. Loaded Questions
9. False Dilemma
10. Unfair Fallacies
1. Introduction to Fallacious Appeals
We often make legitimate appeals in support of arguments. For example, to support a statement about the relationship between energy and mass, Danielle might appeal to Albert Einstein's theories as an authoritative source. To support a claim dealing with guns and gun control, Janelle might appeal to the Bill of Rights. And to support an argument on immigration, Claudelle might appeal to the humanity or generosity of her audience. As long as Einstein is an authority on Danielle's topic, as long as the Bill of Rights deals with Janelle's topic, and as long as the generosity of her audience is directly related to Claudelle's topic, each of these appeals would be perfectly acceptable.
However, what if Danielle had appealed to Einstein as an authority on rap music, or if Janelle had used the Bill of Rights to support a claim about which store has the best prices, or if Claudelle had appealed to the generosity of the judges in evaluating her performance in gymnastics? We would probably have a puzzled reaction, since these appeals would seem to have little or nothing to do with the claims they were used to support.
The problem is that fallacious appeals are not always as obvious as these last three, and it necessary for the critical thinker to determine, in each case, whether an appeal is appropriate or not. Generally speaking, fallacious appeals can be divided into two groups: misdirected appeals and emotional appeals.
In a misdirected appeal, an otherwise legitimate appeal is misapplied by being used to support an unrelated claim. Danielle's use of Einstein, who was an authority but not on rap music, and Janelle's use of the Bill of Rights, which guarantees some things but not which store has the best prices, are examples of misdirected appeals.
By itself, an emotional appeal is never a legitimate strategy in an argument, because it is based on emotions rather than verifiable or evaluative support. Claudelle's appeal to the generosity of her audience in an argument about immigration, for example, would be appropriate as long as she was discussing that generosity as a value related to the subject. However, an appeal to the generosity of the judges at a gymnastic meet is merely a play on their emotions (probably an appeal to their pity); anyway, the value of generosity has nothing to do with the evaluations the judges would render. Thus, Claudelle's appeal to the judges' generosity would be a fallacious emotional appeal.
The following are some of the most common fallacious appeals. Popular variations on the names are also listed.
Misdirected Appeals
A. Appeal to Authority, or Appeal to Que ...
Purposeful law of attraction accomplishmentsRajayCalbert
Imagine for a moment that you have in your possession a source of absolute and everlasting power. You solely could command the warmth of the sunshine, the rain, the tides and the direction of the air. What would you perform with this kind of power? Would you abuse it causing the world to fall into absolute chaos? Would you be generous and openhearted, employing your power to serve the humans of your planet accomplish their greatest potential?
A Simplified Account of Kant’s Ethics” 411 A SIMPLIFIED .docxadkinspaige22
“A Simplified Account of Kant’s Ethics” 411
A SIMPLIFIED ACCOUNT OF KANT’S ETHICS
Onora O’Neill
Onora Sylvia O’Neill, Baroness O’Neill of Bengarve
(1941- ) is a leading scholar of Kant’s moral philoso-
phy. She studied at Oxford University, then at Harvard,
where John Rawls served as her doctoral advisor. She
was a professor of philosophy for many years at the
University of Essex.
As the title suggests, this piece attempts to provide a
simplified account of Kant’s complex and difficult
moral theory, by focusing on the ` formula of human-
ity”; also known as the `formula of end-in-itself.” It
does this as part of an effort to assess the advantages of
Kantianism as opposed to Utilitarian theory.
Kant’s moral theory has acquired the reputation of
being forbiddingly difficult to understand and, once
understood, excessively demanding in its requirements.
I don’t believe that this reputation has been wholly
earned, and I am going to try to undermine it. I shall
try to reduce some of the difficulties .... Finally, I shall
compare Kantian and utilitarian approaches and assess
their strengths and weaknesses.
The main method by which I propose to avoid some
of the difficulties of Kant’s moral theory is by explain-
ing only one part of the theory. This does not seem to
me to be an irresponsible approach in this case. One of
the things that makes Kant’s moral theory hard to
understand is that he gives a number of different ver-
sions of the principle that he calls the Supreme Princi-
ple of Morality, and these different versions don’t look
at all like one another. They also don’t look at all like
the utilitarians’ Greatest Happiness Principle. But the
Kantian principle is supposed to play a similar role in
arguments about what to do.
Kant calls his Supreme Principle the Categorical
Imperative; its various versions also have sonorous
names. One is called the Formula of Universal Law;
another is the Formula of the Kingdom of Ends. The
one on which I shall concentrate is known as the For-
mula of the End-in-Itself. To understand why Kant
thinks that these picturesquely named principles are
equivalent to one another takes quite a lot of close and
detailed analysis of Kant’s philosophy. I shall avoid this
and concentrate on showing the implications of this
version of the Categorical Imperative.’
THE FORMULA OF THE END IN ITSELF
Kant states the Formula of the End in Itself as fol-
lows:
Act in such a way that you always treat
humanity, whether in your own person or
in the person of any other, never simply as
a means but always at the same time as an
end.
To understand this we need to know what it is to
treat a person as a means or as an end. According to
Kant, each of our acts reflects one or more maxims. The
maxim of the act is the principle on which one sees
oneself as acting. A maxim expresses a person’s policy,
or if he or she has no settled policy, the principle un-
derlying the pa.
Chapter 3Evaluating Moral ArgumentsWhat Is Moral Reasoning.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
Evaluating Moral Arguments
What Is Moral Reasoning?
Moral reasoningis ordinary critical reasoning applied to ethics.
Critical reasoning(also called critical thinking) is the careful, systematic evaluation of statementsand arguments.
Statements
A statement(or claim) is the assertion that something is either true or false. The following are examples of statements:“Murder is wrong.”“1 + 1 = 2”“Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.”
Statements and Arguments –1
When at least one statement attempts to provide reasons for believing another statement, we have an argument—a group of statements, one of which is supposed to be supported by the rest.
Statements and Arguments –2
The supporting statements are called premises.
The statement that is being supported by the others is the conclusion.
Identifying ArgumentsAn argumentis intended to prove something.All arguments share a pattern: at least one premise is required to support a conclusion.A cluster of unsupported claims is not an argument.The most reliable way to identify arguments is to look for the conclusion first.Look for indicator words:terms that often appear in arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion may be nearby.
Some words indicating a conclusion:
Therefore, consequently, hence, it follows that, thus, so, it must be thatSome words indicating a premise:
Because, since, for, given that, due to the fact that, for the reason that, the reason being, assuming that, as indicated by
Two Forms of Argument
A deductive argumentis supposed to give logically conclusivesupport to its conclusion.
An inductive argumentis supposed to offer probablesupport to its conclusion.
Common Deductive Argument FormsValid forms:Denying the antecedentAffirming the consequent Invalid forms:Affirming the antecedent(modus ponens)Denying the consequent(modus tollens)The hypothetical syllogism
Deductive Arguments
A deductive argument isvalidif the premises support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
A deductive argument is invalidif the premises do not support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion may or may not be true.
A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are true.
A deductive argument is unsound if it is invalid and/or any of its premises are false.
Inductive Arguments
An inductive argument is strongif it gives probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is also likely to be true.
An inductive argument is weak if it does not give probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is not more probable than not to be true.
An inductive argument is cogentif it is strong and all of its premises are true.
An inductive argument is not cogent if it is weakand/or any of.
From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan THE INTRODUCTION Nature (JeanmarieColbert3
From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the art of man, as in many
other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a
motion of Limbs, the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not say, that all
Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall
life? For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so
many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet
further, imitating that Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that
great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall
Man […]
CHAPTER XIII.
OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND, AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND MISERY
Nature hath made men so equall, in the faculties of body, and mind; as that though there bee found
one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker mind then another; yet when all is
reckoned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man
can thereupon claim to himselfe any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he. For as
to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret
machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himselfe.
And as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the arts grounded upon words, and especially that
skill of proceeding upon generall, and infallible rules, called Science; which very few have, and but in
few things; as being not a native faculty, born with us; nor attained, (as Prudence,) while we look
after somewhat els,) I find yet a greater equality amongst men, than that of strength […]
From Equality Proceeds Diffidence
From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our Ends. And therefore if
any two men desire the same thing, which neverthelesse they cannot both enjoy, they become
enemies; and in the way to their End, (which is principally their owne conservation, and sometimes
their delectation only,) endeavour to destroy, or subdue one an other. And from hence it comes to
passe, that where an Invader hath no more to feare, than an other mans single power; if one plant,
sow, build, or possesse a convenient Seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with
forces united, to dispossesse, and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of his life,
or liberty. And the Invader again is in the like danger of another.
From Diffidence Warre
And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man to secure himselfe, so
reasonable, as Anticipation; that is, by force, or wiles, to master the persons of all men he can, so
long, till he ...
Your Grid for Week 6 assignment[click and type your name]Change Pl.docxdanielfoster65629
Your Grid for Week 6 assignment[click and type your name]Change Plan GridTopicFrequency or timelineStakeholders/AudiencePurposeCommunicatorMessageAuthorDelivery methodmeasure
DefinitionsTopic What is the topic of the communication? (A "re" statement)FrequencyHow often will this message go out? Regularly? Will there be updated versions? Once?AudienceWho will get this message? Why?PurposeWhat is the goal of the communication - what should it achieve?CommunicatorWho is going to actually have their name/voice on this communication?MessageWhat is the foundation of the message? Key points listed.AuthorWho is going to write the communication? (Use the name of the officer/change agent, for example, the CIO, CFO, CEO or the "CA" (change agent), HR Director, etc.) You don't actually write a person's nameDeliveryHow will the message be delivered and why that method? (i.e. email/phone conference/in person, etc.)MeasureHow will you measure or determine if the message successfully conveyed the information?
Sheet3
8
IMMANUEL KANT
What Is Enlightenment?
1784
Immanuel Kant's (1724-1804) first love was Newtonian science. The
progress that science and mathematics had made since the mid seventeenth
century fascinated him. He wanted to bring a comparable rigor, possibly
even progress, to all branches of philosophy: ethics, epistemology, and espe-
cially metaphysics. At the heart of the "Copernican revolution" that Kant
said he had begun in philosophy lay his belief that innate properties in the
mind—the rules of selecting and combining sense data—govern the
human construction of reality. In effect we think, but we also have the fac-
ulty of intuition, by which we grasp, for example, space and our position
within it. Intuition of space and place relate to Kant's attempt to construct
an enlightened ethical system. He believed that human beings must possess
an interior moral sense that can be refined, a knowledge that can be trans-
lated into behavior. ̀ Do I have, not merely a self-interested feeling, but also
a disinterested feeling of concern for others? Yes," Kant said. How to
achieve the moral balance between self-interest and benevolence occupied
much of his writing and teaching life. •
Kant lived out his sheltered days as a professor at Albertina Univer-
sity in Konigsberg (now Kaliningrad). He became famous largely as a
philosopher, and his formal philosophical writings are a mainstay of any
university curriculum today. Kant should be seen as singularly important
because of the range of his genius, his rigor in formal philosophy, and his
search for the abstract and the universal. The selection that follows has
been reprinted often. Its clarity and brevity recommend it, but many com-
mentators have failed to notice that it is a distinctively conservative doc-
ument. Think for yourself, Kant seems to be saying, but cause no trouble.
Leave the state and its institutions alone; conform; think original
thoughts after hours, in the privacy.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxnovabroom
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxjesusamckone
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
The Ring of Gyges” byPlatoRelief of PlatoThoemmes Press.docxlillie234567
“The Ring of Gyges” by
Plato
Relief of PlatoThoemmes Press
About the author. . . . Other than anecdotal accounts, not much is known
about Plato’s early life. The association with his friend and mentor Socrates
was undoubtedly a major influence. Plato’s founding of the Academy, a
school formed for scientific and mathematical investigation, not only es-
tablished the systematic beginning of Western science but also influenced
the structure of higher education from medieval to modern times. Plutarch
once wrote, “Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is Plato.”
About the work. . . . Glaucon, the main speaker of this reading from Plato’s
Republic,1 expresses a widely and deeply-held ethical point of view known
as egoism—a view taught by a Antiphon, a sophistic contemporary of
Socrates. Egoistic theories are founded on the belief that everyone acts
only from the motive of self-interest. For example, the egoist accounts for
the fact that people help people on the basis of what the helpers might get
in return from those helped or others like them. This view, neither rep-
resentative of Plato’s nor of Socrates’s philosophy, is presented here by
Glaucon as a stalking horse for the development of a more thoroughly
developed ethical theory. Although Socrates held that everyone attempts
to act from the motive of “self-interest,” his interpretation of that motive
is quite different from the view elaborated by Glaucon because Glaucon
1. Plato.The Republic. Trans. by Benjamin Jowlett, Book II, 358d—361d.
1
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
seems unaware of the attendant formative effects on the soul by actions
for short-term pleasure.
From the reading. . .
“. . . those who practice justice do so involuntarily and because they
have not the power to be unjust. . . ”
Ideas of Interest from “The Ring of
Gyges”
1. According to the Glaucon’s brief, why do most persons act justly?
Explain whether you think Glaucon’s explanation is psychologically
correct.
2. If a person could be certain not only that an action resulting in per-
sonal benefit would not be discovered but also that if this action were
discovered, no punishing consequences would follow, then would there
any reason for that person to act morally?
3. Is it true that sometimes our self-interest is served bynotacting in our
self-interest? Fyodor Dostoevsky writes:
Advantage! What is advantage? And will you take it upon yourself to
define with perfect accuracy in what the advantage of a man consists?
And what if it so happens that a man’s advantage,sometimes, not only
may, but even must, consist in his desiring in certain cases what is harm-
ful to himself and not advantageous.2
Construct an example illustrating this view, and attempt to resolve the
paradoxical expression of the question.
2. Fyodor Dostoevsky.Notes from Underground. Trans. Constance Garnett. 1864.
2 Reading For Philosophical Inquiry: A Brief Introduction
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
4. Quite often people are pleased when the.
Assessment 4 Instructions Health Promotion Plan Presentation.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 4 Instructions: Health Promotion Plan Presentation
*** note, this assignment is meant to tie into assignment 1***
Build a slide presentation (PowerPoint preferred) of the hypothetical health promotion plan you developed in the first assessment. Then, implement your health promotion plan by conducting a hypothetical face-to-face educational session addressing the health concern and health goals of your selected group. How would you set goals for the session, evaluate session outcomes, and suggest possible revisions to improve future sessions?
As you begin to prepare this assessment, you are encouraged to complete the Vila Health: Conducting an Effective Educational Session activity. The information gained from completing this activity will help you succeed with the assessment as you consider key issues in conducting an effective educational session for a selected audience. Completing activities is also a way to demonstrate engagement.
Note:
All assignments in the course are based upon hypothetical individuals or groups.
Professional Context
Health education
is any combination of learning experiences designed to help community individuals, families, and aggregates improve their health by increasing knowledge or influencing attitudes (WHO, 2018). Education is key to health promotion, disease prevention, and disaster preparedness. The health indicator framework identified in Healthy People 2020 helps motivate action in such areas as health service access, clinical preventive services, environmental quality, injury or violence, maternal, infant and child health, mental health, nutrition, substance abuse, and tobacco use.
Nurses provide accurate evidence-based information and education in various formal and informal settings. They draw upon evidence-based practice to provide health promotion and disease prevention activities to create social and physical environments conducive to improving and maintaining community health. When provided with the tools to be successful, people demonstrate lifestyle changes (self-care) that promote health and help reduce readmissions. They are better able to tolerate stressors, including environmental changes, and enjoy a better quality of life. In times of crisis, a resilient community is a safer community (ODPHP, n.d.; Flanders, 2018).
This assessment provides an opportunity for you to apply teaching and learning concepts to the presentation of a health promotion plan.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 3: Evaluate health policies, based on their ability to achieve desired outcomes.
Evaluate educational session outcomes in terms of progress made toward Healthy People 2020 goals and leading health indicators.
Competency 4: Integrate principles of social justice in community health interventions.
Evaluate educational ses.
Assessment 4 Instructions Remote Collaboration and Evidence-Based C.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 4 Instructions: Remote Collaboration and Evidence-Based Care
*NEED A SCRIPT FOR THIS, THANK YOU*
Create a 5–10 minute video of yourself, as a presenter, in which you will propose an evidence-based plan to improve the outcomes for a patient and examine how remote collaboration provided benefits or challenges to designing and delivering the care.
As technologies and the health care industry continue to evolve, remote care, diagnosis, and collaboration are becoming increasingly more regular methods by which nurses are expected to work. Learning the ways in which evidence-based models and care can help remote work produce better outcomes will become critical for success. Additionally, understanding how to leverage EBP principles in collaboration will be important in the success of institutions delivering quality, safe, and cost-effective care. It could also lead to better job satisfaction for those engaging in remote collaboration.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 2: Analyze the relevance and potential effectiveness of evidence when making a decision.
Reflect on which evidence was most relevant and useful when making decisions regarding the care plan.
Competency 3: Apply an evidence-based practice model to address a practice issue.
Explain the ways in which an EBP model was used to help develop the care plan.
Competency 4: Plan care based on the best available evidence.
Propose an evidence-based care plan to improve the safety and outcomes for a patient.
Competency 5: Apply professional, scholarly communication strategies to lead practice changes based on evidence.
Identify benefits and strategies to mitigate the challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration to plan care within the context of a remote team.
Communicate in a professional manner that is easily audible and uses proper grammar, including a reference list formatted in current APA style.
Professional Context
Remote care and diagnosis is a continuing and increasingly important method for nurses to help deliver care to patients to promote safety and enhance health outcomes. Understanding best EBPs and building competence in delivering nursing care to remote patients is a key competency for all nurses. Additionally, in some scenarios, while you may be delivering care in person you may be collaborating with a physician or other team members who are remote. Understanding the benefits and challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration is vital to developing effective communication strategies when coordinating care. So, being proficient at communicating and working with remote health care team members is also critical to delivering quality, evidence-base care.
Scenario
The Vila Health: Remote Collaboration on Evidence-Based Care simu.
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Directions: Put the following deductive arguments into standard form and determine whether the
arguments are of the form modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunctive syllogism, or hypothetical
syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
1.
2.
___________________________________________________
3.
Form:
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
1.
2.
_____________________________________________________
3.
Form:
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
1.
2.
________________________________________________________
3.
Form:
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
5. Why does Socrates claim that he is the wisest in all of Athens?
6. Explain Socrates’ idea of truth. Does truth exist?
7. Explain Dqescartes’ method of doubt and the rational truth he discovers.
8. According to Berkeley, “if a tree falls in the woods, does it make a sound?” Explain this in
terms of his philosophy.
9. When referring to the theory of Dualism, what is the problem of interaction?
10. Briefly define Physicalism.
Solution
2. If large cattle farms are more harmful to the environment than driving automobiles, then
eating beef is morally wrong. Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles.
Thus, this must mean that eating beef is morally wrong.
Form: modus ponens
P: Large cattle farms are more harmful than driving automobiles
Q: that eating beef is morally wrong.
If P Q and P are true, then Q is true, by modus ponens.
3. If determinism is true then no human being can ever be responsible for any of their actions. If
human beings cannot be responsible for their actions, then there is no such thing as universal
ethics. Therefore, if determinism is true, then there is no such thing as universal ethics.
Form:disjunctive syllogism.
1. If it is true that everyone lies to serve their own interest, then no one can be trusted. But,
obviously I know many people who can be trusted. Therefore, it cannot be true that everyone lies
to serve their own interest.
Form: modus tollens
4. Explain Sophistic rhetoric. What is its purpose?
The Sophists were orators, public speakers, mouths for hire in an oral culture. They were gifted
with speech. They were skilled in what becomes known as Rhetoric. They were respected,
feared and hated. They had a gift.
Rousseau Reading - On the Social ContractDan Ewert
Excerpts from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's On the Social Contract meant to illustrate his version of the social contract and its necessity. Questions follow the reading for helping guide the student into getting out of the reading what needs to be gotten.
9.5 Moral TheoriesAll moral claims are grounded in some moral th.docxransayo
9.5 Moral Theories
All moral claims are grounded in some moral theory. It is the nature of such claims that they are based on a system of beliefs about what is right and wrong, just and unjust.
The table below lists a handful of the moral theories you are most likely to encounter in ethical arguments today. It’s important to note that each one has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Moral theories give you general guidelines, but you still usually have to apply moral reasoning in individual cases to test them out. For example, none of these theories explicitly claim that killing is wrong. The theories are more about how you would ground your claim that killing is wrong.
Moral theories are also not mutually exclusive. The argument that killing is wrong could be grounded in all of these theories.
Whether they know it or not, everyone has a moral theory. It is inescapable. Even if their moral theory is that there are no morals, that still represents a moral theory. But not all moral theories are equal—some hold up to critical thinking better than others.
You may see wisdom in all of these perspectives, or you may strongly identify with a single one. Regardless, it's important for you to recognize the potential weaknesses in any moral theory you favor, and it's helpful for you to understand why others find legitimacy in the moral theories they employ.
Theory
Criticisms
Kantian Ethics
· Immanuel Kant put forth the categorical imperative, which states that you should only act on moral principles that you would be willing to turn into universal laws mandating that everyone act the same way.
· This is a version of the question, “How would you like it if everyone did that?”
Any two people who want to get married should be able to.
· This theory is so absolute that it sometimes goes against moral common sense.
It’s wrong to kiss my spouse because I would not like it if everyone kissed my spouse.
Utilitarianism
· The morally right course of action is the one that will produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.
· The only thing that matters is the consequences of the action, not the intentions behind the action (the ends justify the means).
· Ignores people’s rights, duties, and intentions.
· Could be used to justify an act that most would consider morally wrong because it inflicts harm on one person unjustly, even if it brings great happiness to many others.
It’s okay to steal money from my neighbor and take my family on a vacation, because then my whole family would be happy, and only my neighbor would be harmed.
Ethical Egoism
· Doing whatever is best for your own interests or would make you happy.
· This is not necessarily the same thing as doing whatever you want in the moment, because that might not be in your best interests in the long term.
· Can be used to justify terrible actions.
Ethical Altruism
· Doing whatever is best for others or would bring the greatest amount of happiness to people besides yourself.
· Some.
Mission CriticalHumanities 1BFallacies and Non-RaIlonaThornburg83
Mission Critical:
Humanities 1B
Fallacies
and
Non-Rational Persuasion
1. Fallacious Appeals
2. Ad Hominem Attacks
3. Fallacious Generalizations
4. Post Hoc Reasoning
5. Straw Man Fallacy
6. Shifting the Burden of Proof
7. Circular Reasoning
8. Loaded Questions
9. False Dilemma
10. Unfair Fallacies
1. Introduction to Fallacious Appeals
We often make legitimate appeals in support of arguments. For example, to support a statement about the relationship between energy and mass, Danielle might appeal to Albert Einstein's theories as an authoritative source. To support a claim dealing with guns and gun control, Janelle might appeal to the Bill of Rights. And to support an argument on immigration, Claudelle might appeal to the humanity or generosity of her audience. As long as Einstein is an authority on Danielle's topic, as long as the Bill of Rights deals with Janelle's topic, and as long as the generosity of her audience is directly related to Claudelle's topic, each of these appeals would be perfectly acceptable.
However, what if Danielle had appealed to Einstein as an authority on rap music, or if Janelle had used the Bill of Rights to support a claim about which store has the best prices, or if Claudelle had appealed to the generosity of the judges in evaluating her performance in gymnastics? We would probably have a puzzled reaction, since these appeals would seem to have little or nothing to do with the claims they were used to support.
The problem is that fallacious appeals are not always as obvious as these last three, and it necessary for the critical thinker to determine, in each case, whether an appeal is appropriate or not. Generally speaking, fallacious appeals can be divided into two groups: misdirected appeals and emotional appeals.
In a misdirected appeal, an otherwise legitimate appeal is misapplied by being used to support an unrelated claim. Danielle's use of Einstein, who was an authority but not on rap music, and Janelle's use of the Bill of Rights, which guarantees some things but not which store has the best prices, are examples of misdirected appeals.
By itself, an emotional appeal is never a legitimate strategy in an argument, because it is based on emotions rather than verifiable or evaluative support. Claudelle's appeal to the generosity of her audience in an argument about immigration, for example, would be appropriate as long as she was discussing that generosity as a value related to the subject. However, an appeal to the generosity of the judges at a gymnastic meet is merely a play on their emotions (probably an appeal to their pity); anyway, the value of generosity has nothing to do with the evaluations the judges would render. Thus, Claudelle's appeal to the judges' generosity would be a fallacious emotional appeal.
The following are some of the most common fallacious appeals. Popular variations on the names are also listed.
Misdirected Appeals
A. Appeal to Authority, or Appeal to Que ...
Purposeful law of attraction accomplishmentsRajayCalbert
Imagine for a moment that you have in your possession a source of absolute and everlasting power. You solely could command the warmth of the sunshine, the rain, the tides and the direction of the air. What would you perform with this kind of power? Would you abuse it causing the world to fall into absolute chaos? Would you be generous and openhearted, employing your power to serve the humans of your planet accomplish their greatest potential?
A Simplified Account of Kant’s Ethics” 411 A SIMPLIFIED .docxadkinspaige22
“A Simplified Account of Kant’s Ethics” 411
A SIMPLIFIED ACCOUNT OF KANT’S ETHICS
Onora O’Neill
Onora Sylvia O’Neill, Baroness O’Neill of Bengarve
(1941- ) is a leading scholar of Kant’s moral philoso-
phy. She studied at Oxford University, then at Harvard,
where John Rawls served as her doctoral advisor. She
was a professor of philosophy for many years at the
University of Essex.
As the title suggests, this piece attempts to provide a
simplified account of Kant’s complex and difficult
moral theory, by focusing on the ` formula of human-
ity”; also known as the `formula of end-in-itself.” It
does this as part of an effort to assess the advantages of
Kantianism as opposed to Utilitarian theory.
Kant’s moral theory has acquired the reputation of
being forbiddingly difficult to understand and, once
understood, excessively demanding in its requirements.
I don’t believe that this reputation has been wholly
earned, and I am going to try to undermine it. I shall
try to reduce some of the difficulties .... Finally, I shall
compare Kantian and utilitarian approaches and assess
their strengths and weaknesses.
The main method by which I propose to avoid some
of the difficulties of Kant’s moral theory is by explain-
ing only one part of the theory. This does not seem to
me to be an irresponsible approach in this case. One of
the things that makes Kant’s moral theory hard to
understand is that he gives a number of different ver-
sions of the principle that he calls the Supreme Princi-
ple of Morality, and these different versions don’t look
at all like one another. They also don’t look at all like
the utilitarians’ Greatest Happiness Principle. But the
Kantian principle is supposed to play a similar role in
arguments about what to do.
Kant calls his Supreme Principle the Categorical
Imperative; its various versions also have sonorous
names. One is called the Formula of Universal Law;
another is the Formula of the Kingdom of Ends. The
one on which I shall concentrate is known as the For-
mula of the End-in-Itself. To understand why Kant
thinks that these picturesquely named principles are
equivalent to one another takes quite a lot of close and
detailed analysis of Kant’s philosophy. I shall avoid this
and concentrate on showing the implications of this
version of the Categorical Imperative.’
THE FORMULA OF THE END IN ITSELF
Kant states the Formula of the End in Itself as fol-
lows:
Act in such a way that you always treat
humanity, whether in your own person or
in the person of any other, never simply as
a means but always at the same time as an
end.
To understand this we need to know what it is to
treat a person as a means or as an end. According to
Kant, each of our acts reflects one or more maxims. The
maxim of the act is the principle on which one sees
oneself as acting. A maxim expresses a person’s policy,
or if he or she has no settled policy, the principle un-
derlying the pa.
Chapter 3Evaluating Moral ArgumentsWhat Is Moral Reasoning.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3
Evaluating Moral Arguments
What Is Moral Reasoning?
Moral reasoningis ordinary critical reasoning applied to ethics.
Critical reasoning(also called critical thinking) is the careful, systematic evaluation of statementsand arguments.
Statements
A statement(or claim) is the assertion that something is either true or false. The following are examples of statements:“Murder is wrong.”“1 + 1 = 2”“Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.”
Statements and Arguments –1
When at least one statement attempts to provide reasons for believing another statement, we have an argument—a group of statements, one of which is supposed to be supported by the rest.
Statements and Arguments –2
The supporting statements are called premises.
The statement that is being supported by the others is the conclusion.
Identifying ArgumentsAn argumentis intended to prove something.All arguments share a pattern: at least one premise is required to support a conclusion.A cluster of unsupported claims is not an argument.The most reliable way to identify arguments is to look for the conclusion first.Look for indicator words:terms that often appear in arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion may be nearby.
Some words indicating a conclusion:
Therefore, consequently, hence, it follows that, thus, so, it must be thatSome words indicating a premise:
Because, since, for, given that, due to the fact that, for the reason that, the reason being, assuming that, as indicated by
Two Forms of Argument
A deductive argumentis supposed to give logically conclusivesupport to its conclusion.
An inductive argumentis supposed to offer probablesupport to its conclusion.
Common Deductive Argument FormsValid forms:Denying the antecedentAffirming the consequent Invalid forms:Affirming the antecedent(modus ponens)Denying the consequent(modus tollens)The hypothetical syllogism
Deductive Arguments
A deductive argument isvalidif the premises support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
A deductive argument is invalidif the premises do not support the conclusion. That is, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion may or may not be true.
A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are true.
A deductive argument is unsound if it is invalid and/or any of its premises are false.
Inductive Arguments
An inductive argument is strongif it gives probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is also likely to be true.
An inductive argument is weak if it does not give probable support to its conclusion. That is, if its premises are true, its conclusion is not more probable than not to be true.
An inductive argument is cogentif it is strong and all of its premises are true.
An inductive argument is not cogent if it is weakand/or any of.
From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan THE INTRODUCTION Nature (JeanmarieColbert3
From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the art of man, as in many
other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a
motion of Limbs, the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not say, that all
Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall
life? For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so
many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet
further, imitating that Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that
great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall
Man […]
CHAPTER XIII.
OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND, AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND MISERY
Nature hath made men so equall, in the faculties of body, and mind; as that though there bee found
one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker mind then another; yet when all is
reckoned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man
can thereupon claim to himselfe any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he. For as
to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret
machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himselfe.
And as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the arts grounded upon words, and especially that
skill of proceeding upon generall, and infallible rules, called Science; which very few have, and but in
few things; as being not a native faculty, born with us; nor attained, (as Prudence,) while we look
after somewhat els,) I find yet a greater equality amongst men, than that of strength […]
From Equality Proceeds Diffidence
From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our Ends. And therefore if
any two men desire the same thing, which neverthelesse they cannot both enjoy, they become
enemies; and in the way to their End, (which is principally their owne conservation, and sometimes
their delectation only,) endeavour to destroy, or subdue one an other. And from hence it comes to
passe, that where an Invader hath no more to feare, than an other mans single power; if one plant,
sow, build, or possesse a convenient Seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with
forces united, to dispossesse, and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of his life,
or liberty. And the Invader again is in the like danger of another.
From Diffidence Warre
And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man to secure himselfe, so
reasonable, as Anticipation; that is, by force, or wiles, to master the persons of all men he can, so
long, till he ...
Your Grid for Week 6 assignment[click and type your name]Change Pl.docxdanielfoster65629
Your Grid for Week 6 assignment[click and type your name]Change Plan GridTopicFrequency or timelineStakeholders/AudiencePurposeCommunicatorMessageAuthorDelivery methodmeasure
DefinitionsTopic What is the topic of the communication? (A "re" statement)FrequencyHow often will this message go out? Regularly? Will there be updated versions? Once?AudienceWho will get this message? Why?PurposeWhat is the goal of the communication - what should it achieve?CommunicatorWho is going to actually have their name/voice on this communication?MessageWhat is the foundation of the message? Key points listed.AuthorWho is going to write the communication? (Use the name of the officer/change agent, for example, the CIO, CFO, CEO or the "CA" (change agent), HR Director, etc.) You don't actually write a person's nameDeliveryHow will the message be delivered and why that method? (i.e. email/phone conference/in person, etc.)MeasureHow will you measure or determine if the message successfully conveyed the information?
Sheet3
8
IMMANUEL KANT
What Is Enlightenment?
1784
Immanuel Kant's (1724-1804) first love was Newtonian science. The
progress that science and mathematics had made since the mid seventeenth
century fascinated him. He wanted to bring a comparable rigor, possibly
even progress, to all branches of philosophy: ethics, epistemology, and espe-
cially metaphysics. At the heart of the "Copernican revolution" that Kant
said he had begun in philosophy lay his belief that innate properties in the
mind—the rules of selecting and combining sense data—govern the
human construction of reality. In effect we think, but we also have the fac-
ulty of intuition, by which we grasp, for example, space and our position
within it. Intuition of space and place relate to Kant's attempt to construct
an enlightened ethical system. He believed that human beings must possess
an interior moral sense that can be refined, a knowledge that can be trans-
lated into behavior. ̀ Do I have, not merely a self-interested feeling, but also
a disinterested feeling of concern for others? Yes," Kant said. How to
achieve the moral balance between self-interest and benevolence occupied
much of his writing and teaching life. •
Kant lived out his sheltered days as a professor at Albertina Univer-
sity in Konigsberg (now Kaliningrad). He became famous largely as a
philosopher, and his formal philosophical writings are a mainstay of any
university curriculum today. Kant should be seen as singularly important
because of the range of his genius, his rigor in formal philosophy, and his
search for the abstract and the universal. The selection that follows has
been reprinted often. Its clarity and brevity recommend it, but many com-
mentators have failed to notice that it is a distinctively conservative doc-
ument. Think for yourself, Kant seems to be saying, but cause no trouble.
Leave the state and its institutions alone; conform; think original
thoughts after hours, in the privacy.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxnovabroom
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxjesusamckone
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
The Ring of Gyges” byPlatoRelief of PlatoThoemmes Press.docxlillie234567
“The Ring of Gyges” by
Plato
Relief of PlatoThoemmes Press
About the author. . . . Other than anecdotal accounts, not much is known
about Plato’s early life. The association with his friend and mentor Socrates
was undoubtedly a major influence. Plato’s founding of the Academy, a
school formed for scientific and mathematical investigation, not only es-
tablished the systematic beginning of Western science but also influenced
the structure of higher education from medieval to modern times. Plutarch
once wrote, “Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is Plato.”
About the work. . . . Glaucon, the main speaker of this reading from Plato’s
Republic,1 expresses a widely and deeply-held ethical point of view known
as egoism—a view taught by a Antiphon, a sophistic contemporary of
Socrates. Egoistic theories are founded on the belief that everyone acts
only from the motive of self-interest. For example, the egoist accounts for
the fact that people help people on the basis of what the helpers might get
in return from those helped or others like them. This view, neither rep-
resentative of Plato’s nor of Socrates’s philosophy, is presented here by
Glaucon as a stalking horse for the development of a more thoroughly
developed ethical theory. Although Socrates held that everyone attempts
to act from the motive of “self-interest,” his interpretation of that motive
is quite different from the view elaborated by Glaucon because Glaucon
1. Plato.The Republic. Trans. by Benjamin Jowlett, Book II, 358d—361d.
1
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
seems unaware of the attendant formative effects on the soul by actions
for short-term pleasure.
From the reading. . .
“. . . those who practice justice do so involuntarily and because they
have not the power to be unjust. . . ”
Ideas of Interest from “The Ring of
Gyges”
1. According to the Glaucon’s brief, why do most persons act justly?
Explain whether you think Glaucon’s explanation is psychologically
correct.
2. If a person could be certain not only that an action resulting in per-
sonal benefit would not be discovered but also that if this action were
discovered, no punishing consequences would follow, then would there
any reason for that person to act morally?
3. Is it true that sometimes our self-interest is served bynotacting in our
self-interest? Fyodor Dostoevsky writes:
Advantage! What is advantage? And will you take it upon yourself to
define with perfect accuracy in what the advantage of a man consists?
And what if it so happens that a man’s advantage,sometimes, not only
may, but even must, consist in his desiring in certain cases what is harm-
ful to himself and not advantageous.2
Construct an example illustrating this view, and attempt to resolve the
paradoxical expression of the question.
2. Fyodor Dostoevsky.Notes from Underground. Trans. Constance Garnett. 1864.
2 Reading For Philosophical Inquiry: A Brief Introduction
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
4. Quite often people are pleased when the.
Similar to AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS AND LEGI.docx (20)
Assessment 4 Instructions Health Promotion Plan Presentation.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 4 Instructions: Health Promotion Plan Presentation
*** note, this assignment is meant to tie into assignment 1***
Build a slide presentation (PowerPoint preferred) of the hypothetical health promotion plan you developed in the first assessment. Then, implement your health promotion plan by conducting a hypothetical face-to-face educational session addressing the health concern and health goals of your selected group. How would you set goals for the session, evaluate session outcomes, and suggest possible revisions to improve future sessions?
As you begin to prepare this assessment, you are encouraged to complete the Vila Health: Conducting an Effective Educational Session activity. The information gained from completing this activity will help you succeed with the assessment as you consider key issues in conducting an effective educational session for a selected audience. Completing activities is also a way to demonstrate engagement.
Note:
All assignments in the course are based upon hypothetical individuals or groups.
Professional Context
Health education
is any combination of learning experiences designed to help community individuals, families, and aggregates improve their health by increasing knowledge or influencing attitudes (WHO, 2018). Education is key to health promotion, disease prevention, and disaster preparedness. The health indicator framework identified in Healthy People 2020 helps motivate action in such areas as health service access, clinical preventive services, environmental quality, injury or violence, maternal, infant and child health, mental health, nutrition, substance abuse, and tobacco use.
Nurses provide accurate evidence-based information and education in various formal and informal settings. They draw upon evidence-based practice to provide health promotion and disease prevention activities to create social and physical environments conducive to improving and maintaining community health. When provided with the tools to be successful, people demonstrate lifestyle changes (self-care) that promote health and help reduce readmissions. They are better able to tolerate stressors, including environmental changes, and enjoy a better quality of life. In times of crisis, a resilient community is a safer community (ODPHP, n.d.; Flanders, 2018).
This assessment provides an opportunity for you to apply teaching and learning concepts to the presentation of a health promotion plan.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 3: Evaluate health policies, based on their ability to achieve desired outcomes.
Evaluate educational session outcomes in terms of progress made toward Healthy People 2020 goals and leading health indicators.
Competency 4: Integrate principles of social justice in community health interventions.
Evaluate educational ses.
Assessment 4 Instructions Remote Collaboration and Evidence-Based C.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 4 Instructions: Remote Collaboration and Evidence-Based Care
*NEED A SCRIPT FOR THIS, THANK YOU*
Create a 5–10 minute video of yourself, as a presenter, in which you will propose an evidence-based plan to improve the outcomes for a patient and examine how remote collaboration provided benefits or challenges to designing and delivering the care.
As technologies and the health care industry continue to evolve, remote care, diagnosis, and collaboration are becoming increasingly more regular methods by which nurses are expected to work. Learning the ways in which evidence-based models and care can help remote work produce better outcomes will become critical for success. Additionally, understanding how to leverage EBP principles in collaboration will be important in the success of institutions delivering quality, safe, and cost-effective care. It could also lead to better job satisfaction for those engaging in remote collaboration.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 2: Analyze the relevance and potential effectiveness of evidence when making a decision.
Reflect on which evidence was most relevant and useful when making decisions regarding the care plan.
Competency 3: Apply an evidence-based practice model to address a practice issue.
Explain the ways in which an EBP model was used to help develop the care plan.
Competency 4: Plan care based on the best available evidence.
Propose an evidence-based care plan to improve the safety and outcomes for a patient.
Competency 5: Apply professional, scholarly communication strategies to lead practice changes based on evidence.
Identify benefits and strategies to mitigate the challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration to plan care within the context of a remote team.
Communicate in a professional manner that is easily audible and uses proper grammar, including a reference list formatted in current APA style.
Professional Context
Remote care and diagnosis is a continuing and increasingly important method for nurses to help deliver care to patients to promote safety and enhance health outcomes. Understanding best EBPs and building competence in delivering nursing care to remote patients is a key competency for all nurses. Additionally, in some scenarios, while you may be delivering care in person you may be collaborating with a physician or other team members who are remote. Understanding the benefits and challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration is vital to developing effective communication strategies when coordinating care. So, being proficient at communicating and working with remote health care team members is also critical to delivering quality, evidence-base care.
Scenario
The Vila Health: Remote Collaboration on Evidence-Based Care simu.
Assessment 4Cost Savings AnalysisOverviewPrepare a spreads.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 4
Cost Savings Analysis
OverviewPrepare a spreadsheet of cost savings data showing efficiency gains attributable to care coordination over the course of one fiscal year, and report your key findings in an executive summary, 4–5 pages in length.
Information plays a fundamental role in health care. Providers such as physicians and hospitals create and process information as they deliver care to patients. However, managing that information and using it productively poses an ongoing challenge, particularly in light of the complexity of the U.S. health care sector, with its many diverse settings for care and types of providers and services. Health information technology (HIT) has the potential to considerably increase the productivity of the health sector by assisting providers in managing information. Furthermore, HIT can improve the quality of health care and, ultimately, the outcomes of that care for patients.
The use of HIT has been upheld as having remarkable promise in improving the efficiency, quality, cost-effectiveness, and safety of medical care delivery in our nation's health care system. This assessment provides an opportunity for you to examine how utilizing HIT can positively affect the financial health of an organization, improve patient health, and create better health outcomes.
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Apply care coordination models to improve the patient experience, promote population health, and reduce costs.
Describe ways in which care coordination can generate cost savings.
Competency 2: Explain the relationship between care coordination and evidence-based data.
Describe ways in which care coordination efforts can enhance the collection of evidence-based data and improve quality through the application of an emerging health care model.
Competency 3: Use health information technology to guide care coordination and organizational practice.
Explain how care coordination can promote improved health consumerism and effect positive health outcomes.
Competency 4: Communicate effectively with diverse audiences, in an appropriate form and style, consistent with applicable organizational, professional, and scholarly standards.
Present cost savings data and information clearly and accurately.
Support main points, claims, and conclusions with relevant and credible evidence, correctly formatting citations and references using APA style.
Competency Map
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Use this online tool to track your performance and progress through your course.
APA Module
.
Academic Honesty & APA Style and Formatting
.
APA Style Paper Tutorial [DOCX]
.
Capella Resources
ePortfolio
.
Research Resources
You may use other resources of your choice to prepare for this assessment; however, you will need to ensure that they are appropriat.
Assessment 4 Instructions Final Care Coordination Plan .docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 4 Instructions: Final Care Coordination Plan
For this assessment, you will simulate implementation of the preliminary care coordination plan you developed in Assessment 1. The presentation would be structured for the hypothetical patient.
NOTE
: You are required to complete this assessment after Assessment 1 is successfully completed.
Care coordination is the process of providing a smooth and seamless transition of care as part of the health continuum. Nurses must be aware of community resources, ethical considerations, policy issues, cultural norms, safety, and the physiological needs of patients. Nurses play a key role in providing the necessary knowledge and communication to ensure seamless transitions of care. They draw upon evidence-based practices to promote health and disease prevention to create a safe environment conducive to improving and maintaining the health of individuals, families, or aggregates within a community. When provided with a plan and the resources to achieve and maintain optimal health, patients benefit from a safe environment conducive to healing and a better quality of life.
This assessment provides an opportunity to research the literature and apply evidence to support what communication, teaching, and learning best practices are needed for a hypothetical patient with a selected health care problem.
You are encouraged to complete the Vila Health: Cultural Competence activity prior to completing this assessment. Completing course activities before submitting your first attempt has been shown to make the difference between basic and proficient assessment.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 1: Adapt care based on patient-centered and person-focused factors.
Design patient-centered health interventions and timelines for care delivered through direct clinical interaction that is logged in the CORE ELMS system.
Competency 2: Collaborate with patients and family to achieve desired outcomes.
Use the literature on evaluation as a guide to compare learning session content with best practices.
Competency 3: Create a satisfying patient experience.
Describe what the literature says about effective care coordination and patient satisfaction verses experience, including how to align teaching sessions to the Healthy people 2020 document..
Competency 4: Defend decisions based on the code of ethics for nursing.
Make ethical decisions in designing patient-centered health interventions.
Competency 5: Explain how health care policies affect patient-centered care.
Identify relevant health policy implications for the coordination and continuum of care.
Preparation
In this assessment, you will implement the preliminary care coordination plan yo.
Assessment 3PRINTPatient Discharge Care Planning .docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3
PRINT
Patient Discharge Care Planning
prepare a written analysis of key issues, 6–7 pages in length, applicable to the development of an effective patient discharge care plan.
The Institute of Medicine's 2000 report
To Err Is Human
:
Building a Safer Health System
identified health information technology (HIT) as one avenue to explore to reduce avoidable medical errors. As a result of the IOM report and suggestions for patient advocacy groups, health care organizations are encouraged to act by utilizing HIT to improve patient quality and safety.
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Health care organizations determine outcomes by how patient information is collected, analyzed, and presented, and nurse leaders are taking the lead in using HIT to bridge the gaps in care coordination. This assessment provides an opportunity for you to analyze the effects of HIT support, data reporting, and EHR data collection on effective care planning.
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Apply care coordination models to improve the patient experience, promote population health, and reduce costs.
Explain how HIT can be used to provide a longitudinal, patient-centered care plan across the continuum of care.
Competency 2: Explain the relationship between care coordination and evidence-based data.
Describe ways in which data reporting specific to client behaviors can shape care coordination, care management, clinical efficiency, and interprofessional idea development.
Competency 3: Use health information technology to guide care coordination and organizational practice.
Explain how information collected from client records can be used to positively influence health outcomes.
Competency 4: Communicate effectively with diverse audiences, in an appropriate form and style, consistent with applicable organizational, professional, and scholarly standards.
Write clearly and concisely, using correct grammar and mechanics.
Support main points, claims, and conclusions with relevant and credible evidence, correctly formatting citations and references using APA style.
Reference
Institute of Medicine. (2000).
To err is human: Building a safer health system
. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Competency Map
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Use this online tool to track your performance and progress through your course.
Toggle Drawer
ResourcesHealth Informatics
Mosier, S., & Englebright, J. (2019).
The first step toward reducing documentation: Defining ideal workflows.
CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing, 37
(2), 57–59.
Yang, Y., Bass, E. J., Bowles, K. H., & Sockolow, P. S. (2019).
Impact of home care admission nurses' goals on electronic health record documentation strategies at the point of care.
CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing, 37
(1), 39–46.
SHOW LESS
Writing Resources
You are encou.
Assessment 4 ContextRecall that null hypothesis tests are of.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 4 Context
Recall that null hypothesis tests are of two types: (1) differences between group means and (2) association between variables. In both cases there is a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis. In the group means test, the null hypothesis is that the two groups have equal means, and the alternative hypothesis is that the two groups do not have equal means. In the association between variables type of test, the null hypothesis is that the correlation coefficient between the two variables is zero, and the alternative hypothesis is that the correlation coefficient is not zero.
Notice in each case that the hypotheses are mutually exclusive. If the null is false, the alternative must be true. The purpose of null hypothesis statistical tests is generally to show that the null has a low probability of being true (the p value is less than .05) – low enough that the researcher can legitimately claim it is false. The reason this is done is to support the allegation that the alternative hypothesis is true.
In this context you will be studying the details of the first type of test again, with the added capability of comparing the means among more than two group at a time. This is the same type of test of difference between group means. In variations on this model, the groups can actually be the same people under different conditions. The main idea is that several group mean values are being compared. The groups each have an average score or mean on some variable. The null hypothesis is that the difference between all the group means is zero. The alternative hypothesis is that the difference between the means is not zero. Notice that if the null is false, the alternative must be true. It is first instructive to consider some of the details of groups.
One might ask why we would not use multiple t tests in this situation. For instance, with three groups, why would I not compare groups one and two with a t test, then compare groups one and three, and then compare groups two and three?
The answer can be found in our basic probability review. We are concerned with the probability of a TYPE I error (rejecting a true null hypothesis). We generally set an alpha level of .05, which is the probability of making a TYPE I error. Now consider what happens when we do three t tests. There is .05 probability of making a TYPE I error on the first test, .05 probability of the same error on the second test, and .05 probability on the third test. What happens is that these errors are essentially additive, in that the chances of at least one TYPE I error among the three tests much greater than .05. It is like the increased probability of drawing an ace from a deck of cards when we can make multiple draws.
ANOVA allows us do an "overall" test of multiple groups to determine if there are any differences among groups within the set. Notice that ANOVA does not tell us which groups among the three groups are different from each other. The primary test.
Assessment 3PRINTLetter to the Editor Population Health P.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3
PRINT
Letter to the Editor: Population Health Policy Advocacy
Write a 3–5 page letter to the editor of an academic or professional journal. Your submission should be succinct yet substantive.
Note: Each assessment in this course builds on the work you completed in the previous assessment. Therefore, you must complete the assessments in this course in the order in which they are presented.
Advocating for new policies is an important aspect of the master’s-prepared nurse. For new policies to be compelling they need to be supported by evidence. Supporting data can be used to illustrate why new policies and interventions are needed to help address a specific health issue. Compelling data can help sway the stakeholders and gain support for your policy.
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Another aspect of advocacy is disseminating new policies and interventions outside of the immediate care environment. This can be done by reaching out to professional organizations as well as academic and professional journals. A letter to the editor is one strategy for disseminating information to a wider audience, and to potentially enlist support throughout the wider professional community.
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Design evidence-based advanced nursing care for achieving high-quality population outcomes.
Evaluate the current state of the quality of care and outcomes for a specific issue in a target population.
Justify why a developed policy will be vital in improving the quality of care and outcomes for a specific issue in a target population.
Competency 2: Evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of interprofessional interventions in achieving desired population health outcomes.
Analyze the ways in which interprofessional aspects of a developed policy will support efficient and effective achievement of desired outcomes for the target population.
Competency 3: Analyze population health outcomes in terms of their implications for health policy advocacy.
Analyze how the current state of the quality of care and outcomes for a specific issue in a target population necessitates health policy development and advocacy.
Advocate for policy development in other care settings with regard to a specific issue in a target population.
Competency 4: Communicate effectively with diverse audiences, in an appropriate form and style, consistent with organizational, professional, and scholarly standards.
Communicate in a professional and persuasive manner, writing content clearly and logically with correct use of grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Integrate relevant sources to support assertions, correctly formatting citations and references using APA style.
Competency Map
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Use this online tool to track your performance and progress through your course.
Toggle Drawer
C.
Assessment 3 Instructions Disaster Recovery PlanDevelop a d.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3 Instructions: Disaster Recovery Plan
Develop a disaster recovery plan to lessen health disparities and improve access to community services after a disaster. Then, develop and record an 8-10 slide presentation (PowerPoint preferred) of the plan with audio for the Vila Health system, city officials, and the disaster relief team.
As you begin to prepare this assessment, you are encouraged to complete the Disaster Preparedness and Management activity. The information gained from completing this activity will help you succeed with the assessment as you think through key issues in disaster preparedness and management in the community or workplace. Completing activities is also a way to demonstrate engagement.
Professional Context
Nurses fulfill a variety of roles, and their diverse responsibilities as health care providers extend to the community. The decisions we make daily and in times of crisis often involve the balancing of human rights with medical necessities, equitable access to services, legal and ethical mandates, and financial constraints. When an unanticipated event occurs, such as an accident or natural disaster, issues can arise that complicate decisions about meeting the needs of an individual or group, including understanding and upholding their rights and desires, mediating conflict, and applying established ethical and legal standards of nursing care. As a nurse, you must be knowledgeable about disaster preparedness to safeguard those in your care. You are also accountable for promoting equitable quality of care for community residents.
This assessment provides an opportunity for you to apply the concepts of emergency preparedness, public health assessment, triage, management, and surveillance after a disaster. You will also focus on hospital evacuation and extended displacement periods.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Analyze health risks and health care needs among distinct populations.
Describe the determinants of health and the cultural, social, and economic barriers that impact safety, health, and disaster recovery efforts in a community.
Competency 2: Propose health promotion strategies to improve the health of populations.
Present specific, evidence-based strategies to overcome communication barriers and enhance interprofessional collaboration to improve disaster recovery efforts.
Competency 3: Evaluate health policies, based on their ability to achieve desired outcomes.
Explain how health and governmental policy affect disaster recovery efforts.
Competency 4: Integrate principles of social justice in community health interventions.
Explain how a proposed disaster recovery plan will lessen health disparities and improve access to community services.
Competency 5: Apply professional, scholarly .
Assessment 3 Instructions Professional Product Develop a .docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3 Instructions: Professional Product
Develop a professional product to improve care or the patient experience related to the identified health problem with a 2-4 page summary of intervention findings, evidence, and best-practice basis for the professional product.
Important:
You must complete all of the assessments in order for this course.
For this assessment, you will develop and deliver a professional product to address the health problem defined in your first assessment to improve care and the patient experience. This will be delivered remotely rather than face-to-face to the individual or group (who can be friends and family) that you have identified. Appropriate examples include development of a community education program focused on a particular health issue or a handout to help the elderly and their families understand their Medicare and Medicaid options.
The product must be useful in a practice setting, relevant to your project, and designed to improve some aspect of care or the patient experience.
A brief summary of the findings of your intervention and evidence-based support for your professional product should accompany your product.
Reminder:
For this assessment, you are required to log in
CORE ELMS
the hours that you spend in remote contact with a patient (who could be a friend or family member).
Three hours of remote contact is the minimum
total amount of time required in this course. Planning time is not included and need not be logged.
As a baccalaureate nurse, you can enhance the experience, health, and lives of patients, families, and community members through personal interactions as well as by developing products to educate or improve the care experience. The ability to identify an appropriate product for improving the quality, safety, cost, and experience of care is an important skill. It also allows a BSN-prepared nurse to demonstrate mastery of patient-centered care delivery. These skills are critical as medicine becomes more personalized and nurses advance in their career and practice leadership.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 1: Lead people and processes to improve patient, systems, and population outcomes.
Explain ways in which leadership of people and processes was utilized while designing an intervention and implementation plan.
Competency 2: Make clinical and operational decisions based upon the best available evidence.
Justify decisions related to developing a professional product with relevant research, evidence, and best practices.
Competency 3: Transform processes to improve quality, enhance patient safety, and reduce the cost of care.
Demonstrate process improvements in the quality, safety, or cost of care as a result of a direct clinical intervention and a d.
Assessment 3 Instructions Care Coordination Presentation to Colleag.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3 Instructions: Care Coordination Presentation to Colleagues
Develop a 20-minute presentation for nursing colleagues highlighting the fundamental principles of care coordination. Create a detailed narrative script for your presentation, approximately 4–5 pages in length, and record a video of your presentation.
Nurses have a powerful role in the coordination and continuum of care. All nurses must be cognizant of the care coordination process and how safety, ethics, policy, physiological, and cultural needs affect care and patient outcomes. As a nurse, care coordination is something that should always be considered. Nurses must be aware of factors that impact care coordination and of a continuum of care that utilizes community resources effectively and is part of an ethical framework that represents the professionalism of nurses. Understanding policy elements helps nurses coordinate care effectively.
This assessment provides an opportunity for you to educate your peers on the care coordination process. The assessment also requires you to address change management issues. You are encouraged to complete the Managing Change activity.
Completing course activities before submitting your first attempt has been shown to make the difference between basic and proficient assessment.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 2: Collaborate with patients and family to achieve desired outcomes.
Outline effective strategies for collaborating with patients and their families to achieve desired health outcomes.
Competency 3: Create a satisfying patient experience.
Identify the aspects of change management that directly affect elements of the patient experience essential to the provision of high-quality, patient-centered care.
Competency 4: Defend decisions based on the code of ethics for nursing.
Explain the rationale for coordinated care plans based on ethical decision making.
Competency 5: Explain how health care policies affect patient-centered care.
Identify the potential impact of specific health care policy provisions on outcomes and patient experiences.
Competency 6: Apply professional, scholarly communication strategies to lead patient-centered care.
Raise awareness of the nurse's vital role in the coordination and continuum of care in a video-recorded presentation. Script and reference list are not submitted.
Preparation
Your nurse manager has been observing your effectiveness as a care coordinator and recognizes the importance of educating other staff nurses in care coordination. Consequently, she has asked you to develop a presentation for your colleagues on care coordination basics. By providing them with basic information about the care coordination process, yo.
Assessment 3Essay TIPSSWK405 The taskEssayWhen.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3
Essay TIPS
SWK405
The task
Essay
When preparing to write an essay be sure to read the question. It is helpful to break it down as demonstrated below.
PART 1
Critically analyse the strengths and weaknesses in the delivery of services to remote communities via face to face and virtual service models.
PART 2
Identify within each approach (FACE TO FACE AND VIRTUAL) the challenges for the human services worker and professional development strategies for improving regional and remote skills
In considering each approach select one of the following population groups or service needs.
Essay Structure
My suggestion is to start by identifying the group/population/issue you have selected to work with. You may think about the agency interview and report you have completed in Assessment 2 to inform your choice of service.
In considering each approach select one of the following population groups or service needs.
Your population/issue
Step 1:
Select your population or issue and the type of service to be offered.
Disaster recovery within Australia
Domestic Violence Services for women in remote and regional Australia
Mental Health Services for remote Aboriginal community
Other
What is the service you are providing?
Step 2:
Consider what part/s of the service is suited to face to face or virtual service delivery?
e.g.
Critically Analyse
Step 3: It is important to consider carefully the strengths and weaknesses of each type of service delivery model to remote areas.
When you think about these strengths and weaknesses, some will relate to client outcomes and some will relate to the service provider (logistics, cost, personnel).
Not simply a description but your own critique.
The following questions will help you to focus your reading and develop a critical lens.
Critical Reading
Step 4:
What have some authors written about the advantages and disadvantages of each type of service model?
What do you think about their positions?
Does this fit with the service you have selected for the essay?
Has technology come further since the article was written?
Is there a research that supports the arguments proposed in the literature? Critique the research that supports the author’s argument.
What position do you take in relation to ideas raised in the literature?
Is there a bias in the readings in favour of one type of service delivery over another?
Step 5: Shaping your argument
Consider the following focus questions to shape your argument
Strengths and weakness of face to face service delivery
What is face to face service delivery?
e.g. this could be where staff live and work within the community or where staff undertake remote community visits to deliver services.
What are the benefits of delivering services face to face?
To the client, for the worker
What are the challenges of delivering face to face services to remote areas?
e.g. Cost, staff recruitment and retention, staff skills and resilience, .
Assessment 3 Health Assessment ProfessionalCommunication.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3: Health Assessment
Professional Communication in Nursing 2019: History for Nurse and Patient Interaction – Health Assessment
Scenario 3
Patient 3: History for Nurse and Patient Interaction – Health Assessment
Student (Community – Registered Nurse): Use professional nursing communication
with the patient to conduct a 10 minute health assessment video interview taking into
account the following:
• Introduction – nurse and patient
• Situation – reasons for assessment, allergies, and relevant personal details
• Background – health history, general health and psychosocial status
• Assessment – observations, nutrition/diet, exercise, lifestyle, health beliefs and
values, and cultural/spiritual/religious practices
• Recommendation – confirm health assessment information and implications for
well-being, recommend changes to manage and improve health and suggest
timeframes for any plans
Assessor (Patient – Chester Abioye): You are cooperative, alert and orientated. You
are willing to provide all requested information. You like to ask general questions of the
nurse related to the health assessment and like to know your observations and if they are
within normal limits. You are open to discuss ways to improve your health through
possible changes to your diet, exercise, daily habits, and lifestyle choices.
STUDENT (General Practitioner’s Office – REGISTERED NURSE)
Scenario 3: Patient- Chester Abioye
Chester has come to see a Registered Nurse at his General Practitioner’s Office for
a health assessment. Chester is not very active and feels stress and lonely living
Australia without his family. He has suffered from depression in the past and wants
to improve his health through regular exercise, eating well and by making positive
changes to his lifestyle.
Chester Abioye: Male, height 187 cm; weight 73kg (BMI = 20.9). BP 118/ 70,
HR 86, RR 22, temperature 37.0 C, SaO2 99% on room air.
Assessment 3: Health Assessment
Professional Communication in Nursing 2019: History for Nurse and Patient Interaction – Health Assessment
ASSESSOR (PATIENT )
Scenario 3 Patient 3- Chester Abioye
Biodata
• Chester is a 19 year old man (DOB-14th January 2000) and lives at 97 Leafy
Avenue, Broadfields, 2173 in a share house with 4 other people.
• Chester has a girlfriend that lives in Melbourne who is planning to move to
Broadfields later in the year to be closer to him.
• Chester regularly smokes about a packet (30 cigarettes per day).
• Chester often drinks up to 6 to 10 standard drinks (beer and spirits) when he
catches up with two of his friends once a month.
• Chester was born in Zambia and came to Australia to commence a law degree
but only did 1 year of the degree because he did not enjoy the course. He is now
working at Aldi in the storeroom. He often volunteers to work overtime to save
money to send back to his family.
• Chester mostly stays at home watching television. He rarely exercises because he
finds .
Assessment 3Disaster Plan With Guidelines for Implementation .docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3
Disaster Plan With Guidelines for Implementation: Tool Kit for the Team
Overview: Develop a disaster preparedness tool kit for a community or population. Then, develop a 5-slide presentation for your care coordination team to prepare them to use the tool kit to execute a disaster preparedness plan.
Note: The assessments in this course build upon the work you completed in previous assessments. Therefore, complete the assessments in the order in which they are presented.
Disaster planning is vital to ensuring effective and seamless coordination, throughout the recovery period, among those affected by the disaster and an extensive array of health care providers and services. Care coordination, as part of an overall disaster response effort, helps ensure that victims receive needed care as access to providers and services are gradually restored over time.
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This assessment provides an opportunity for you to develop a disaster preparedness tool kit for a community or population of your choice, and prepare your care coordination team to use the tool kit to execute that plan.
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Propose a project for change, for a community or population, within a care coordination setting.
Identify the key elements of a disaster preparedness tool kit for providing effective care coordination to a community or population.
Competency 2: Align care coordination resources with community health care needs.
Assess the care coordination needs of a community or population in a disaster situation.
Identify the personnel and material resources needed in an emergency to provide the necessary coordinated care.
Competency 3: Apply project management best practices to affect ethical practice and support positive health outcomes in the delivery of safe, culturally competent care in compliance with applicable regulatory requirements.
Describe standards and best practice methods for safeguarding the provision of ethical, culturally-competent care in challenging circumstances.
Identify applicable local, national, or international regulatory requirements governing disaster relief that influence coordinated care.
Competency 4: Identify ways in which the care coordinator leader supports collaboration between key stakeholders in the care coordination process.
Analyze the interagency and interprofessional relationships essential to coordinated care in a disaster.
Competency 5: Communicate effectively with diverse audiences, in an appropriate form and style, consistent with applicable organizational, professional, and scholarly standards.
Prepare a care coordination team to use a disaster preparedness tool kit for implementing a disaster preparedness project plan.
Support main points, arguments, and conclusions with relevant and credible ev.
Assessment 3 ContextYou will review the theory, logic, and a.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 3 Context
You will review the theory, logic, and application of t-tests. The t-test is a basic inferential statistic often reported in psychological research. You will discover that t-tests, as well as analysis of variance (ANOVA), compare group means on some quantitative outcome variable.
Recall that null hypothesis tests are of two types: (1) differences between group means and (2) association between variables. In both cases there is a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis. In the group means test, the null hypothesis is that the two groups have equal means, and the alternative hypothesis is that the two groups do not have equal means. In the association between variables type of test, the null hypothesis is that the correlation coefficient between the two variables is zero, and the alternative hypothesis is that the correlation coefficient is not zero.
Notice in each case that the hypotheses are mutually exclusive. If the null is false, the alternative must be true. The purpose of null hypothesis statistical tests is generally to show that the null has a low probability of being true (the p value is less than .05) – low enough that the researcher can legitimately claim it is false. The reason this is done is to support the allegation that the alternative hypothesis is true.
In this context you will be studying the details of the first type of test. This is the test of difference between group means. In variations on this model, the two groups can actually be the same people under different conditions, or one of the groups may be assigned a fixed theoretical value. The main idea is that two mean values are being compared. The two groups each have an average score or mean on some variable. The null hypothesis is that the difference between the means is zero. The alternative hypothesis is that the difference between the means is not zero. Notice that if the null is false, the alternative must be true. It is first instructive to consider some of the details of groups. Means, and difference between them.
Null Hypothesis Significance Test
The most common forms of the Null Hypothesis Significance Test (NHST) are three types of t tests, and the test of significance of a correlation. The NHST also extends to more complex tests, such as ANOVA, which will be discussed separately. Below, the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are given for each of the following tests. It would be a valuable use of your time to commit the information below to memory. Once this is done, then when we refer to the tests later, you will have some structure to make sense of the more detailed explanations.
1. One-sample t test: The question in this test is whether a single sample group mean is significantly different from some stated or fixed theoretical value - the fixed value is called a parameter.
· Null Hypothesis: The difference between the sample group mean and the fixed value is zero in the population.
· Alternative hypothesis: T.
Assessment 2
Quality Improvement Proposal
Overview:
Write a quality improvement proposal, 5–7 pages in length, that provides your recommendations for expanding a hospital's HIT to include quality metrics that will help the organization qualify as an accountable care organization.
Health care has undergone a transformation since the release of the Institute of Medicine's 2000 report
To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System.
The report highlighted medical errors as a contributing factor leading to poor patient outcomes. The Institute of Medicine challenged organizations to implement evidence-based performance improvement strategies in order to improve patient quality and safety. Multiple governmental and regulatory agencies, such as the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) and the Agency for Healthcare Quality and Research (AHRQ), vowed to strengthen and improve incentives for participation, safety, quality, and efficiency in accountable care organizations (ACOs).
Health information technology (HIT) performs an essential role in improving health outcomes of individuals, the community, and populations. Health organizations, consumer advocacy groups, and regulatory committees have made a commitment to explore current and future opportunities that HIT offers to continue momentum to meet the Institute of Medicine's goal of improving safety and quality.
Understanding HIT is important to improving individual, community, and population access to health care and health information. HIT enables quick and easy access to information for both patients and providers. Accessible information has been shown to improve the patient care experience and reduce redundancies, thereby reducing health care costs.
This assessment provides an opportunity for you to make recommendations for expanding a hospital's HIT in ways that will help the hospital qualify as an ACO.
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 2: Explain the relationship between care coordination and evidence-based data.
Recommend ways to expand an organization's HIT to include quality metrics.
Identify potential problems that can arise with data gathering systems and outputs.
Competency 3: Use health information technology to guide care coordination and organizational practice.
Describe the main focus of information gathering in health care and how it contributes to guiding the development of organizational practice.
Competency 4: Communicate effectively with diverse audiences, in an appropriate form and style, consistent with applicable organizational, professional, and scholarly standards.
Write clearly and concisely, using correct grammar and mechanics.
Support main points, claims, and conclusions with relevant and credible evidence, correctly formatting citations and references using APA style.
Reference
.
Assessment 2by Jaquetta StevensSubmission dat e 14 - O.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 2
by Jaquetta Stevens
Submission dat e : 14 - Oct- 2018 03:06PM (UT C- 0500)
Submission ID: 101964 1991
File name : Stevens_J_Assessment_2.do c (66K)
Word count : 1894
Charact e r count : 134 64
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ORIGINALITY REPORT
PRIMARY SOURCES
Submitted to Capella Education Company
St udent Paper
www.nivel.nl
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Submitted to EDMC
St udent Paper
Submitted to University of Abertay Dundee
St udent Paper
uncch.pure.elsevier.com
Int ernet Source
Matthew A. Jarrett, Anna Van Meter, Eric A.
Youngstrom, Dane C. Hilton, Thomas H.
Ollendick. "Evidence-Based Assessment of
ADHD in Youth Using a Receiver Operating
Characteristic Approach", Journal of Clinical
Child & Adolescent Psychology, 2016
Publicat ion
eprints.bbk.ac.uk
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www.jove.com
Int ernet Source
"Handbook of Childhood Psychopathology and
Developmental Disabilities Assessment",
Springer Nature America, Inc, 2018
Publicat ion
espace.library.uq.edu.au
Int ernet Source
Submitted to Marist College
St udent Paper
openaccess.city.ac.uk
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www.raikesf oundation.org
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www.medicalnewstoday.com
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tigerprints.clemson.edu
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www.livestrong.com
Int ernet Source
Assessment 2by Jaquetta StevensAssessment 2ORIGINALITY REPORTPRIMARY SOURCES
Running head: EVALUATION OF TECHNICAL QUALITY 8
Assessment 2: Evaluation of Technical Quality
This worksheet contains three sections:
· Section One: Purpose and Intended Population of Selected Test.
· Section Two: Technical Review - Reliability of Selected Test.
· Section Three: Technical Review - Validity of Selected Test.
· Section Four: Synthesis and Conclusion about Selected Test’s Psychometrics.
· Section Five: Resources (APA Style).
Section One: Purpose and Intended Population of Selected Test
Use the Mental Measurements Yearbook reviews, publisher Web sites, and peer-reviewed journal articles to obtain information about your one selected test*.
Selected Test
Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment
Purpose of Test
The purpose of ASEBA is to measure mental capabilities, the ability to function, and to target specific issues (Achenbach, 2014).
Intended Population
18 mos.- 90 years old
* in some cases, you may find limited published work on the most recent version of a.
Assessment 2PRINTBiopsychosocial Population Health Policy .docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 2
PRINT
Biopsychosocial Population Health Policy Proposal
Develop a 2–4-page proposal for a policy that should help to improve health care and outcomes for your target population.
Note: Each assessment in this course builds on the work you completed in the previous assessment. Therefore, you must complete the assessments in this course in the order in which they are presented.
Cost and access to care continue to be main concerns for patients and providers. As technology improves our ability to care for and improve outcomes in patients with chronic and complex illnesses, questions of cost and access become increasingly important. As a master’s-prepared nurse, you must be able to develop policies that will ensure the delivery of care that is effective and can be provided in an ethical and equitable manner.
SHOW LESS
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Design evidence-based advanced nursing care for achieving high-quality population outcomes.
Propose a policy and guidelines that will lead to improved outcomes and quality of care for a specific issue in a target population.
Competency 2: Evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of interprofessional interventions in achieving desired population health outcomes.
Analyze the potential for an interprofessional approach to implementing a proposed policy to increase the efficiency or effectiveness of the care setting to achieve high quality outcomes.
Competency 3: Analyze population health outcomes in terms of their implications for health policy advocacy.
Advocate the need for a proposed policy in the context of current outcomes and quality of care for a specific issue in a target population.
Competency 4: Communicate effectively with diverse audiences, in an appropriate form and style, consistent with organizational, professional, and scholarly standards.
Communicate proposal in a professional and persuasive manner, writing content clearly and logically with correct use of grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Integrate relevant sources to support assertions, correctly formatting citations and references using APA style.
Competency Map
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Use this online tool to track your performance and progress through your course.
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ContextAs a master's-prepared nurse, you have a valuable viewpoint and voice with which to advocate for policy developments. As a nurse leader and health care practitioner, often on the front lines of helping individuals and populations, you are able to articulate and advocate for the patient more than any other professional group in health care. This is especially true of populations that may be underserved, underrepresented, or are otherwise lacking a voice. By advocating for and developing policies, you are able to help drive improvements in outcomes for .
Assessment 2 Instructions Ethical and Policy Factors in Care Coordi.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 2 Instructions: Ethical and Policy Factors in Care Coordination
Select a community organization or group that you feel would be interested in learning about ethical and policy issues that affect the coordination of care. Then, develop and record a 10-12-slide, 20-minute presentation, with audio, intended for that audience. Create a detailed narrative script for your presentation, 4-5 pages in length.
As coordinators of care, nurses must be aware of the code of ethics for nurses and health policy issues that affect the coordination of care within the context of the community. To help patients navigate the continuum of care, nurses must be proficient at interpreting and applying the code of ethics for nurses and health policy, specifically, the Affordable Care Act (ACA). Being knowledgeable about ethical and policy issues helps ensure that care coordinators are upholding ethical standards and navigating policy issues that affect patient care.
This assessment provides an opportunity for you to develop a presentation for a local community organization of your choice, which provides an overview of ethical standards and relevant policy issues that affect the coordination of care. Completing this assessment will strengthen your understanding of ethical issues and policies related to the coordination and continuum of care, and will empower you to be a stronger advocate and nursing professional.
It would be an excellent choice to complete the Vila Health: Ethical Decision Making activity prior to developing the presentation. The activity provides a helpful update on the ethical principles that will help with success in this assessment.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:
Competency 4: Defend decisions based on the code of ethics for nursing.
Assess the impact of the code of ethics for nurses on the coordination and continuum of care.
Competency 5: Explain how health care policies affect patient-centered care.
Explain how governmental policies related to the health and/or safety of a community affect the coordination of care.
Identify national, state, and local policy provisions that raise ethical questions or dilemmas for care coordination.
Competency 6: Apply professional, scholarly communication strategies to lead patient-centered care.
Communicate key ethical and policy issues in a presentation affecting the coordination and continuum of care for a selected community organization or support group. Either speaker notes or audio voice-over are included.
Preparation
Your nurse manager at the community care center is well connected and frequently speaks to a variety of community organizations and groups. She has noticed the good work you are doing in your new care coordination role and respects your speaki.
Assessment 2-Analysing factual texts This assignment re.docxgalerussel59292
Assessment 2
-Analysing factual texts
This assignment requires students to assess and critically analyse one or two of the key issues, concepts, keywords or themes raised across the module in some detail. The assignment must address the above by paying specific reference to examples drawn from one of the following factual formats listed below.
Students must apply a concept to a textual example
:-Broadcast news (eg The Channel 4 News, PM)
-Political discussion show (eg Question Time, Any Questions)-
Current affairs (eg Newsnight, Today)-
The talk show (eg The Jeremy Kyle Show)-
Documentary (eg Dispatches, The Report)-
Reality television (eg The X-Factor)-
Lifestyle television (eg How to Look Good Naked)
The essay should focus principally on one concept. It can refer to others in passing if there is significant overlap -eg if discussing impartiality in broadcast news it may be appropriate to briefly mention balance or objectivity. •Similarly, the essay should focus principally on one television, radio example.•Students are encouraged to engage with critical debates that may take place around their chosen example (eg a newspaper’s reaction to a broadcast).•If your analysis refers to specific episodes, you must ensure you reference the text in full (eg original date of airing, URL for online viewing, channel name, etc).•Be careful not to dilute your analysis by trying to cover lots of areas superficially.•The essay requires students to be critical rather than descriptive. Describing the narrative of a text achieves very little in isolation other than to pad out the word count inefficiently.•Similarly, long general historiographies of concepts or formats are seldom conducive to critical analysis. Significant moments or developments are acceptable providing they pertain to the selected example.•The best work will demonstrate knowledge of the subjects, contextualising relevant themes and issues in relation to historical shifts and the contemporary television landscape.•The assignment should consist of your own analysis of a media text rather than paraphrasing an article by an established author. Higher grades will be awarded to work that is able to apply an argument/framework from one area and apply it to a different example –eg taking the work of Lunt and Stenner on The Jerry Springer Show and applying it to The Jeremy Kyle Show or Higgins’ work on newspapers and applying it to television news.•The essay should be 2500 words. It can go 10% either side of this target without penalty. grades can be penalised for failing to adhere to this target.Your essays must include critical reference to definitions of your chosen concepts from legitimate academic sources, either from within the recommended course reading or from your own independent research. Your assignments must be written entirely in your own words (except for properly acknowledged quotations). A bibliography must be appended. We remind you about, and emphasise the importance of.
Assessment 2:
Description/Focus
Essay
Value
50%
Due Date
Midnight Sunday 2 (Week 12)
Length
2500 words
Task: Human services practitioners work across many domains of practice including direct work with individuals, groups and communities.
1. Critically examine the policy or policies that you consider impact upon a client group and suggest ways that policy could be changed to improve the life outcomes for those with whom you are working.
2. Develop a framework that you would adopt for influencing policy change that aligns with your professional values, standards and ethics.
Presentation: The document will be typed in a word document, 12 pt. Font, 1½ or Double spacing
Assessment criteria:
· Critical analysis of social policy
· Application of theory to practice
· Adherence to academic conventions of writing
(eg referencing; writing style)
· At least 8 references. Format APA 6th referencing.
Running head: NETWORK AND WORKFLOW FOR A DATA ANALYTICS COMPANY 1
NETWORK AND WORKFLOW FOR A DATA ANALYTICS COMPANY 2
Network and Workflow for a Data Analytics Company on Ssports
Student Name Nezar Al Massad
Institution Name Dr. Mark O'Connell
Network and Workflow for a Ddata Analytics Company on Ssports.
A company’s network and workflow play a major roles in its performance and growth. Different companies consist of rely on different networks and workflows depending on the services/tasks they are providing and the number of workers and members of staff. A network tends to connect workers and members of staff at different levels of the company. This network tends to create a good and effective workflow within the company, hence a company network and workflow go hand in hand. When creating a network and a workflow of a company, the workers and members of staff working duration must be considered in order to achieve a company objective (Moretti, 2017).Also, the mode of employment which may be permanent or temporary/laying down of workers within a short period of time, to a large extent determines a company’s network and workflow. The change of an organizational requirement due to growth and expansion creates a need for a company to adapt a new network and workflow. A network in company plays a vital role of guiding how the company should run its operations. Comment by Mark O'Connell: Duration?? Comment by Mark O'Connell: What? Laying down?? Comment by Mark O'Connell: OK so stop educating us about the factors that determine a company’s network and tell us about YOUR network Comment by Mark O'Connell: Too obvious
My company in the world requires data analysts for to perform analysisdata analysis allowing them to and make important strategic decisions and identify opportunities in the market, and therefore data analysts are becoming very important vital to our company. Despite this, there are many companies coming u.
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Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS AND LEGI.docx
1. AN
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
PRINCIPLES
OF
MORALS
AND
LEGISLATION
by
Jeremy Bentham
1781CHAPTER I.
OF THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY.
I. Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two
sovereign masters,
pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we
ought to do, as
well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the
standard of right
and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are
fastened to
their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all
we think:
every effort we can make to throw off our subjection, will serve
but to
demonstrate and confirm it. In words a man may pretend to
abjure their
empire: but in reality he will remain. subject to it all the while.
The
principle of utility[1] recognizes this subjection, and assumes it
for the
foundation of that system, the object of which is to rear the
fabric of
felicity by the hands of reason and of law. Systems which
attempt to
2. question it, deal in sounds instead of sense, in caprice instead of
reason,
in darkness instead of light.
But enough of metaphor and declamation: it is not by such
means that moral
science is to be improved.
II. The principle of utility is the foundation of the present work:
it will
be proper therefore at the outset to give an explicit and
determinate
account of what is meant by it. By the principle[2] of utility is
meant that
principle which approves or disapproves of every action
whatsoever.
according to the tendency it appears to have to augment or
diminish the
happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is
the same
thing in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness. I
say of every
action whatsoever, and therefore not only of every action of a
private
individual, but of every measure of government.
III. By utility is meant that property in any object, whereby it
tends to
produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness, (all
this in the
present case comes to the same thing) or (what comes again to
the same
thing) to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or
unhappiness to
the party whose interest is considered: if that party be the
community in
general, then the happiness of the community: if a particular
individual,
then the happiness of that individual.
3. IV. The interest of the community is one of the most general
expressions
that can occur in the phraseology of morals: no wonder that the
meaning of
it is often lost. When it has a meaning, it is this. The community
is a
fictitious body, composed of the individual persons who are
considered as
constituting as it were its members. The interest of the
community then is,
what is it? -- the sum of the interests of the several members
who compose
it.
V. It is in vain to talk of the interest of the community, without
understanding what is the interest[3] of the individual. A thing
is said to
promote the interest, or to be for the interest, of an individual,
when it
tends to add to the sum total of his pleasures: or, what comes to
the same
thing, to diminish the sum total of his pains.
VI. An action then may be said to be conformable to then
principle of
utility, or, for shortness sake, to utility, (meaning with respect
to the
community at large) when the tendency it has to augment the
happiness of the
community is greater than any it has to diminish it.
VII. A measure of government (which is but a particular kind of
action,
performed by a particular person or persons) may be said to be
conformable
to or dictated by the principle of utility, when in like manner
the tendency
which it has to augment the happiness of the community is
greater than any
4. which it has to diminish it.
VIII. When an action, or in particular a measure of government,
is supposed
by a man to be conformable to the principle of utility, it may be
convenient, for the purposes of discourse, to imagine a kind of
law or
dictate, called a law or dictate of utility: and to speak of the
action in
question, as being conformable to such law or dictate.
IX. A man may be said to be a partizan of the principle of
utility, when the
approbation or disapprobation he annexes to any action, or to
any measure,
is determined by and proportioned to the tendency which he
conceives it to
have to augment or to diminish the happiness of the community:
or in other
words, to its conformity or unconformity to the laws or dictates
of utility.
X. Of an action that is conformable to the principle of utility
one may
always say either that it is one that ought to be done, or at least
that it
is not one that ought not to be done. One may say also, that it is
right it
should be done; at least that it is not wrong it should be done:
that it is
a right action; at least that it is not a wrong action. When thus
interpreted, the words ought, and right and wrong and others of
that stamp,
have a meaning: when otherwise, they have none.
XI. Has the rectitude of this principle been ever formally
contested? It
should seem that it had, by those who have not known what they
have been
meaning. Is it susceptible of any direct proof? it should seem
5. not: for that
which is used to prove every thing else, cannot itself be proved:
a chain of
proofs must have their commencement somewhere. To give such
proof is as
impossible as it is needless.
XII. Not that there is or ever has been that human creature at
breathing,
however stupid or perverse, who has not on many, perhaps on
most occasions
of his life, deferred to it. By the natural constitution of the
human frame,
on most occasions of their lives men in general embrace this
principle,
without thinking of it: if not for the ordering of their own
actions, yet
for the trying of their own actions, as well as of those of other
men. There
have been, at the same time, not many perhaps, even of the most
intelligent,
who have been disposed to embrace it purely and without
reserve. There are
even few who have not taken some occasion or other to quarrel
with it,
either on account of their not understanding always how to
apply it, or on
account of some prejudice or other which they were afraid to
examine into,
or could not bear to part with. For such is the stuff that man is
made of:
in principle and in practice, in a right track and in a wrong one,
the
rarest of all human qualities is consistency.
XIII. When a man attempts to combat the principle of utility, it
is with
reasons drawn, without his being aware of it, from that very
6. principle
itself.[4] His arguments, if they prove any thing, prove not that
the
principle is wrong, but that, according to the applications he
supposes to
be made of it, it is misapplied. Is it possible for a man to move
the earth?
Yes; but he must first find out another earth to stand upon.
XIV. To disprove the propriety of it by arguments is impossible;
but, from
the causes that have been mentioned, or from some confused or
partial view
of it, a man may happen to be disposed not to relish it. Where
this is the
case, if he thinks the settling of his opinions on such a subject
worth the
trouble, let him take the following steps, and at length, perhaps,
he may
come to reconcile himself to it.
1. Let him settle with himself, whether he would wish to discard
this
principle altogether; if so, let him consider what it is that all his
reasonings (in matters of politics especially) can amount to?
2. If he would, let him settle with himself, whether he would
judge and act
without any principle, or whether there is any other he would
judge an act
by?
3. If there be, let him examine and satisfy himself whether the
principle he
thinks he has found is really any separate intelligible principle;
or
whether it be not a mere principle in words, a kind of phrase,
which at
bottom expresses neither more nor less than the mere averment
of his own
7. unfounded sentiments; that is, what in another person he might
be apt to
call caprice?
4. If he is inclined to think that his own approbation or
disapprobation,
annexed to the idea of an act, without any regard to its
consequences, is a
sufficient foundation for him to judge and act upon, let him ask
himself
whether his sentiment is to be a standard of right and wrong,
with respect
to every other man, or whether every man's sentiment has the
same privilege
of being a standard to itself?
5. In the first case, let him ask himself whether his principle is
not
despotical, and hostile to all the rest of human race?
6. In the second case, whether it is not anarchial, and whether at
this rate
there are not as many different standards of right and wrong as
there are
men? and whether even to the same man, the same thing, which
is right
to-day, may not (without the least change in its nature) be
wrong to-morrow?
and whether the same thing is not right and wrong in the same
place at the
same time? and in either case, whether all argument is not at an
end? and
whether, when two men have said, "I like this", and "I don't like
it", they
can (upon such a principle) have any thing more to say?
7. If he should have said to himself, No: for that the sentiment
which he
proposes as a standard must be grounded on reflection, let him
say on what
8. particulars the reflection is to turn? if on particulars having
relation to
the utility of the act, then let him say whether this is not
deserting his
own principle, and borrowing assistance from that very one in
opposition to
which he sets it up: or if not on those particulars, on what other
particulars?
8. If he should be for compounding the matter, and adopting his
own
principle in part, and the principle of utility in part, let him say
how far
he will adopt it?
9. When he has settled with himself where he will stop, then let
him ask
himself how he justifies to himself the adopting it so far? and
why he will
not adopt it any farther?
10. Admitting any other principle than the principle of utility to
be a
right principle, a principle that it is right for a man to pursue;
admitting
(what is not true) that the word right can have a meaning
without reference
to utility, let him say whether there is any such thing as a
motive that a
man can have to pursue the dictates of it: if there is, let him say
what
that motive is, and how it is to be distinguished from those
which enforce
the dictates of utility: if not, then lastly let him say what it is
this
other principle can be good for?
1. Note by the Author, July 1822.
To this denomination has of late been added, or substituted, the
greatest
9. happiness or greatest felicity principle: this for shortness,
instead of
saying at length that principle which states the greatest
happiness of all
those whose interest is in question, as being the right and
proper, and only
right and proper and universally desirable, end of human action:
of human
action in every situation, and in particular in that of a
functionary or set
of functionaries exercising the powers of Government. The
word utility does
not so clearly point to the ideas of pleasure and pain as the
words
happiness and felicity do: nor does it lead us to the
consideration of the
number, of the interests affected; to the number, as being the
circumstance,
which contributes, in the largest proportion, to the formation of
the
standard here in question; the standard of right and wrong, by
which alone
the propriety of human conduct, in every situation, can with
propriety be
tried. This want of a sufficiently manifest connexion between
the ideas of
happiness and pleasure on the one hand, and the idea of utility
on the
other, I have every now and then found operating, and with but
too much
efficiency, as a bar to the acceptance, that might otherwise have
been
given, to this principle.
2. The word principle is derived from the Latin principium:
which seems to
be compounded of the two words primus, first, or chief, and
10. cipium a
termination which seems to be derived from capio, to take, as in
mancipium,
municipium; to which are analogous, auceps, forceps, and
others. It is a
term of very vague and very extensive signification: it is
applied to any
thing which is conceived to serve as a foundation or beginning
to any series
of operations: in some cases, of physical operations; but of
mental
operations in the present case.
The principle here in question may be taken for an act of the
mind; a
sentiment; a sentiment of approbation; a sentiment which, when
applied to an
action, approves of its utility, as that quality of it by which the
measure
of approbation or disapprobation bestowed upon it ought to be
governed.
3. Interest is one of those words, which not having any superior
genus,
cannot in the ordinary way be defined.
4. "The principle of utility, (I have heard it said) is a dangerous
principle: it is dangerous on certain occasions to consult it."
This is as
much as to say, what? that it is not consonant to utility, to
consult
utility: in short, that it is not consulting it, to consult it.
Addition by the Author, July 1822.
Not long after the publication of the Fragment on Government,
anno 1776, in
which, in the character of all-comprehensive and all-
commanding principle
the principle of utility was brought to view, one person by
whom observation
11. to the above effect was made was Alexander Wedderburn, at
that time Attorney
or Solicitor General, afterwards successively Chief Justice of
the Common
Pleas, and Chancellor of England, under the successive titles of
Lord
Loughborough and Earl of Rosslyn. It was made -- not indeed in
my hearing,
but in the hearing of a person by whom it was almost
immediately
communicated to me. So far from being self-contradictory, it
was a shrewd
and perfectly true one. By that distinguished functionary, the
state of the
Government was thoroughly understood: by the obscure
individual, at that
time not so much as supposed to be so: his disquisitions had not
been as yet
applied, with any thing like a comprehensive view, to the field
of
Constitutional Law, nor therefore to those features of the
English
Government, by which the greatest happiness of the ruling one
with or
without that of a favoured few, are now so plainly seen to be the
only ends
to which the course of it has at any time been directed. The
principle of
utility was an appellative, at that time employed by me, as it
had been by
others, to designate that which, in a more perspicuous and
instructive
manner, may, as above, be designated by the name of the
greatest happiness
principle. "This principle (said Wedderburn) is a dangerous
one." Saying so,
12. he said that which, to a certain extent, is strictly true: a
principle,
which lays down, as the only right and justifiable end of
Government, the
greatest happiness of the greatest number -- how can it be
denied to be a
dangerous one? dangerous it unquestionably is, to every
government which has
for its actual end or object, the greatest happiness of a certain
one, with
or without the addition of some comparatively small number of
others, whom
it is matter of pleasure or accommodation to him to admit, each
of them, to
a share in the concern, on the footing of so many junior
partners. Dangerous
it therefore really was, to the interest -- the sinister interest --
of all
those functionaries, himself included, whose interest it was, to
maximize
delay, vexation, and expense, in judicial and other modes of
procedure, for
the sake of the profit, extractible out of the expense. In a
Government
which had for its end in view the greatest happiness of the
greatest number,
Alexander Wedderburn might have been Attorney General and
then Chancellor:
but he would not have been Attorney General with £15,000 a
year, nor
Chancellor, with a peerage with a veto upon all justice, with
£25,000 a
year, and with 500 sinecures at his disposal, under the name of
Ecclesiastical Benefices, besides et cæteras.
CHAPTER II.
OF PRINCIPLES ADVERSE TO THAT OF UTILITY.
13. I. If the principle of utility be a right principle to be governed
by, and
that in all cases, it follows from what has been just observed,
that
whatever principle differs from it in any case must necessarily
be a wrong
one. To prove any other principle, therefore, to be a wrong one,
there needs
no more than just to show it to be what it is, a principle of
which the
dictates are in some point or other different from those of the
principle of
utility: to state it is to confute it.
II. A principle may be different from that of utility in two ways:
1. By
being constantly opposed to it: this is the case with a principle
which may
be termed the principle of asceticism.[1] 2. By being sometimes
opposed to
it, and sometimes not, as it may happen: this is the case with
another,
which may be termed the principle of sympathy and antipathy.
III. By the principle of asceticism I mean that principle, which,
like the
principle of utility, approves or disapproves of any action,
according to
the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish
the happiness
of the party whose interest is in question; but in an inverse
manner:
approving of actions in as far as they tend to diminish his
happiness;
disapproving of them in as far as they tend to augment it.
IV. It is evident that any one who reprobates any the least
particle of
pleasure, as such, from whatever source derived, is pro tanto a
14. partizan of
the principle of asceticism. It is only upon that principles and
not from
the principle of utility, that the most abominable pleasure which
the vilest
of malefactors ever reaped from his crime would be to be
reprobated, if it
stood alone. The case is, that it never does stand alone; but is
necessarily
followed by such a quantity of pain (or, what comes to the same
thing, such
a chance for a certain quantity of pain) that, the pleasure in
comparison of
it, is as nothing: and this is the true and sole, but perfectly
sufficient,
reason for making it a ground for punishment.
V. There are two classes of men of very different complexions,
by whom the
principle of asceticism appears to have been embraced; the one
a set of
moralists, the other a set of religionists. Different accordingly
have been
the motives which appears to have recommended it to the notice
of these
different parties. Hope, that is the prospect of pleasure, seems
to have
animated the former: hope, the aliment of philosophic pride: the
hope of
honour and reputation at the hands of men. Fear, that is the
prospect of
pain, the latter: fear, the offspring of superstitious fancy: the
fear of
future punishment at the hands of a splenetic and revengeful
Deity. I say in
this case fear: for of the invisible future, fear is more powerful
than
15. hope. These circumstances characterize the two different parties
among the
partisans of the principle of asceticism; the parties and their
motives
different, the principle the same.
VI. The religious party, however, appear to have carried it
farther than the
philosophical: they have acted more consistently and less
wisely. The
philosophical party have scarcely gone farther than to reprobate
pleasure:
the religious party have frequently gone so far as to make it a
matter of
merit and of duty to court pain. The philosophical party have
hardly gone
farther than the making pain a matter of indifference. It is no
evil, they
have said: they have not said, it is a good. They have not so
much as
reprobated all pleasure in the lump. They have discarded only
what they have
called the gross; that is, such as are organical, or of which the
origin is
easily traced up to such as are organical: they have even
cherished and
magnified the refined. Yet this, however, not under the name of
pleasure: to
cleanse itself from the sordes of its impure original, it was
necessary it
should change its name: the honourable, the glorious, the
reputable, the
becoming, the honestum, the decorum it was to be called: in
short, any thing
but pleasure.
VII. From these two sources have flowed the doctrines from it
which the
16. sentiments of the bulk of mankind have all along received a
tincture of this
principle; some from the philosophical, some from the religious,
some from
both. Men of education more frequently from the philosophical,
as more
suited to the elevation of their sentiments: the vulgar more
frequently from
the superstitious, as more suited to the narrowness of their
intellect,
undilated by knowledge and to the abjectness of their condition,
continually
open to the attacks of fear. The tinctures, however, derived from
the two
sources, would naturally intermingle, insomuch that a man
would not always
know by which of them he was most influenced: and they would
often serve to
corroborate and enliven one another. It was this conformity that
made a kind
of alliance between parties of a complexion otherwise so
dissimilar: and
disposed them to unite upon various occasions against the
common enemy, the
partizan of the principle of utility, whom they joined in
branding with the
odious name of Epicurean.
VIII. The principle of asceticism, however, with whatever
warmth it may have
been embraced by its partizans as a rule of Private conduct,
seems not to
have been carried to any considerable length, when applied to
the business
of government. In a few instances it has been carried a little
way by the
philosophical party: witness the Spartan regimen. Though then,
17. perhaps, it
maybe considered as having been a measure of security: and an
application,
though a precipitate and perverse application, of the principle of
utility.
Scarcely in any instances, to any considerable length, by the
religious: for
the various monastic orders, and the societies of the Quakers,
Dumplers,
Moravians, and other religionists, have been free societies,
whose regimen
no man has been astricted to without the intervention of his own
consent.
Whatever merit a man may have thought there would be in
making himself
miserable, no such notion seems ever to have occurred to any of
them, that
it may be a merit, much less a duty, to make others miserable:
although it
should seem, that if a certain quantity of misery were a thing so
desirable,
it would not matter much whether it were brought by each man
upon himself,
or by one man upon another. It is true, that from the same
source from
whence, among the religionists, the attachment to the principle
of
asceticism took its rise, flowed other doctrines and practices,
from which
misery in abundance was produced in one man by the
instrumentality of
another: witness the holy wars, and the persecutions for
religion. But the
passion for producing misery in these cases proceeded upon
some special
ground: the exercise of it was confined to persons of particular
18. descriptions: they were tormented, not as men, but as heretics
and infidels.
To have inflicted the same miseries on their fellow believers
and
fellow-sectaries, would have been as blameable in the eyes even
of these
religionists, as in those of a partizan of the principle of utility.
For a
man to give himself a certain number of stripes was indeed
meritorious: but
to give the same number of stripes to another man, not
consenting, would
have been a sin. We read of saints, who for the good of their
souls, and the
mortification of their bodies, have voluntarily yielded
themselves a prey to
vermin: but though many persons of this class have wielded the
reins of
empire, we read of none who have set themselves to work, and
made laws on
purpose, with a view of stocking the body politic with the breed
of
highwaymen, housebreakers, or incendiaries. If at any time they
have
suffered the nation to be preyed upon by swarms of idle
pensioners, or
useless placemen, it has rather been from negligence and
imbecility, than
from any settled plan for oppressing and plundering of the
people. If at any
time they have sapped the sources of national wealth, by
cramping commerce,
and driving the inhabitants into emigration, it has been with
other views,
and in pursuit of other ends. If they have declaimed against the
pursuit of
19. pleasure, and the use of wealth, they have commonly stopped at
declamation:
they have not, like Lycurgus, made express ordinances for the
purpose of
banishing the precious metals. If they have established idleness
by a law,
it has been not because idleness, the mother of vice and misery,
is itself a
virtue, but because idleness (say they) is the road to holiness. If
under
the notion of fasting, they have joined in the plan of confining
their
subjects to a diet, thought by some to be of the most nourishing
and
prolific nature, it has been not for the sake of making them
tributaries to
the nations by whom that diet was to be supplied, but for the
sake of
manifesting their own power, and exercising the obedience of
the people. If
they have established, or suffered to be established,
punishments for the
breach of celibacy, they have done no more than comply with
the petitions of
those deluded rigorists, who, dupes to the ambitious and deep-
laid policy of
their rulers, first laid themselves under that idle obligation by a
vow.
IX. The principle of asceticism seems originally to have been
the reverie
of certain hasty speculators, who having perceived, or fancied,
that
certain pleasures, when reaped in certain circumstances, have,
at the
long run, been attended with pains more than equivalent to
them, took
20. occasion to quarrel with every thing that offered itself under the
name of
pleasure. Having then got thus far, and having forgot the point
which
they set out from, they pushed on, and went so much further as
to think
it meritorious to fall in love with pain. Even this, we see, is at
bottom but
the principle of utility misapplied.
X. The principle of utility is capable of being consistently
pursued; and it
is but tautology to say, that the more consistently it is pursued,
the
better it must ever be for human-kind. The principle of
asceticism never
was, nor ever can be, consistently pursued by any living
creature. Let but
one tenth part of the inhabitants of this earth pursue it
consistently, and
in a day's time they will have turned it into a hell.
XI. Among principles adverse to that of utility, that which at
this day
seems to have most influence in matters of government, is what
may be called
the principle of sympathy and antipathy.[2] By the principle of
sympathy and
antipathy, I mean that principle which approves or disapproves
of certain
actions, not on account of their tending to augment the
happiness, nor yet
on account of their tending to diminish the happiness of the
party whose
interest is in question, but merely because a man finds himself
disposed to
approve or disapprove of them: holding up that approbation or
disapprobation
21. as a sufficient reason for itself, and disclaiming the necessity of
looking
out for any extrinsic ground. Thus far in the general department
of morals:
and in the particular department of politics, measuring out the
quantum (as
well as determining the ground) of punishment, by the degree of
the
disapprobation.
XII. It is manifest, that this is rather a principle in name than in
reality: it is not a positive principle of itself, so much as a term
employed to signify the negation of all principle. What one
expects to find
in a principle is something that points out some external
consideration, as
a means of warranting and guiding the internal sentiments of
approbation and
disapprobation: this expectation is but ill fulfilled by a
proposition,
which does neither more nor less than hold up each of those
sentiments as a
ground and standard for itself.
XIII. In looking over the catalogue of human actions (says a
partizan of
this principle) in order to determine which of them are to be
marked with
the seal of disapprobation, you need but to take counsel of your
own
feelings: whatever you find in yourself a propensity to
condemn, is wrong
for that very reason. For the same reason it is also meet for
punishment: in
what proportion it is adverse to utility, or whether it be adverse
to
utility at all, is a matter that makes no difference. In that same
proportion also is it meet for punishment: if you hate much,
22. punish much: if
you hate little, punish little: punish as you hate. If you hate not
at all,
punish not at all: the fine feelings of the soul are not to be
overborne and
tyrannized by the harsh and rugged dictates of political utility.
XIV. The various systems that have been formed concerning the
standard of
right may all be reduced to the principle of sympathy and
antipathy. One
account may serve to for all of them. They consist all of them in
so many
contrivances for avoiding the obligation of appealing to any
external
standard, and for prevailing upon the reader to accept of the
author's
sentiment or opinion as a reason for itself.[3] The phrases
different, but
the principle the same.
XV. It is manifest, that the dictates of this principle will
frequently
coincide with those of utility, though perhaps without intending
any such
thing. Probably more frequently than not: and hence it is that
the business
of penal justice is carried upon that tolerable sort of footing
upon which
we see it carried on in common at this day. For what more
natural or more
general ground of hatred to a practice can there be, than the
mischievousness of such practice? What all men are exposed to
suffer by, all
men will be disposed to hate. It is far yet, however, from being
a constant
ground: for when a man suffers, it is not always that he knows
what it is he
23. suffers by. A man may suffer grievously, for instance, by a new
tax, without
being able to trace up the cause of his sufferings to the injustice
of some
neighbour, who has eluded the payment of an old one.
XVI. The principle of sympathy and antipathy is most apt to err
on the side
of severity. It is for applying punishment in many cases which
deserve none:
in many cases which deserve some, it is for applying more than
they deserve.
There is no incident imaginable, be it ever so trivial, and so
remote from
mischief, from which this principle may not extract a ground of
punishment.
Any difference in taste: any difference in opinion: upon one
subject as well
as upon another. No disagreement so trifling which
perseverance and
altercation will not render serious. Each becomes in the other's
eyes an
enemy, and, if laws permit, a criminal.[4] This is one of the
circumstances
by which the human race is distinguished (not much indeed to
its advantage)
from the brute creation.
XVII. It is not, however, by any means unexampled for this
principle to err
on the side of lenity. A near and perceptible mischief moves
antipathy. A
remote and imperceptible mischief, though not less real, has no
effect.
Instances in proof of this will occur in numbers in the course of
the
work.[5] It would be breaking in upon the order of it to give
them here.
24. XVIII. It may be wondered, perhaps, that in all this no mention
has been
made of the theological principle; meaning that principal which
professes to
recur for the standard of right and wrong to the will of God. But
the case
is, this is not in fact a distinct principle. It is never any thing
more or
less than one or other of the three before-mentioned principles
presenting
itself under another shape. The will of God here meant cannot
be his
revealed will, as contained in the sacred writings: for that is a
system
which nobody ever thinks of recurring to at this time of day, for
the
details of political administration: and even before it can be
applied to
the details of private conduct, it is universally allowed, by the
most
eminent divines of all persuasions, to stand in need of pretty
ample
interpretations; else to what use are the works of those divines?
And for
the guidance of these interpretations, it is also allowed, that
some other
standard must be assumed. The will then which is meant on this
occasion, is
that which may be called the presumptive will: that is to say,
that which is
presumed to be his will by virtue of the conformity of its
dictates to those
of some other principle. What then may be this other principle?
it must be
one or other of the three mentioned above: for there cannot, as
we have
25. seen, be any more. It is plain, therefore, that, setting revelation
out of
the question, no light can ever be thrown upon the standard of
right and
wrong, by any thing that can be said upon the question, what is
God's will.
We may be perfectly sure, indeed, that whatever is right is
conformable to
the will of God: but so far is that from answering the purpose of
showing us
what is right, that it is necessary to know first whether a thing
is right,
in order to know from thence whether it be conformable to the
will of
God.[6]
XIX. There are two things which are very apt to be confounded,
but which it
imports us carefully to distinguish: -- the motive or cause,
which, by
operating on the mind of an individual, is productive of any act:
and the
ground or reason which warrants a legislator, or other by-
stander, in
regarding that act with an eye of approbation. When the act
happens, in the
particular instance in question, to be productive of effects
which we
approve of, much more if we happen to observe that the same
motive may
frequently be productive, in other instances, of the like effects,
we are
apt to transfer our approbation to the motive itself, and to
assume, as the
just ground for the approbation we bestow on the act, the
circumstance of
its originating from that motive. It is in this way that the
26. sentiment of
antipathy has often been considered as a just ground of action.
Antipathy,
for instance, in such or such a case, is the cause of an action
which is
attended with good effects: but this does not make it a right
ground of
action in that case, any more than in any other. Still farther. Not
only the
effects are good, but the agent sees beforehand that they will be
so. This
may make the action indeed a perfectly right action: but it does
not make
antipathy a right ground of action. For the same sentiment of
antipathy, if
implicitly deferred to, may be, and very frequently is,
productive of the
very worst effects. Antipathy, therefore, can never be a right
ground of
action. No more, therefore, can resentment, which, as will be
seen more
particularly hereafter, is but a modification of antipathy. The
only right
ground of action, that can possibly subsist, is, after all, the
consideration of utility which, if it is a right principle of actions
and of
approbation any one case, is so in every other. Other principles
in
abundance, that is, other motives, may be the reasons why such
and such an
act has been done: that is, the reasons or causes of its being
done: but it
is this alone that can be the reason why it might or ought to
have been
done. Antipathy or resentment requires always to be regulated,
to prevent it
27. doing mischief: to be regulated what? always by the principle of
utility.
The principle of utility neither requires nor admits of any
another
regulator than itself.
1. Ascetic is a term that has been sometimes applied to Monks.
It comes from
a Greek word which signifies exercise. The practices by which
Monks sought
to distinguish themselves from other men were called their
Exercises. These
exercises consisted in so many contrivances they had for
tormenting
themselves. By this they thought to ingratiate themselves with
the Deity.
For the Deity. said they, is a Being of infinite benevolence: now
a Being of
the most ordinary benevolence is pleased to see others make
themselves as
happy as they can: therefore to make ourselves as unhappy as
we can is the
way to please the Deity. If any body asked them, what motive
they could find
for doing all this? Oh! said they, you are not to imagine that we
are
punishing ourselves for nothing: we know very well what we are
about. You
are to know, that for every grain of pain it costs us now, we are
to have a
hundred grains of pleasure by and by. The case is, that God
loves to see us
torment ourselves at present: indeed he has as good as told us
so. But this
is done only to try us, in order just to see how we should
behave: which it
is plain he could not know, without making the experiment.
28. Now then, from
the satisfaction it gives him to see us make ourselves as
unhappy as we can
make ourselves in this present life, we have a sure proof of the
satisfaction it will give him to see us as happy as he can make
us in a life
to come.
2. The following Note was first printed in January 1789.
It ought rather to have been styled, more extensively, the
principle of
caprice. Where it applies to the choice of actions to be marked
out for
injunction or prohibition, for reward or punishment, (to stand,
in a word,
as subjects for obligations to be imposed,) it may indeed with
propriety be
termed, as in the text, the principle of sympathy and antipathy.
But this
appellative does not so well apply to it, when occupied in the
choice of the
events which are to serve as sources of title with respect to
rights: where
the actions prohibited and allowed the obligations and rights,
being already
fixed, the only question is, under what circumstances a man is
to be
invested with the one or subjected to the other? from what
incidents
occasion is to be taken to invest a man, or to refuse to invest
him, with
the one, or to subject him to the other? In this latter case it may
more
appositely be characterized by the name of the phantastic
principle.
Sympathy and antipathy are affections of the sensible faculty.
But the
29. choice of titles with respect to rights, especially with respect to
proprietary rights, upon grounds unconnected with utility, has
been in many
instances the work not of the affections but of the imagination.
When, in justification of an article of English Common Law
calling uncles to
succeed in certain cases in preference to fathers, Lord Coke
produced a sort
of ponderosity he had discovered in rights, disqualifying them
from
ascending in a straight line, it was not that he loved uncles
particularly,
or hated fathers, but because the analogy, such as it was, was
what his
imagination presented him with, instead of a reason, and
because, to a
judgment unobservant of the standard of utility, or unacquainted
with the
art of consulting it, where affection is out of the way,
imagination is the
only guide.
When I know not what ingenious grammarian invented the
proposition Delegatus
non potest delegare, to serve as a rule of law, it was not surely
that he
had any antipathy to delegates of the second order, or that it
was any
pleasure to him to think of the ruin which, for want of a
manager at home,
may befall the affairs of a traveller whom an unforeseen
accident has
deprived of the object of his choice: it was, that the incongruity,
of
giving the same law to objects so contrasted as active and
passive are, was
not to be surmounted, and that -atus chimes, as well as it
30. contrasts, with
-are.
When that inexorable maxim, (of which the dominion is no
more to be defined,
than the date of its birth, or the name of its father, is to be
found) was
imported from England for the government of Bengal, and the
whole fabric of
judicature was crushed by the thunders of ex post facto justice,
it was not
surely that the prospect of a blameless magistracy perishing in
prison
afforded any enjoyment to the unoffended authors of their
misery; but that
the music of the maxim, absorbing the whole imagination, had
drowned the
cries of humanity along with the dictates of common sense.[7]
Fiat Justitia,
ruat coelum, says another maxim, as full of extravagance as it is
of
harmony: Go heaven to wreck -- so justice be but done: -- and
what is the
ruin of kingdoms, in comparison of the wreck of heaven?
So again, when the Prussian chancellor, inspired with the
wisdom of I know
not what Roman sage, proclaimed in good Latin, for the
edification of German
ears, Servitus servitutis non datur, [Cod. Fred. tom. ii. par. 2.
liv. 2.
tit. x. §6. p. 308.] it was not that he had conceded any aversion
to the
life-holder who, during the continuance of his term, should wish
to gratify
a neighbour with a right of way or water, or to the neighbour
who should
wish to accept of the indulgence; but that, to a jurisprudential
31. ear, -tus
-tutis sound little less melodious than -atus -are. Whether the
melody of
the maxim was the real reason of the rule, is not left open to
dispute for
it is ushered in by the conjunction quia, reason's appointed
harbinger quia
servitus servitutis non datur.
Neither would equal melody have been produced, nor indeed
could similar
melody have been called for, in either of these instances, by the
opposite
provision: it is only when they are opposed to general rules, and
not when
by their conformity they are absorbed in them, that more
specific ones can
obtain a separate existence. Delegatus potest delegare, and
Servitus
servitutis datur, provisions already included under the general
adoption of
contracts, would have been as unnecessary to the apprehension
and the
memory, as, in comparison of their energetic negatives, they are
insipid to
the ear.
Were the inquiry diligently made, it would be found that the
goddess of
harmony has exercised more influence, however latent, over the
dispensations
of Themis, than her most diligent historiographers, or even her
most
passionate panegyrists, seem to have been aware of. Every one
knows, how, by
the ministry of Orpheus, it was she who first collected the sons
of men
beneath the shadow of the sceptre: yet, in the midst of continual
32. experience, men seem yet to learn, with what successful
diligence she has
laboured to guide it in its course. Every one knows, that
measured numbers
were the language of the infancy of law: none seem to have
observed with
what imperious sway they have governed her maturer age. In
English
jurisprudence in particular, the connexion betwixt law and
music, however
less perceived than in Spartan legislation, is not perhaps less
real nor
less close. The music of the Office, though not of the same
kind, is not
less musical its kind, than the music of the Theatre; that which
hardens the
heart, than that which softens it: -- sostenutos as long, cadences
as
sonorous; and those governed by rules, though not yet
promulgated, not less
determinate. Search indictments, pleadings, proceedings in
chancery,
conveyances: whatever trespasses you may find against truth or
common sense
you will find none against the laws of harmony. The English
Liturgy justly
as this quality has been extolled in that sacred office, possesses
not a
greater measure of it, than is commonly to be found in an
English Act of
Parliament. Dignity, simplicity, brevity, precision,
intelligibility,
possibility of being retained or so much as apprehended, every
thing yields
to Harmony. Volumes might be filled, shelves loaded, with the
sacrifices
33. that are made to this insatiate power. Expletives, her ministers
in Grecian
poetry are not less busy, though in different shape and bulk, in
English
legislation: in the former, they are monosyllables:[8] in the
latter, they
are whole lines.[9]
To return to the principle of sympathy and antipathy: a term
preferred at
first, on account of its impartiality, to the principle of caprice.
The
choice of an appellative, in the above respects too narrow, was
owing to my
not having, at that time, extended my views over the civil
branch of law,
any otherwise than as I had found it inseparably involved in the
penal. But
when we come to the former branch, we shall see the phantastic
principle
making at least as great a figure there, as the principle of
sympathy and
antipathy in the latter.
In the days of Lord Coke, the light of utility can scarcely be
said to have
as yet shone upon the face of Common Law. If a faint ray of it,
under the
name of the argumentum ab inconvenienti, is to be found in a
list of about
twenty topics exhibited by that great lawyer as the co-ordinate
leaders of
that all-perfect system, the admission, so circumstanced, is as
sure a proof
of neglect, as, to the statues of Brutus and Cassius, exclusion
was a cause
of notice. It stands, neither in the front, nor in the rear, nor in
any post
34. of honour; but huddled in towards the middle, without the
smallest mark of
preference. [Coke, Littleton, ii. a.] Nor is this Latin
inconvenience by any
means the same thing with the English one. It stands
distinguished from
mischief: and because by the vulgar it is taken for something
less bad, it
is given by the learned as something worse. The law prefers a
mischief to an
inconvenience, says an admired maxim, and the more admired,
because as
nothing is expressed by it, the more is supposed to be
understood.
Not that there is any avowed, much less a constant opposition,
between the
prescriptions of utility and the operations of the common law:
such
constancy we have seen to be too much even for ascetic fervor.
From time to
time instinct would unavoidably betray them into the paths of
reason:
instinct which, however it may be cramped, can never be killed
by education.
The cobwebs spun out of the materials brought together by the
competition of
opposite analogies, can never have ceased being warped by the
silent
attraction of the rational principle: though it should have been,
as the
needle is by the magnet, without the privity of conscience.
3. It is curious enough to observe the variety of inventions men
have hit
upon, and the variety of phrases they have brought forward, in
order to
conceal from the world, and, if possible, from themselves, this
35. very
general and therefore very pardonable self-sufficiency.
1. One man says, he has a thing made on purpose to tell
him what is right and what is wrong; and that it is called a
moral sense: and then he goes to work at his ease, and
says, such a thing is right, and such a thing is wrong --
why? "because my moral sense tells me it is".
2. Another man comes and alters the phrase: leaving out
moral, and putting in common, in the room of it. He then
tells you, that his common sense teaches him what is right
and wrong, as surely as the other's moral sense did:
meaning by common sense, a sense of some kind or other,
which he says, is possessed by all mankind: the sense of
those, whose sense is not the same as the author's, being
struck out of the account as not worth taking. This
contrivance does better than the other, for a moral sense
being a new thing, a man may feel about him a good while
without being able to find it out: but common sense is as
old as the creation, and there is no man but would be
ashamed to be thought not to have as much of it as his
neighbours. It has another great advantage: by appearing
to share power, it lessens envy: for when a man gets up
upon this ground, in order to anathematize those who
differ from him, it is not by a sic volo sic jubeo, but by a
velitis jubeatis.
3. Another man comes, and says, that as to a moral sense
indeed, he cannot find that he has any such thing: that
however he has an understanding, which will do quite as
well. This understanding, he says, is the standard of right
and wrong: it tells him so and so. All good and wise men
understand as he does: if other men's understandings differ
in any point from his, so much the worse for them: it is a
sure sign they are either defective or corrupt.
4. Another man says, that there is an eternal and
immutable Rule of Right: that that rule of right dictates so
and so: and then he begins giving you his sentiments upon
36. any thing that comes uppermost . and these sentiments
(you are to take for granted) are so many branches of the
eternal rule of right.
5. Another man, or perhaps the same man (it's no matter)
says, that there are certain practices conformable, and
others repugnant, to the Fitness of Things; and then he tells
you, at his leisure, what practices are conformable and
what repugnant: just as he happens to like a practice or
dislike it.
6. A great multitude of people are continually talking of the
Law of Nature; and then they go on giving you their
sentiments about what is right and what is wrong: and
these sentiments, you are to understand, are so many
chapters and sections of the Law of Nature.
7. Instead of the phrase, Law of Nature, you have
sometimes, Law of Reason, Right Reason, Natural Justice,
Natural Equity, Good Order. Any of them will do equally
well. This latter is most used in politics. The three last are
much more tolerable than the others, because they do not
very explicitly claim to be any thing more than phrases:
they insist but feebly upon the being looked upon as so
many positive standards of themselves, and seem content
to be taken, upon occasion, for phrases expressive of the
conformity of the thing in question to the proper standard,
whatever that may be. On most occasions, however, it will
be better to say utility: utility is clearer, as referring more
explicitly to pain and pleasure.
8. We have one philosopher, who says, there is no harm in
any thing in the world but in telling a lie: and that if, for
example, you were to murder your own father, this would
only be a particular way of saying, he was not your father.
Of course, when this philosopher sees any thing that he
does not like, he says, it is a particular way of telling a lie.
It is saying, that the act ought to be done, or may be done,
when, in truth, it ought not to be done.
9. The fairest and openest of them all is that sort of man
37. who speaks out, and says, I am of the number of the Elect:
now God himself takes care to inform the Elect what is
right: and that with so good effect, and let them strive ever
so, they cannot help not only knowing it but practicing it. If
therefore a man wants to know what is right and what is
wrong, he has nothing to do but to come to me.
10. It is upon the principle of antipathy that such and such
acts are often reprobated on the score of their being
unnatural: the practice of exposing children, established
among the Greeks and Romans, was an unnatural
practice. Unnatural, when it means any thing, means
unfrequent: and there it means something; although nothing
to the present purpose. But here it means no such thing:
for the frequency of such acts is perhaps the great
complaint. It therefore means nothing; nothing, I mean,
which there is in the act itself. All it can serve to express is,
the disposition of the person who is talking of it: the
disposition he is in to be angry at the thoughts of it. Does it
merit his anger? Very likely it may: but whether it does or
no is a question, which, to be answered rightly, can only
be answered upon the principle of utility.
Unnatural, is as good a word as moral sense, or common sense;
and would be
as good a foundation for a system. Such an act is unnatural; that
is,
repugnant to nature: for I do not like to practice it: and,
consequently, do
not practise it. It is therefore repugnant to what ought to be the
nature of
every body else.
The mischief common to all these ways of thinking and arguing
(which, in
truth, as we have seen, are but one and the same method,
couched in
different forms of words) is then serving as a cloke, and
pretense, and
38. aliment, to despotism: if not a despotism in practice, a
despotism however
in disposition: which is but too apt, when pretense and power
offer, to show
itself in practice. The consequence is, that with intentions very
commonly
of the purest kind, a man becomes a torment either to himself or
his
fellow-creatures. If he be of the melancholy cast, he sits in
silent grief,
bewailing their blindness and depravity: if of the irascible, he
declaims
with fury and virulence against all who differ from him;
blowing up the
coals of fanaticism, and branding with the charge of corruption
and
insincerity, every man who does not think, or profess to think,
as he does.
If such a man happens to possess the advantages of style, his
book may do a
considerable deal of mischief before the nothingness of it is
understood.
These principles, if such they can be called, it is more frequent
to see
applied to morals than to politics: but their influence extends
itself to
both. In politics, as well as morals, a man will be at least
equally glad of
a pretense for deciding any question in the manner that best
pleases him
without the trouble of inquiry. If a man is an infallible judge of
what is
right and wrong in the actions of private individuals, why not in
the
measures to be observed by public men in the direction of those
actions
39. accordingly (not to mention other chimeras) I have more than
once
known the pretended law of nature set up in legislative debates,
in
opposition to arguments derived from the principle of utility.
"But is it never, then, from any other considerations than those
of utility,
that we derive our notions of right and wrong?" I do not know: I
do not
care. Whether a moral sentiment can be originally conceived
from any
other source than a view of utility, is one question: whether
upon
examination and reflection it can, in point of fact, be actually
persisted in
and justified on any other ground, by a person reflecting within
himself,
is another: whether in point of right it can properly be justified
on any
other ground, by a person addressing himself to the community,
is a
third. The two first are questions of speculation: it matters not,
comparatively speaking, how they are decided. The last is a
question of
practice: the decision of it is of as much importance as that of
any can
be.
"I feel in myself", (say you) "a disposition to approve of such or
such an
action in a moral view: but this is not owing to any notions I
have of its
being a useful one to the community. I do not pretend to know
whether it be
an useful one or not: it may be, for aught I know, a mischievous
one." "But
is it then", (say I) "a mischievous one? examine; and if you can
40. make
yourself sensible that it is so, then, if duty means any thing, that
is,
moral duty, is your duty at least to abstain from it: and more
than that, if
it is what lies in your power, and can be done without too great
a
sacrifice, to endeavour to prevent it. It is not your cherishing
the notion
of it in your bosom, and giving it the name of virtue, that will
excuse
you."
"I feel in myself", (say you again) "a disposition to detest such
or such an
action in a moral view; but this is not owing to any notions I
have of its
being a mischievous one to the community. I do not pretend to
know whether
it be a mischievous one or not: it may be not a mischievous one:
it may be,
for aught I know, an useful one." -- "May it indeed", (say I) "an
useful
one? but let me tell you then, that unless duty, and right and
wrong, be
just what you please to make them, if it really be not a
mischievous one,
and any body has a mind to do it, it is no duty of yours, but, on
the
contrary, it would be very wrong in you, to take upon you to
prevent him:
detest it within yourself as much as you please; that may be a
very good
reason (unless it be also a useful one) for your not doing it
yourself: but
if you go about, by word or deed, to do any thing to hinder him,
or make him
41. suffer for it, it is you, and not he, that have done wrong: it is
not your
setting yourself to blame his conduct, or branding it with the
name of vice,
that will make him culpable, or you blameless. Therefore, if you
can make
yourself content that he shall be of one mind, and you of
another, about
that matter, and so continue, it is well: but if nothing will serve
you, but
that you and he must needs be of the same mind, I'll tell you
what you have
to do: it is for you to get the better of your antipathy, not for
him to
truckle to it."
4. King James the First of England had conceived a violent
antipathy against
Arians: two of whom he burnt.[10] This gratification he
procured himself
without much difficulty: the notions of the times were
favourable to it. He
wrote a furious book against Vorstius, for being what was called
an
Arminian: for Vorstius was at a distance. He also wrote a
furious book,
called `A Counterblast to Tobacco', against the use of that drug
which Sir
Walter Raleigh had then lately introduced. Had the notions of
the times
co-operated with him, he would have burnt the Anabaptist and
the smoker of
tobacco in the same fire. However he had the satisfaction of
putting Raleigh
to death afterwards, though for another crime.
Disputes concerning the comparative excellence of French and
Italian music
42. have occasioned very serious bickerings at Paris. One of the
parties would
not have been sorry (says Mr. D'Alembert[11]) to have brought
government
into the quarrel. Pretences were sought after and urged. Long
before that, a
dispute of like nature, and of at least equal warmth, had been
kindled at
London upon the comparative merits of two composers at
London; where riots
between the approvers and disapprovers of a new play are, at
this day, not
unfrequent. The ground of quarrel between the Big-endians and
the
Little-endians in the fable, was not more frivolous than many an
one which
has laid empires desolate. In Russia, it is said, there was a time
when some
thousands of persons lost their lives in a quarrel, in which the
government
had taken part, about the number of fingers to be used in
making the sign of
the cross. This was in days of yore: the ministers of Catherine
II. are
better instructed[12] than to take any other part in such
disputes, than
that of preventing the parties concerned from doing one another
a mischief.
5. See ch. xvi. [Division], par. 42, 44.
6. The principle of theology refers every thing to God's
pleasure. But what
is God's pleasure? God does not, he confessedly does not now,
either speak
or write to us. How then are we to know what is his pleasure?
By observing
what is our own pleasure, and pronouncing it to be his.
43. Accordingly, what is
called the pleasure of God, is and must necessarily be
(revelation apart)
neither more nor less than the good pleasure of the person
whoever he be,
who is pronouncing what he believes, or pretends, to be God's
pleasure. How
know you it to be God's pleasure that such or such an act should
be
abstained from? whence come you even to suppose as much?
"Because the
engaging in it would, I imagine, be prejudicial upon the whole
to the
happiness of mankind"; says the partisan of the principle of
utility:
"Because the commission of it is attended with a gross and
sensual, or at
least with a trifling and transient satisfaction"; says the partizan
of the
principle of asceticism: "Because I detest the thoughts of it; and
I cannot,
neither ought I to be called upon to tell why"; says he who
proceeds upon
the principle of antipathy. In the words of one or other of these
must that
person necessarily answer (revelation apart) who professes to
take for his
standard the will of God.
7. Additional Note by the Author, July 1822.
Add, and that the bad system, of Mahometan and other native
law was to be
put down at all events, to make way for the inapplicable and
still more
mischievous system of English Judge-made law, and, by the
hand of his
accomplice Hastings, was to be put into the pocket of Impey --
44. Importer of
this instrument of subversion, £8,000 a-year contrary to law, in
addition to
the £8,000 a-year lavished upon him, with the customary
profusion, by the
hand of law. -- See the Account of the transaction in Mill's
British India.
To this Governor a statue is erecting by a vote of East India
Directors and
Proprietors: on it should be inscribed -- Let it but put money
into our
pockets, no tyranny too flagitious to be worshipped by us.
To this statue of the Arch-malefactor should be added, for a
companion, that
of the long. robed accomplice: the one lodging the bribe in the
hand of the
other. The hundred millions of plundered and oppressed
Hindoos and
Mahometans pay for the one: a Westminster Hall subscription
might pay for
the other.
What they have done for Ireland with her seven millions of
souls, the
authorized deniers and perverters of justice have done for
Hindostan with
her hundred millions. In this there is nothing wonderful. The
wonder is --
that, under such institutions, men, though in ever such small
number, should
be found, whom the view of the injustices which, by English
Judge-made law,
they are compelled to commit, and the miseries they are thus
compelled to
produce, deprive of health and rest. witness the Letter of an
English
Hindostan Judge, Sept. 1, 1819, which lies before me. I will not
45. make so
cruel a requital for his honesty, as to put his name in print:
indeed the
House of Commons' Documents already published leave little
need of it.
8. Men(Mu epsilon nu), toi(tau omicron iota), ge(gamma
epsilon), nun(nu
upsilon nu), &c.
9. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, that --
Provided
always, and it is hereby further enacted and declared that -- &c.
&c.
10. Hume's Hist. vol. 6.
11. Melanges Essai sur la Liberté de Musique.
12. Instruc. art. 474, 475, 476.
CHAPTER III.
OF THE FOUR SANCTIONS OR SOURCES OF PAIN AND
PLEASURE.
I. It has been shown that the happiness of the individuals, of
whom a
community is composed, that is their pleasures and their
security, is the
end and the sole end which the legislator ought to have in view:
the sole
standard, in conformity to which each individual ought, as far
as depends
upon the legislator, to be made to fashion his behaviour. But
whether it be
this or any thing else that is to be done, there is nothing by
which a man
can ultimately be made to do it, but either pain or pleasure.
Having taken a
general view of these two grand objects (viz. pleasure, and what
comes to
the same thing, immunity from pain) in the character of final
causes; it
46. will be necessary to take a view of pleasure and pain itself, in
the
character of efficient causes or means.
II. There are four distinguishable sources from which pleasure
and pain are
in use to flow: considered separately they may be termed the
physical, the
political, the moral and the religious: and inasmuch as the
pleasures and
pains belonging to each of them are capable of giving a binding
force to any
law or rule of conduct, they may all of them termed
sanctions.[1]
III. If it be in the present life, and from the ordinary coursed of
nature,
not purposely modified by the interposition of these will of any
human
being, nor by any extraordinary interposition of any superior
invisible
being, that the pleasure or the pain takes place or is expected, it
may be
said to issue from or to belong to the physical sanction.
IV. If at the hands of a particular person or set of persons in the
community, who under names correspondent to that of judge,
are chosen for
the particular purpose of dispensing it, according to the will of
the
sovereign or supreme ruling power in the state, it may be said to
issue from
the political sanction.
V. If at the hands of such chance persons in the community, as
the party in
question may happen in the course of his life to have concerns
with,
according to each man's spontaneous disposition, and not
according to any
47. settled or concerted rule, it may be said to issue from the moral
or popular
sanction.[2]
VI.If from the immediate hand of a superior invisible being,
either in the
present life, or in a future, it may be said to issue from the
religious
sanction.
VII. Pleasures or pains which may be expected to issue from the
physical,
political, or moral sanctions, must all of them be expected to be
experienced, if ever, in the present life: those which may be
expected to
issue from the religious sanction, may be expected to be
experienced either
in the present life or in a future.
VIII. Those which can be experienced in the present life, can of
course be
no others than such as human nature in the course of the present
life is
susceptible of: and from each of these sources may flow all the
pleasures or
pains of which, in the course of the present life, human nature is
susceptible. With regard to these then (with which alone we
have in this
place any concern) those of them which belong to any one of
those sanctions,
differ not ultimately in kind from those which belong to any one
of the
other three: the only difference there is among them lies in the
circumstances that accompany their production. A suffering
which befalls a
man in the natural and spontaneous course of things, shall be
styled, for
instance, a calamity; in which case, if it be supposed to befall
him through
48. any imprudence of his, it may be styled a punishment issuing
from the
physical sanction. Now this same suffering, if inflicted by the
law, will be
what is commonly called a punishment; if incurred for want of
any friendly
assistance, which the misconduct, or supposed misconduct, of
the sufferer
has occasioned to be withholden, a punishment issuing from the
moral
sanction; if through the immediate interposition of a particular
providence,
a punishment issuing from the religious sanction.
IX. A man's goods, or his person, are consumed by fire. If this
happened to
him by what is called an accident, it was a calamity: if by
reason of his
own imprudence (for instance, from his neglecting to put his
candle out) it
may be styled a punishment of the physical sanction: if it
happened to him
by the sentence of the political magistrate, a punishment
belonging to the
political sanction; that is, what is commonly called a
punishment: if for
want of any assistance which his neighbour withheld from him
out of some
dislike to his moral character, a punishment of the moral
sanction: if by an
immediate act of God's displeasure, manifested on account of
some sin
committed by him, or through any distraction of mind,
occasioned by the
dread of such displeasure, a punishment[3] of the religious
sanction.
X. As to such of the pleasures and pains belonging to the
49. religious
sanction, as regard a future life, of what kind these may be we
cannot know.
These lie not open to our observation. During the present life
they are
matter only of expectation: and, whether that expectation be
derived from
natural or revealed religion, the particular kind of pleasure or
pain, if it
be different from all those which he open to our observation, is
what we can
have no idea of. The best ideas we can obtain of such pains and
pleasures
are altogether unliquidated in point of quality. In what other
respects our
ideas of them may be liquidated will be considered in another
place.[4]
XI. Of these four sanctions the physical is altogether, we may
observe, the
ground-work of the political and the moral: so is it also of the
religious,
in as far as the latter bears relation to the present life. It is
included
in each of those other three. This may operate in any case, (that
is, any of
the pains or pleasures belonging to it may operate)
independently of them:
none of them can operate but by means of this. In a word, the
powers of
nature may operate of themselves; but neither the magistrate,
nor men at
large, can operate, nor is God in the case in question supposed
to operate,
but through the powers of nature.
XII. For these four objects, which in their nature have so much
in common,
50. it seemed of use to find a common name. It seemed of use, in
the first
place, for the convenience of giving a name to certain pleasures
and pains,
for which a name equally characteristic could hardly otherwise
have been
found: in the second place, for the sake of holding up the
efficacy of
certain moral forces, the influence of which is apt not to be
sufficiently
attended to. Does the political sanction exert an influence over
the conduct
of mankind? The moral, the religious sanctions do so too. In
every inch of
his career are the operations of the political magistrate liable to
be aided
or impeded by these two foreign powers: who, one or other of
them, or both,
are sure to be either his rivals or his allies. Does it happen to
him to
leave them out in his calculations? he will be sure almost to
find himself
mistaken in the result. Of all this we shall find abundant proofs
in the
sequel of this work. It behoves him, therefore, to have them
continually
before his eyes; and that under such a name as exhibits the
relation they
bear to his own purposes and designs.
1. Sanctio, in Latin was used to signify the act of binding, and,
by a
common grammatical transition, any thing which serves to bind
a man: to wit,
to the observance of such or such a mode of conduct. According
to a Latin
grammarian,[5] the import of the word is derived by rather a
51. far-fetched
process (such as those commonly are, and in a great measure
indeed must be,
by which intellectual ideas are derived from sensible ones) from
the word
sanguis, blood: because, among the Romans, with a view to
inculcate into the
people a persuasion that such or such a mode of conduct would
be rendered
obligatory upon a man by the force of what I call the religious
sanction
(that is, that he would be made to suffer by the extraordinary
interposition
of some superior being, if he failed to observe the mode of
conduct in
question) certain ceremonies were contrived by the priests: in
the course of
which ceremonies the blood of victims was made use of.
A Sanction then is a source of obligatory powers or motives that
is, of
pains and pleasures; which, according as they are connected
with such or
such modes of conduct, operate, and are indeed the only things
which can
operate, as motives. See Chap. x. [Motives].
2. Better termed popular, as more directly indicative of its
constituent
cause; as likewise of its relation to the more common phrase
public opinion,
in French opinion publique, the name there given to that
tutelary power, of
which of late so much is said, and by which so much is done.
The latter
appellation is however unhappy and inexpressive; since if
opinion is
material, it is only in virtue of the influence it exercises over
52. action,
through the medium of the affections and the will.
3. A suffering conceived to befall a man by the immediate act of
God, as
above, is often, for shortness' sake, called a judgment: instead
of saying,
a suffering inflicted on him in consequence of a special
judgment formed,
and resolution there upon taken, by the Deity.
4. See ch. xiii. [Cases unmeet] par. 2. note.
5. Servius. See Ainsworth's Dict. ad verbum Sanctio.
CHAPTER IV.
VALUE OF A LOT OF PLEASURE OR PAIN, HOW TO BE
MEASURED.
I. Pleasures then, and the avoidance of pains, are the ends that
the
legislator has in view; it behoves him therefore to understand
their value.
Pleasures and pains are the instruments he has to work with: it
behoves him
therefore to understand their force, which is again, in other
words, their
value.
II. To a person considered by himself, the value of a pleasure or
pain
considered by itself, will be greater or less, according to the
four
following circumstances:[1]
1. Its intensity.
2. Its duration.
3. Its certainty or uncertainty.
4. Its propinquity or remoteness.
III. These are the circumstances which are to be considered in
estimating a
pleasure or a pain considered each of them by itself. But when
the value of
53. any pleasure or pain is considered for the purpose of estimating
the
tendency of any act by which it is produced, there are two other
circumstances to be taken into the account; these are,
5. Its fecundity, or the chance it has of being followed by
sensations of the same kind: that is, pleasures, if it be a
pleasure: pains, if it be a pain.
6. Its purity, or the chance it has of not being followed by
sensations of the opposite kind: that is, pains, if it be a
pleasure: pleasures, if it be a pain.
These two last, however, are in strictness scarcely to be deemed
properties
of the pleasure or the pain itself; they are not, therefore, in
strictness
to be taken into the account of the value of that pleasure or that
pain.
They are in strictness to be deemed properties only of the act, or
other
event, by which such pleasure or pain has been produced; and
accordingly are
only to be taken into the account of the tendency of such act or
such event.
IV. To a number of persons, with reference to each of whom to
the value of a
pleasure or a pain is considered, it will be greater or less,
according to
seven circumstances: to wit, the six preceding ones; viz.
1. Its intensity.
2. Its duration.
3. Its certainty or uncertainty.
4. Its propinquity or remoteness.
5. Its fecundity.
6. Its purity.
And one other; to wit:
7. Its extent; that is, the number of persons to whom it
extends; or (in other words) who are affected by it.
54. V. To take an exact account then of the general tendency of any
act, by
which the interests of a community are affected, proceed as
follows. Begin
with any one person of those whose interests seem most
immediately to be
affected by it: and take an account,
1. Of the value of each distinguishable pleasure which
appears to be produced by it in the first instance.
2. Of the value of each pain which appears to be
produced by it in the first instance.
3. Of the value of each pleasure which appears to be
produced by it after the first. This constitutes the
fecundity of the first pleasure and the impurity of the first
pain.
4. Of the value of each pain which appears to be
produced by it after the first. This constitutes the fecundity
of the first pain, and the impurity of the first pleasure.
5. Sum up all the values of all the pleasures on the one
side, and those of all the pains on the other. The balance, if
it be on the side of pleasure, will give the good tendency
of the act upon the whole, with respect to the interests of
that individual person; if on the side of pain, the bad
tendency of it upon the whole.
6. Take an account of the number of persons whose
interests appear to be concerned; and repeat the above
process with respect to each. Sum up the numbers
expressive of the degrees of good tendency, which the act
has, with respect to each individual, in regard to whom the
tendency of it is good upon the whole: do this again with
respect to each individual, in regard to whom the tendency
of it is good upon the whole: do this again with respect to
each individual, in regard to whom the tendency of it is
bad upon the whole. Take the balance which if on the
side of pleasure, will give the general good tendency of
the act, with respect to the total number or community of
55. individuals concerned; if on the side of pain, the general
evil tendency, with respect to the same community.
VI. It is not to be expected that this process should be strictly
pursued
previously to every moral judgment, or to every legislative or
judicial
operation. It may, however, be always kept in view: and as near
as the
process actually pursued on these occasions approaches to it, so
near will
such process approach to the character of an exact one.
VII. The same process is alike applicable to pleasure and pain,
in whatever
shape they appear: and by whatever denomination they are
distinguished: to
pleasure, whether it be called good (which is properly the cause
or
instrument of pleasure) or profit (which is distant pleasure, or
the cause
or instrument of, distant pleasure,) or convenience, or
advantage, benefit,
emolument, happiness, and so forth: to pain, whether it be
called evil,
(which corresponds to good) or mischief, or inconvenience. or
disadvantage,
or loss, or unhappiness, and so forth.
VIII. Nor is this a novel and unwarranted, any more than it is a
useless
theory. In all this there is nothing but what the practice of
mankind,
wheresoever they have a clear view of their own interest, is
perfectly
conformable to. An article of property, an estate in land, for
instance, is
valuable, on what account? On account of the pleasures of all
kinds which it
56. enables a man to produce, and what comes to the same thing the
pains of all
kinds which it enables him to avert. But the value of such an
article of
property is universally understood to rise or fall according to
the length
or shortness of the time which a man has in it: the certainty or
uncertainty
of its coming into possession: and the nearness or remoteness of
the time at
which, if at all, it is to come into possession. As to the intensity
of the
pleasures which a man may derive from it, this is never thought
of, because
it depends upon the use which each particular person may come
to make of it;
which cannot be estimated till the particular pleasures he may
come to
derive from it, or the particular pains he may come to exclude
by means of
it, are brought to view. For the same reason, neither does he
think of the
fecundity or purity of those pleasures.
Thus much for pleasure and pain, happiness and unhappiness, in
general. We
come now to consider the several particular kinds of pain and
pleasure.
1. These circumstances have since been denominated elements
or dimensions of
value in a pleasure or a pain.
Not long after the publication of the first edition, the following
memoriter
verses were framed, in the view of lodging more effectually, in
the memory,
these points, on which the whole fabric of morals and
legislation may be
57. seen to rest.
Intense, long, certain, speedy, fruitful, pure --
Such marks in pleasures and in pains endure.
Such pleasures seek if private be thy end:
If it be public, wide let them extend
Such pains avoid, whichever be thy view:
If pains must come, let them extend to few.
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