From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the art of man, as in many
other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a
motion of Limbs, the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not say, that all
Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall
life? For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so
many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet
further, imitating that Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that
great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall
Man […]
CHAPTER XIII.
OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND, AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND MISERY
Nature hath made men so equall, in the faculties of body, and mind; as that though there bee found
one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker mind then another; yet when all is
reckoned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man
can thereupon claim to himselfe any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he. For as
to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret
machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himselfe.
And as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the arts grounded upon words, and especially that
skill of proceeding upon generall, and infallible rules, called Science; which very few have, and but in
few things; as being not a native faculty, born with us; nor attained, (as Prudence,) while we look
after somewhat els,) I find yet a greater equality amongst men, than that of strength […]
From Equality Proceeds Diffidence
From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our Ends. And therefore if
any two men desire the same thing, which neverthelesse they cannot both enjoy, they become
enemies; and in the way to their End, (which is principally their owne conservation, and sometimes
their delectation only,) endeavour to destroy, or subdue one an other. And from hence it comes to
passe, that where an Invader hath no more to feare, than an other mans single power; if one plant,
sow, build, or possesse a convenient Seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with
forces united, to dispossesse, and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of his life,
or liberty. And the Invader again is in the like danger of another.
From Diffidence Warre
And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man to secure himselfe, so
reasonable, as Anticipation; that is, by force, or wiles, to master the persons of all men he can, so
long, till he ...
Excerpts from Hobbes's Leviathon meant to illustrate his version of the social contract and its necessity. Questions follow the reading for helping guide the student into getting out of the reading what needs to be gotten.
The Social Contract Thomas Hobbes CHAPTER 0 Thomas H.docxjoshua2345678
The Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes
CHAPTER 0
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English philosopher who played a
crucial role in the history of social thought. He develops a moral and
political theory that views justice and other ethi_cal ideals as resting on
an implied agreement among individuals to relmqmsh the nght to do
whatever they please, thus achieving security for all.
Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as
Concerning Their Felicity, and Misery
Nature hath made men so equal , in the faculties of body, and mind;
as that though there be found one man sometimes manifestly stron-
ger in body, or of quicker mind than another; yet when all is reck-
oned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so
considerable, as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any
benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he. For as to the
strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the stron-
gest: either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that
are in the same danger as himself.
A
nd
as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the ans grounded
upodn wo
rd
s, and especially that skill of proceeding upon general an tnfal11ble rules c 11 d · . '
few th· . . ' a e science; which very few have, and but in ings, as being not a nat' v f 1 b
(as prudence) wh·1 1 k I e acu ty, orn with us; nor attained ,
'
1
e we oo after som 1 )
1 equality amongst m h eone e se, find ye t a grea te r en, t an that of st h F experience· which 1 . rengt . or prudence, is but
, equa hme, equally bestows on all men , in ;h ose
Fro 111 T ho1nas Hob] . .
L _ )es . Lev ia th an ( 165 } ) . 154
C H A PT E R 20 TH E SO C IAL C ONTRACT 155
thin gs th ey equ a ll y a pply th e mselves unto. That which
l
. · d · bl · may perhaps
a
ke such equa 1ty m ere I e, 1s but a vain conceit f , tU . . . o ones own
·sdom whtch almost all men thmk they have in a gre t d w1 , . a er egree
I all
th e vulgar; th a t 1s , than a11 men but themselves and c h ' t 1 . . , a 1ew ot ers
1
.
10
m by fam e, or for concurrmg with themselves they ap F ' w , prove. or
such is the n ature of me_n , that howsoever they may acknowledge
many others to be more witty, or more eloquent, or more learned· t
1
. h b · ' ye
th ey will hardly be ieve t ere e many so wise as themselves: For the
see their own wit at hand, and other men's at a distance. But thi:
prove th rather ~hat _men are in t~at point equal, than unequal. For
th ere is not ordmanly a greater sign of the equal distribution of any
thing, than that every man is contented with his share.
from this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attain-
ing of our ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same thing,
which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies;
and in the way to their end, (which is principally their own conserva-
tion, and sometimes their delectation only,) endeavour to destroy, or
subdue one anoth.
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from httppenelope.uchicago.eduTh.docxcuddietheresa
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/52*.html)
The following is contained in the Fifty-second of Dio's Rome:—
1. How Caesar planned to lay aside his sovereignty (chaps. 140).
2. How he began to be called emperor (chap. 42).
Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Caesar (V) and Sextus Apuleius (B.C. 29).
1 1 Such were the achievements of the Romans and such their suffering under the kingship, under the republic, and under the dominion of a few, during a period of seven hundred and twenty-five years. After this they reverted to what was, strictly speaking, a monarchy, although Caesar planned to lay down his arms and to entrust the management of the state to the senate and the people. 2 He made his decision, however, in consultation with Agrippa and Maecenas, to whom he was wont to communicate all his secret plans; and Agrippa, taking the lead, spoke as follows:
AGRIPPA’S ADVICE
2 1 "Be not surprised, Caesar, if I shall try to turn your thoughts away from monarchy, even though I should derive many advantages from it, all if it was you who held the position. For if it were to be profitable to you also, I should advocate it most earnestly; 2 but since the privileges of a monarchy are by no means the same for the rulers as for their friends, but, on the contrary, jealousies and dangers fall to the lot of the rulers while their friends reap, without incurring either jealousies or dangers, all the benefits they can wish for, I have thought it right, in this question as in all others, to have regard, not for my own interests, but for yours and the state's. 3 "Let us consider, now, at our leisure all the characteristics of this system of government and then shape our course in whichever direction our reasoning may lead us. 4 For surely no one will assert that we are obliged to choose monarchy in any and all circumstances, even if it be not profitable. If we choose it, people will think that we have fallen victims to our own good fortune and have been bereft of our senses by our successes, or else that we have been aiming at sovereignty all the while, making of our appeals to your father and of our devotion to his memory a mere pretext and using the people and the senate as a cloak, with the purpose, not of freeing these latter from those who plotted against them, but of making them slaves to ourselves. 5 And either explanation involves censure for us. For who could help being indignant when he finds that we have said one thing and then discovers that we have meant another? Would he not hate us much more now than if we had at the outset laid bare our desires and set out directly for the monarchy? 6 To be sure, men have come to believe that it somehow is an attribute of human nature, however selfish that may seem, to resort to deeds of violence; for every one who excels in any respect thinks it right that he should have more than his inferior, and if he meets with any success, ...
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from httppenelope.uchicago.eduTh.docxmariona83
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/52*.html)
The following is contained in the Fifty-second of Dio's Rome:—
1. How Caesar planned to lay aside his sovereignty (chaps. 140).
2. How he began to be called emperor (chap. 42).
Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Caesar (V) and Sextus Apuleius (B.C. 29).
1 1 Such were the achievements of the Romans and such their suffering under the kingship, under the republic, and under the dominion of a few, during a period of seven hundred and twenty-five years. After this they reverted to what was, strictly speaking, a monarchy, although Caesar planned to lay down his arms and to entrust the management of the state to the senate and the people. 2 He made his decision, however, in consultation with Agrippa and Maecenas, to whom he was wont to communicate all his secret plans; and Agrippa, taking the lead, spoke as follows:
AGRIPPA’S ADVICE
2 1 "Be not surprised, Caesar, if I shall try to turn your thoughts away from monarchy, even though I should derive many advantages from it, all if it was you who held the position. For if it were to be profitable to you also, I should advocate it most earnestly; 2 but since the privileges of a monarchy are by no means the same for the rulers as for their friends, but, on the contrary, jealousies and dangers fall to the lot of the rulers while their friends reap, without incurring either jealousies or dangers, all the benefits they can wish for, I have thought it right, in this question as in all others, to have regard, not for my own interests, but for yours and the state's. 3 "Let us consider, now, at our leisure all the characteristics of this system of government and then shape our course in whichever direction our reasoning may lead us. 4 For surely no one will assert that we are obliged to choose monarchy in any and all circumstances, even if it be not profitable. If we choose it, people will think that we have fallen victims to our own good fortune and have been bereft of our senses by our successes, or else that we have been aiming at sovereignty all the while, making of our appeals to your father and of our devotion to his memory a mere pretext and using the people and the senate as a cloak, with the purpose, not of freeing these latter from those who plotted against them, but of making them slaves to ourselves. 5 And either explanation involves censure for us. For who could help being indignant when he finds that we have said one thing and then discovers that we have meant another? Would he not hate us much more now than if we had at the outset laid bare our desires and set out directly for the monarchy? 6 To be sure, men have come to believe that it somehow is an attribute of human nature, however selfish that may seem, to resort to deeds of violence; for every one who excels in any respect thinks it right that he should have more than his inferior, and if he meets with any success,.
From Plato’s Republic Book II, Trans Benjamin Jowett(AA) Socra.docxhanneloremccaffery
From Plato’s Republic Book II, Trans Benjamin Jowett
(AA) Socrates is having a discussion about “justice” with Adeimantus and Glaucon. The Greek word for “justice” is “dikaion” or “right”. A better translation, the one used by translator Robin Waterfield, is “morality”.
Thrasymachus, a rash young orator has just objected to the course of the conversation so far that when Socrates and the others discuss kings, they insist on discussing their obligations to their subjects. But really, kings are like shepherds, who fatten their animals for the slaughter—i.e., for personal advantage. Thasymachus foreshadows Machiavelli and later Nietzsche in arguing that what ordinary folks call “right” is just a set of rules that help us live together, and protect us against stronger people. If a person can gain advantage without assisting others, there is a sense in which he should do so. Thus a strong person, if he can get away with it, should feel no guilt in using others as a means to his own purposes. Glaucon, in the passage below, provides an example of this:
GLAUCON:
They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice, evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when men have both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think that they had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the origin and nature of justice; --it is a mean or compromise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and origin of justice.
Now that those who practise justice do so involuntarily and because they have not the power to be unjust will best appear if we imagine something of this kind: having given both to the just and the unjust power to do what they will, let us watch and see whither desire will lead them; then we shall discover in the very act the just and unjust man to be proceeding along the same road, following their interest, which all natures deem to be their good, and are only diverted into the path of justice by the force of law. The liberty which we are supposing may be most completely given to them in the form of such a power as is said to have been possessed by Gyges the ancestor of Croesus the Lydian. According to the tradition, Gyges was a shepherd in the service of the king of Lydia; there was a great storm, and an earthquake made a ...
The Ring of Gyges” byPlatoRelief of PlatoThoemmes Press.docxlillie234567
“The Ring of Gyges” by
Plato
Relief of PlatoThoemmes Press
About the author. . . . Other than anecdotal accounts, not much is known
about Plato’s early life. The association with his friend and mentor Socrates
was undoubtedly a major influence. Plato’s founding of the Academy, a
school formed for scientific and mathematical investigation, not only es-
tablished the systematic beginning of Western science but also influenced
the structure of higher education from medieval to modern times. Plutarch
once wrote, “Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is Plato.”
About the work. . . . Glaucon, the main speaker of this reading from Plato’s
Republic,1 expresses a widely and deeply-held ethical point of view known
as egoism—a view taught by a Antiphon, a sophistic contemporary of
Socrates. Egoistic theories are founded on the belief that everyone acts
only from the motive of self-interest. For example, the egoist accounts for
the fact that people help people on the basis of what the helpers might get
in return from those helped or others like them. This view, neither rep-
resentative of Plato’s nor of Socrates’s philosophy, is presented here by
Glaucon as a stalking horse for the development of a more thoroughly
developed ethical theory. Although Socrates held that everyone attempts
to act from the motive of “self-interest,” his interpretation of that motive
is quite different from the view elaborated by Glaucon because Glaucon
1. Plato.The Republic. Trans. by Benjamin Jowlett, Book II, 358d—361d.
1
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
seems unaware of the attendant formative effects on the soul by actions
for short-term pleasure.
From the reading. . .
“. . . those who practice justice do so involuntarily and because they
have not the power to be unjust. . . ”
Ideas of Interest from “The Ring of
Gyges”
1. According to the Glaucon’s brief, why do most persons act justly?
Explain whether you think Glaucon’s explanation is psychologically
correct.
2. If a person could be certain not only that an action resulting in per-
sonal benefit would not be discovered but also that if this action were
discovered, no punishing consequences would follow, then would there
any reason for that person to act morally?
3. Is it true that sometimes our self-interest is served bynotacting in our
self-interest? Fyodor Dostoevsky writes:
Advantage! What is advantage? And will you take it upon yourself to
define with perfect accuracy in what the advantage of a man consists?
And what if it so happens that a man’s advantage,sometimes, not only
may, but even must, consist in his desiring in certain cases what is harm-
ful to himself and not advantageous.2
Construct an example illustrating this view, and attempt to resolve the
paradoxical expression of the question.
2. Fyodor Dostoevsky.Notes from Underground. Trans. Constance Garnett. 1864.
2 Reading For Philosophical Inquiry: A Brief Introduction
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
4. Quite often people are pleased when the.
Excerpts from Hobbes's Leviathon meant to illustrate his version of the social contract and its necessity. Questions follow the reading for helping guide the student into getting out of the reading what needs to be gotten.
The Social Contract Thomas Hobbes CHAPTER 0 Thomas H.docxjoshua2345678
The Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes
CHAPTER 0
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English philosopher who played a
crucial role in the history of social thought. He develops a moral and
political theory that views justice and other ethi_cal ideals as resting on
an implied agreement among individuals to relmqmsh the nght to do
whatever they please, thus achieving security for all.
Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as
Concerning Their Felicity, and Misery
Nature hath made men so equal , in the faculties of body, and mind;
as that though there be found one man sometimes manifestly stron-
ger in body, or of quicker mind than another; yet when all is reck-
oned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so
considerable, as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any
benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he. For as to the
strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the stron-
gest: either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that
are in the same danger as himself.
A
nd
as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the ans grounded
upodn wo
rd
s, and especially that skill of proceeding upon general an tnfal11ble rules c 11 d · . '
few th· . . ' a e science; which very few have, and but in ings, as being not a nat' v f 1 b
(as prudence) wh·1 1 k I e acu ty, orn with us; nor attained ,
'
1
e we oo after som 1 )
1 equality amongst m h eone e se, find ye t a grea te r en, t an that of st h F experience· which 1 . rengt . or prudence, is but
, equa hme, equally bestows on all men , in ;h ose
Fro 111 T ho1nas Hob] . .
L _ )es . Lev ia th an ( 165 } ) . 154
C H A PT E R 20 TH E SO C IAL C ONTRACT 155
thin gs th ey equ a ll y a pply th e mselves unto. That which
l
. · d · bl · may perhaps
a
ke such equa 1ty m ere I e, 1s but a vain conceit f , tU . . . o ones own
·sdom whtch almost all men thmk they have in a gre t d w1 , . a er egree
I all
th e vulgar; th a t 1s , than a11 men but themselves and c h ' t 1 . . , a 1ew ot ers
1
.
10
m by fam e, or for concurrmg with themselves they ap F ' w , prove. or
such is the n ature of me_n , that howsoever they may acknowledge
many others to be more witty, or more eloquent, or more learned· t
1
. h b · ' ye
th ey will hardly be ieve t ere e many so wise as themselves: For the
see their own wit at hand, and other men's at a distance. But thi:
prove th rather ~hat _men are in t~at point equal, than unequal. For
th ere is not ordmanly a greater sign of the equal distribution of any
thing, than that every man is contented with his share.
from this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attain-
ing of our ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same thing,
which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies;
and in the way to their end, (which is principally their own conserva-
tion, and sometimes their delectation only,) endeavour to destroy, or
subdue one anoth.
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from httppenelope.uchicago.eduTh.docxcuddietheresa
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/52*.html)
The following is contained in the Fifty-second of Dio's Rome:—
1. How Caesar planned to lay aside his sovereignty (chaps. 140).
2. How he began to be called emperor (chap. 42).
Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Caesar (V) and Sextus Apuleius (B.C. 29).
1 1 Such were the achievements of the Romans and such their suffering under the kingship, under the republic, and under the dominion of a few, during a period of seven hundred and twenty-five years. After this they reverted to what was, strictly speaking, a monarchy, although Caesar planned to lay down his arms and to entrust the management of the state to the senate and the people. 2 He made his decision, however, in consultation with Agrippa and Maecenas, to whom he was wont to communicate all his secret plans; and Agrippa, taking the lead, spoke as follows:
AGRIPPA’S ADVICE
2 1 "Be not surprised, Caesar, if I shall try to turn your thoughts away from monarchy, even though I should derive many advantages from it, all if it was you who held the position. For if it were to be profitable to you also, I should advocate it most earnestly; 2 but since the privileges of a monarchy are by no means the same for the rulers as for their friends, but, on the contrary, jealousies and dangers fall to the lot of the rulers while their friends reap, without incurring either jealousies or dangers, all the benefits they can wish for, I have thought it right, in this question as in all others, to have regard, not for my own interests, but for yours and the state's. 3 "Let us consider, now, at our leisure all the characteristics of this system of government and then shape our course in whichever direction our reasoning may lead us. 4 For surely no one will assert that we are obliged to choose monarchy in any and all circumstances, even if it be not profitable. If we choose it, people will think that we have fallen victims to our own good fortune and have been bereft of our senses by our successes, or else that we have been aiming at sovereignty all the while, making of our appeals to your father and of our devotion to his memory a mere pretext and using the people and the senate as a cloak, with the purpose, not of freeing these latter from those who plotted against them, but of making them slaves to ourselves. 5 And either explanation involves censure for us. For who could help being indignant when he finds that we have said one thing and then discovers that we have meant another? Would he not hate us much more now than if we had at the outset laid bare our desires and set out directly for the monarchy? 6 To be sure, men have come to believe that it somehow is an attribute of human nature, however selfish that may seem, to resort to deeds of violence; for every one who excels in any respect thinks it right that he should have more than his inferior, and if he meets with any success, ...
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from httppenelope.uchicago.eduTh.docxmariona83
Dio Cassius, Book 52 (adapted from http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/52*.html)
The following is contained in the Fifty-second of Dio's Rome:—
1. How Caesar planned to lay aside his sovereignty (chaps. 140).
2. How he began to be called emperor (chap. 42).
Duration of time, the remainder of the consulship of Caesar (V) and Sextus Apuleius (B.C. 29).
1 1 Such were the achievements of the Romans and such their suffering under the kingship, under the republic, and under the dominion of a few, during a period of seven hundred and twenty-five years. After this they reverted to what was, strictly speaking, a monarchy, although Caesar planned to lay down his arms and to entrust the management of the state to the senate and the people. 2 He made his decision, however, in consultation with Agrippa and Maecenas, to whom he was wont to communicate all his secret plans; and Agrippa, taking the lead, spoke as follows:
AGRIPPA’S ADVICE
2 1 "Be not surprised, Caesar, if I shall try to turn your thoughts away from monarchy, even though I should derive many advantages from it, all if it was you who held the position. For if it were to be profitable to you also, I should advocate it most earnestly; 2 but since the privileges of a monarchy are by no means the same for the rulers as for their friends, but, on the contrary, jealousies and dangers fall to the lot of the rulers while their friends reap, without incurring either jealousies or dangers, all the benefits they can wish for, I have thought it right, in this question as in all others, to have regard, not for my own interests, but for yours and the state's. 3 "Let us consider, now, at our leisure all the characteristics of this system of government and then shape our course in whichever direction our reasoning may lead us. 4 For surely no one will assert that we are obliged to choose monarchy in any and all circumstances, even if it be not profitable. If we choose it, people will think that we have fallen victims to our own good fortune and have been bereft of our senses by our successes, or else that we have been aiming at sovereignty all the while, making of our appeals to your father and of our devotion to his memory a mere pretext and using the people and the senate as a cloak, with the purpose, not of freeing these latter from those who plotted against them, but of making them slaves to ourselves. 5 And either explanation involves censure for us. For who could help being indignant when he finds that we have said one thing and then discovers that we have meant another? Would he not hate us much more now than if we had at the outset laid bare our desires and set out directly for the monarchy? 6 To be sure, men have come to believe that it somehow is an attribute of human nature, however selfish that may seem, to resort to deeds of violence; for every one who excels in any respect thinks it right that he should have more than his inferior, and if he meets with any success,.
From Plato’s Republic Book II, Trans Benjamin Jowett(AA) Socra.docxhanneloremccaffery
From Plato’s Republic Book II, Trans Benjamin Jowett
(AA) Socrates is having a discussion about “justice” with Adeimantus and Glaucon. The Greek word for “justice” is “dikaion” or “right”. A better translation, the one used by translator Robin Waterfield, is “morality”.
Thrasymachus, a rash young orator has just objected to the course of the conversation so far that when Socrates and the others discuss kings, they insist on discussing their obligations to their subjects. But really, kings are like shepherds, who fatten their animals for the slaughter—i.e., for personal advantage. Thasymachus foreshadows Machiavelli and later Nietzsche in arguing that what ordinary folks call “right” is just a set of rules that help us live together, and protect us against stronger people. If a person can gain advantage without assisting others, there is a sense in which he should do so. Thus a strong person, if he can get away with it, should feel no guilt in using others as a means to his own purposes. Glaucon, in the passage below, provides an example of this:
GLAUCON:
They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice, evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when men have both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think that they had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the origin and nature of justice; --it is a mean or compromise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and origin of justice.
Now that those who practise justice do so involuntarily and because they have not the power to be unjust will best appear if we imagine something of this kind: having given both to the just and the unjust power to do what they will, let us watch and see whither desire will lead them; then we shall discover in the very act the just and unjust man to be proceeding along the same road, following their interest, which all natures deem to be their good, and are only diverted into the path of justice by the force of law. The liberty which we are supposing may be most completely given to them in the form of such a power as is said to have been possessed by Gyges the ancestor of Croesus the Lydian. According to the tradition, Gyges was a shepherd in the service of the king of Lydia; there was a great storm, and an earthquake made a ...
The Ring of Gyges” byPlatoRelief of PlatoThoemmes Press.docxlillie234567
“The Ring of Gyges” by
Plato
Relief of PlatoThoemmes Press
About the author. . . . Other than anecdotal accounts, not much is known
about Plato’s early life. The association with his friend and mentor Socrates
was undoubtedly a major influence. Plato’s founding of the Academy, a
school formed for scientific and mathematical investigation, not only es-
tablished the systematic beginning of Western science but also influenced
the structure of higher education from medieval to modern times. Plutarch
once wrote, “Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is Plato.”
About the work. . . . Glaucon, the main speaker of this reading from Plato’s
Republic,1 expresses a widely and deeply-held ethical point of view known
as egoism—a view taught by a Antiphon, a sophistic contemporary of
Socrates. Egoistic theories are founded on the belief that everyone acts
only from the motive of self-interest. For example, the egoist accounts for
the fact that people help people on the basis of what the helpers might get
in return from those helped or others like them. This view, neither rep-
resentative of Plato’s nor of Socrates’s philosophy, is presented here by
Glaucon as a stalking horse for the development of a more thoroughly
developed ethical theory. Although Socrates held that everyone attempts
to act from the motive of “self-interest,” his interpretation of that motive
is quite different from the view elaborated by Glaucon because Glaucon
1. Plato.The Republic. Trans. by Benjamin Jowlett, Book II, 358d—361d.
1
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
seems unaware of the attendant formative effects on the soul by actions
for short-term pleasure.
From the reading. . .
“. . . those who practice justice do so involuntarily and because they
have not the power to be unjust. . . ”
Ideas of Interest from “The Ring of
Gyges”
1. According to the Glaucon’s brief, why do most persons act justly?
Explain whether you think Glaucon’s explanation is psychologically
correct.
2. If a person could be certain not only that an action resulting in per-
sonal benefit would not be discovered but also that if this action were
discovered, no punishing consequences would follow, then would there
any reason for that person to act morally?
3. Is it true that sometimes our self-interest is served bynotacting in our
self-interest? Fyodor Dostoevsky writes:
Advantage! What is advantage? And will you take it upon yourself to
define with perfect accuracy in what the advantage of a man consists?
And what if it so happens that a man’s advantage,sometimes, not only
may, but even must, consist in his desiring in certain cases what is harm-
ful to himself and not advantageous.2
Construct an example illustrating this view, and attempt to resolve the
paradoxical expression of the question.
2. Fyodor Dostoevsky.Notes from Underground. Trans. Constance Garnett. 1864.
2 Reading For Philosophical Inquiry: A Brief Introduction
“The Ring of Gyges” by Plato
4. Quite often people are pleased when the.
Unit 3 Enlightenment and RevolutionThe SourcesMontesquieu Exce.docxmarilucorr
Unit 3: Enlightenment and RevolutionThe Sources:
Montesquieu: Excerpts from The Spirit of the Laws, 1748
In every government there are three sorts of power; the legislative; the executive, in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive, in regard to things that depend on the civil law.
By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws, and amends or abrogates those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives embassies; establishes the public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals, or determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter we shall call the judiciary power, and the other simply the executive power of the state.
The political liberty of the subject is a tranquillity of mind, arising from the opinion each person has of his safety. In order to have this liberty, it is requisite the government be so constituted as one man need not be afraid of` another.
When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may anse, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner.
Again, there is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control, for the judge would then be the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with all the violence of an oppressor…
The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch; because this branch of government, which has always need of expedition, is better administered by one than by many: Whereas, whatever depends on the legislative power, is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person.
But if there was no monarch, and the executive power was committed to a certain number of persons selected from the legislative body, there would be an end then of liberty; by reason the two powers would be united, as the same persons would actually sometimes have, and would moreover be always able to have, a share in both…
The legislative body should not assemble of itself. For a body is supposed to have no will but when it is assembled; and besides, were it not to assemble unanimously, it would be impossible to determine which was really the legislative body, the part assembled, or the other. And if it had a right to prorogue itself, it might happen never to be prorogued; which would be extremely dangerous, in case it should ever attempt to encroach on the executive power. Besides, there are seasons, some of which are more proper than others, for assembling the legislative body: It is fit therefore that the executive power should regulate the time of convening, as well as the duration of those assemblies, according to ...
Civil Disobedience By Henry David Thoreau 1849 I h.docxclarebernice
Civil Disobedience
By Henry David Thoreau
1849
I heartily accept the motto, "That government is best which governs least"; and I
should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally
amounts to this, which also I believe- "That government is best which governs not at
all"; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they
will have. Government is at best but an expedient; but most governments are usually,
and all governments are sometimes, inexpedient. The objections which have been
brought against a standing army, and they are many and weighty, and deserve to
prevail, may also at last be brought against a standing government. The standing army
is only an arm of the standing government. The government itself, which is only the
mode which the people have chosen to execute their will, is equally liable to be
abused and perverted before the people can act through it. Witness the present
Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few individuals using the standing
government as their tool; for, in the outset, the people would not have consented to
this measure.
This American government- what is it but a tradition, though a recent one,
endeavoring to transmit itself unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of
its integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man
can bend it to his will. It is a sort of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not
the less necessary for this; for the people must have some complicated machinery or
other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of government which they have.
Governments show thus how successfully men can be imposed on, even impose on
themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must all allow. Yet this
government never of itself furthered any enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it
got out of its way. It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West. It does
not educate. The character inherent in the American people has done all that has been
accomplished; and it would have done somewhat more, if the government had not
sometimes got in its way. For government is an expedient by which men would fain
succeed in letting one another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most expedient,
the governed are most let alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not made of
india-rubber, would never manage to bounce over the obstacles which legislators are
continually putting in their way; and, if one were to judge these men wholly by the
effects of their actions and not partly by their intentions, they would deserve to be
classed and punished with those mischievous persons who put obstructions on the
railroads.
But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-
government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better
government. Let ...
Discourse on InequalityJean Jacques RousseauTable of.docxlynettearnold46882
Discourse on Inequality
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Table of Contents
Discourse on Inequality............................................................................................................................................1
Jean Jacques Rousseau...................................................................................................................................1
DEDICATION TO THE REPUBLIC OF GENEVA....................................................................................1
PREFACE......................................................................................................................................................6
A DISSERTATION ON THE ORIGIN AND FOUNDATION OF THE INEQUALITY OF
MANKIND ...................................................................................................................................................9
THE FIRST PART.......................................................................................................................................10
THE SECOND PART..................................................................................................................................23
Discourse on Inequality
i
Discourse on Inequality
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Translated by G. D. H. Cole
A DISCOURSE
ON A SUBJECT PROPOSED BY THE ACADEMY OF DIJON:
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF INEQUALITY AMONG MEN,
AND IS IT AUTHORISED BY NATURAL LAW?
We should consider what is natural not in things
depraved but in those which are rightly ordered
according to nature. Aristotle, Politics, Bk. i, ch. 5
DEDICATION TO THE REPUBLIC OF GENEVA
MOST HONOURABLE, MAGNIFICENT AND SOVEREIGN LORDS, convinced that only a virtuous citizen
can confer on his country honours which it can accept, I have been for thirty years past working to make myself
worthy to offer you some public homage; and, this fortunate opportunity supplementing in some degree the
insufficiency of my efforts, I have thought myself entitled to follow in embracing it the dictates of the zeal which
inspires me, rather than the right which should have been my authorisation. Having had the happiness to be born
among you, how could I reflect on the equality which nature has ordained between men, and the inequality which
they have introduced, without reflecting on the profound wisdom by which both are in this State happily
combined and made to coincide, in the manner that is most in conformity with natural law, and most favourable to
society, to the maintenance of public order and to the happiness of individuals? In my researches after the best
rules common sense can lay down for the constitution of a government, I have been so struck at finding them all
in actuality in your own, that even had I not been born within your walls I should have thought it indispensable
for me to offer this picture of human society to that people, which of all others seems to be possessed of its
greatest advantages, and to have best guarded aga.
18John LockeJust as the political philosophy of Thomas.docxdrennanmicah
18
John Locke
Just as the political philosophy of Thomas
Hobbes was shaped by the politics of absolutism,
so that of John Locke (1632-1704) represented a
response to experiments with republicanism.
Locke wrote his Two Treatises of Government
almost immediately after the Glorious Revolution
of 1688 in which a corrupt, absolutist British
monarch was replaced by William and Mary in a
bloodless coup that established a constitutional
monarchy.
As Locke stated in the preface of his Of Civil
Government , he hoped “to establish the throne of
our present King William; to make good his title,
in the consent of the people . . . and to justify to
the world the people of England, whose love of
their just and natural rights, with their resolution
to preserve them, saved the nation when it was on
the very birth of slavery and ruin.”
Locke’s Second Treatise had a clear and
profound influence on the American revolution.
His theory and justification of revolution appear in
almost verbatim quotations in the Declaration of
Independence (although Jefferson later denied any
knowing borrowing from Locke or anyone else),
and justify the separation from Britain by appeal
to high philosophical argument rather than merely
transient expediency.
Locke’s greatest contributions to the American
philosophy of government can be found in his
elaboration of the parliamentary ideals of mixed
government and separation of powers. He justifies
constitutional change by investigating the origins
and structure of civil (political) society. Locke’s
challenge to traditional absolutism arises in part
from the Protestant notion that each individual has
a direct relation to God. Hence, no political
intermediary (i.e. a king or monarch) is necessary.
God gives man free will to form his own civil
society.
Like Hobbes, Locke explains the civil society
by first addressing the state of nature. Man must
have a reason to form the civil society if God is
removed from the equation. Unlike Hobbes,
however, Locke argues that the state of nature is
not a state of anarchy, but a state of perfect
equality. It is only when men come into conflict
over property that the need for the civil society
becomes clear. Instead of joining the civil society
for self-preservation, men join to protect property.
For Locke, the function and end of government are
the preservation of life, liberty, and property.
Perhaps one of the key elements of Locke’s
argument is his emphasis on government as a
process. Government is not static; it responds to
the process of human development and to
changing human needs. We can alter or abolish it
accordingly as it suits our needs. In addition, it is
a process of moving from the state of nature where
total freedom and equality reign, to a civil society
where we give up certain liberties in order to gain
security.
As you read Locke, compare and contrast his
view of human nature and the justification and
legitimate power.
1. Reflect upon and discuss some particular topic or issue of your.docxpaynetawnya
1. Reflect upon and discuss some particular topic or issue of your choice that is directly relevant to the subject of this unit (Islam); AND
2. Discuss your personal reaction to it, and why or how it is relevant to you personally and/or for understanding religion today.
400-600 words. College level writing. No hence” or thus”, please. I have my own Turnitin account which will check your work along with my critique. Thanks for your time.
Glaukon's Challenge — Republic 2 1
357a
357a
b
c
d
358a
b
c
Glaukon's Challenge (REPUBLIC 2) — PLATO
Translated by Cathal Woods. 2010, Creative Commons BY-NC-ND
With these words I [Socrates] thought myself released from talking,
but it seems it was only a prelude, since Glaukon, who is always most brave
about everything, did not accept Thrasymachos' withdrawal but said,
"Socrates, do you want to seem to have persuaded us, or truly persuade us,
that justice is better than injustice in every respect?"
"I would prefer truly," I said, "if it were in my power."
"Well you aren't doing what you want," he said. "Tell me, do you
think there is the following kind of good, which we are pleased to possess
not because we desire its consequences, but which we welcome for its own
sake, such as pleasant experiences and pleasures that are harmless and give
rise to nothing else subsequently besides the pleasure of having them?"
"I certainly do think there is this kind of good," I said.
"And what about a kind that we love both in its own right and for
what comes from it, such as thinking and seeing and being healthy? We
welcome such things for both reasons, I suppose."
"Yes," I said.
"And do you see some third kind of good," he said, "which includes
exercise and medical treatment when sick and medical practice and other
forms of money-making, since we say these things are laborious and yet
beneficial for us, and we don't want to have them for their own sakes but
for the sake of the wages and various other things that come from them."
"There is indeed this third kind," I said. "But what of it?"
"Into which of these would you put justice?" he said.
"I think," I said, "into the most fine, the one that is loved, by the
person who intends to be blessed, for itself and for what comes from it."
"That's not where most people put it," he said, "but in the laborious
class, which must be practiced for the sake of wages and the standing that
comes from reputation, but which itself should be avoided because
difficult."
"I know it's thought of this way," I said, "and Thrasymachos has been
finding fault with it on such grounds for a long time, and praising injustice.
It seems I am somewhat slow to learn."
"Come then," he said, "listen to me and see if it still seems so to you.
For Thrasymachos appears to me to have been soothed by you, like a snake,
earlier than he should. For me, the presentation ...
Aristotle’s Informal fallacies 1. Argumentum ad Baculum or .docxfredharris32
Aristotle’s Informal fallacies
1. Argumentum ad Baculum or Argumentum Baculinum:
2. Argumentum ad Hominem (abusive):
3. Argumentum ad Hominem (circumstantial):
4. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam:
5. Argumentum ad Misericordiam:
6. Argumentum ad Populum:
7. Argumentum ad Verecundiam:
8. Accident:
9. Converse Accident or Hasty Generalization:
10. False Cause:
* non causa pro causa:
* post hoc ergo propter hoc:
11. Begging the Question or Petitio Principii or Circular Argument:
12. Complex Question:
13. Ignorantio Elenchi or Irrelevant Conclusion:
THE NEW ORGANON
OR TRUE DIRECTIONS CONCERNING THE INTERPRETATION OF NATURE
Francis Bacon
1620
http://www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm
sections XXXVIII-LXII (38-62)
XXXVIII
The idols and false notions which are now in possession of the human understanding, and have
taken deep root therein, not only so beset men's minds that truth can hardly find entrance, but
even after entrance is obtained, they will again in the very instauration of the sciences meet and
trouble us, unless men being forewarned of the danger fortify themselves as far as may be
against their assaults.
XXXIX
There are four classes of Idols which beset men's minds. To these for distinction's sake I have
assigned names, calling the first class Idols of the Tribe; the second, Idols of the Cave; the third,
Idols of the Market Place; the fourth, Idols of the Theater.
XL
The formation of ideas and axioms by true induction is no doubt the proper remedy to be applied
for the keeping off and clearing away of idols. To point them out, however, is of great use; for
the doctrine of Idols is to the interpretation of nature what the doctrine of the refutation of
sophisms is to common logic.
XLI
The Idols of the Tribe have their foundation in human nature itself, and in the tribe or race of
men. For it is a false assertion that the sense of man is the measure of things. On the contrary, all
perceptions as well of the sense as of the mind are according to the measure of the individual and
not according to the measure of the universe. And the human understanding is like a false mirror,
which, receiving rays irregularly, distorts and discolors the nature of things by mingling its own
nature with it.
XLII
The Idols of the Cave are the idols of the individual man. For everyone (besides the errors
common to human nature in general) has a cave or den of his own, which refracts and discolors
the light of nature, owing either to his own proper and peculiar nature; or to his education and
conversation with others; or to the reading of books, and the authority of those whom he esteems
and admires; or to the differences of impressions, accordingly as they take place in a mind
preoccupied and predisposed or in a mind indifferent and settled; or the like. So that the spirit of
man (according as it is meted out to different individuals) is in fact a thing variable and full of
perturbation ...
Read and print out this webpage about the Declaration of Senti.docxaudeleypearl
Read and print out this webpage about the Declaration of Sentiments, 1848http://ecssba.rutgers.edu/docs/seneca.html
New Study Guide Questions1. How does this Declaration compare with the Declaration of Independence? What points is it makingby imitating some aspects of the earlier declaration? What points does it echo? Does it ever critiquethe earlier declaration?
2. Where and how does the 1848 Declaration differ from the 1776 declaration? What do“sentiments” mean in 1848? (You can research this online—you must cite sources!) Cite specificlines and passages. If King George III is the villain in 1776, how would you understand theopponent in 1848?
3. Read this paragraph about the origins of The Declaration of Sentiments:
“Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, two American activists in the movement to abolish slavery called
together the first conference to address Women's rights and issues in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. Part of the
reason for doing so had been that Mott had been refused permission to speak at the world anti-slavery convention in
London, even though she had been an official delegate. Applying the analysis of human freedom developed in the
Abolitionist movement, Stanton and others began the public career of modern feminist analysis.”(http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/senecafalls.asp)Given that Abolitionists in England and America were often women, in what ways can you see theseearly feminists drawing upon their greater understanding of slavery to give themselves more power?Reading the The Declaration of Sentiments with this frame of reference in mind, how does it changeyour understanding of their ideals? Cite specific lines and passages.
4. Consider the resolutions before the declaration; how would you paraphrase each of these into ourcontemporary American English? Which of the 1848 concerns still serious issues for women andmen today? Cite specific lines and passages.
5. Consider the logic and reasoning used in the resolutions of 1848; how do they parallel use of logicand reason in the 1776 declaration? Consider the emotions in the two declarations; how are theyparallel or not parallel? Where does the 1848 declaration diverge from the 1776 declaration? Arethere parts that seem to be no longer valid or no longer relevant? What parts are the most relevanttoday? Cite specific lines and passages.
Read the “Address by Elizabeth Cady Stanton on Woman's RightsSeptember 1848," which fills five html pages. You have to click through the document.http://ecssba.rutgers.edu/docs/ecswoman1.html
6. Stanton in her opening explains why only a woman can speak for women. What are her reasons,and do you think they are valid even today? What is the reason that she brings up other cultures? How do women fare in her time? What is the meaning of the little quote from a Byron poem in herlecture? What famous and powerful women does she refer to, and what point is she making bybringing up their names? Cite specific lines and passages.
...
Answer ALL of the following questions1.Part One Renaissance Id.docxnolanalgernon
Answer ALL of the following questions:
1.
Part One: Renaissance Ideas
As Islam spread across large regions, Muslim scholars began to adopt ideas from Ancient philosophers. In the following passages, we read some thoughts about the role of Aristotle in Muslim and Renaissance Italian political thought. The first passage was written by Muslim scholar Mohammed Al-Farabi.
Now when one receives instruction.., if he perceives their ideas themselves with his intellect, and his assent to them is by means of certain demonstration, then the science that comprises these cognitions is philosophy. Therefore, according to the ancients [Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates], religion is an imitation of philosophy. Both comprise the same subjects and both give an account of the ultimate principles of the beings. For both supply knowledge about the first principle and cause of the beings, and both give an account of the ultimate end for the sake of which man is made - that is, supreme happiness - and the ultimate end of every one of the other beings. In everything of which philosophy gives an account based on intellectual perception or conception, religion gives an account based on imagination. In everything demonstrated by philosophy, religion employs persuasion. It follows, then, that the idea of Imam, Philosopher and Legislator is a single entity.
~ Al-Farabi (ca. 870-950)
Islam. (n.d.). Islam.
Retrieved from
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/arab-y67s11.asp
The following passage comes from medieval thinker Roger Bacon:
The next consideration from effects is taken by comparing our state with that of the ancient Philosophers; who, though they were without that quickening grace which makes man worthy of eternal life, and where into we enter at baptism, yet lived beyond all comparison better than we, both in all decency and in contempt of the world, with all its delights and riches and honors; as all men may read in the works of Aristotle Seneca, Tully [Cicero], Plato, Socrates, and others; and so it was that they attained to the secrets of wisdom and found out all knowledge. But we Christians have discovered nothing worthy of those philosophers, nor can we even understand their wisdom; which ignorance of ours springs from this cause, that our morals are worse than theirs. For it is impossible that wisdom should coexist with sin. But certain it is that, if there were so much wisdom in the world as men think, these evils would not be committed. And therefore, when we see everywhere (and especially among the clergy) such corruption of life, then their studies must needs be corrupt. Many wise men considering this, and pondering on God's wisdom and the learning of the saints and the truth of histories have reckoned that the times of Antichrist are at hand in these days of ours.
~ Roger Bacon ca. 1271
Paul Halsall (1996) Medieval Sourcebook: Roger Bacon: Despair over Thirteenth Century Learning
Retrieved from
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/bacon1.asp
Que.
This is a study of Jesus being defended by Pilate. He did all he knew how to do to set Jesus free, but he finally caved into the demands of the angry Jews who wanted Jesus crucified.
Rousseau Reading - On the Social ContractDan Ewert
Excerpts from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's On the Social Contract meant to illustrate his version of the social contract and its necessity. Questions follow the reading for helping guide the student into getting out of the reading what needs to be gotten.
BOOK IIAn Excerpt from The Republicby Plato (360 B.C.) Link.docxAASTHA76
BOOK II
An Excerpt from
The Republic
by Plato (360 B.C.) Link (Links to an external site.)
translated by Benjamin Jowett
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Kindly provided by Project Gutenberg.org Some business organizations are actively trying to block student access to free literature such as this, even though the copyrights for these publications expired many, many years ago. This battle occurs in the world's commercial courts. If you feel strongly that students should be allowed to read copyright-free literature, please consider making a donation to Project Gutenberg ---->Link (Links to an external site.)
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GLAUCON speaks:
They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice, evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when men have both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think that they had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the origin and nature of justice;—it is a mean or compromise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and origin of justice.
Now that those who practise justice do so involuntarily and because they have not the power to be unjust will best appear if we imagine something of this kind: having given both to the just and the unjust power to do what they will, let us watch and see whither desire will lead them; then we shall discover in the very act the just and unjust man to be proceeding along the same road, following their interest, which all natures deem to be their good, and are only diverted into the path of justice by the force of law. The liberty which we are supposing may be most completely given to them in the form of such a power as is said to have been possessed by Gyges the ancestor of Croesus the Lydian. According to the tradition, Gyges was a shepherd in the service of the king of Lydia; there was a great storm, and an earthquake made an opening in the earth at the place where he was feeding his flock. Amazed at the sight, he descended into the opening, where, among other marvels, he beheld a hollow brazen horse, having ...
W6a1.Part One Renaissance IdeasAs Islam spread across large r.docxmelbruce90096
W6a
1.Part One: Renaissance Ideas
As Islam spread across large regions, Muslim scholars began to adopt ideas from Ancient philosophers. In the following passages, we read some thoughts about the role of Aristotle in Muslim and Renaissance Italian political thought. The first passage was written by Muslim scholar Mohammed Al-Farabi.
Now when one receives instruction.., if he perceives their ideas themselves with his intellect, and his assent to them is by means of certain demonstration, then the science that comprises these cognitions is philosophy. Therefore, according to the ancients [Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates], religion is an imitation of philosophy. Both comprise the same subjects and both give an account of the ultimate principles of the beings. For both supply knowledge about the first principle and cause of the beings, and both give an account of the ultimate end for the sake of which man is made - that is, supreme happiness - and the ultimate end of every one of the other beings. In everything of which philosophy gives an account based on intellectual perception or conception, religion gives an account based on imagination. In everything demonstrated by philosophy, religion employs persuasion. It follows, then, that the idea of Imam, Philosopher and Legislator is a single entity. ~ Al-Farabi (ca. 870-950)
Islam. (n.d.). Islam.
Retrieved from http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/arab-y67s11.asp
The following passage comes from medieval thinker Roger Bacon:
The next consideration from effects is taken by comparing our state with that of the ancient Philosophers; who, though they were without that quickening grace which makes man worthy of eternal life, and where into we enter at baptism, yet lived beyond all comparison better than we, both in all decency and in contempt of the world, with all its delights and riches and honors; as all men may read in the works of Aristotle Seneca, Tully [Cicero], Plato, Socrates, and others; and so it was that they attained to the secrets of wisdom and found out all knowledge. But we Christians have discovered nothing worthy of those philosophers, nor can we even understand their wisdom; which ignorance of ours springs from this cause, that our morals are worse than theirs. For it is impossible that wisdom should coexist with sin. But certain it is that, if there were so much wisdom in the world as men think, these evils would not be committed. And therefore, when we see everywhere (and especially among the clergy) such corruption of life, then their studies must needs be corrupt. Many wise men considering this, and pondering on God's wisdom and the learning of the saints and the truth of histories have reckoned that the times of Antichrist are at hand in these days of ours. ~ Roger Bacon ca. 1271
Paul Halsall (1996) Medieval Sourcebook: Roger Bacon: Despair over Thirteenth Century Learning
Retrieved from http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/bacon1.asp
Question: Based on these words, what can we.
Hai,this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Hai,
this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research papers. subject is homeland security and contemporary issues and the topics are
1.Border security is key to immigration reform??
2.walls won't keep us safe
may i get it done by Thursday evening. and also lemme know the amount for both the papers. am also attaching the paper rubric here
thank you.
.
Guys I need your help with my international law class, Its a course.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guys I need your help with my international law class, It's a course on International Law but it's not in essence a law course but part of the concentration I'm in, which is International Relations (in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences) my essay question is the following:
Are the jurisdictions of states absolute and unlimited?
.
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Unit 3: Enlightenment and RevolutionThe Sources:
Montesquieu: Excerpts from The Spirit of the Laws, 1748
In every government there are three sorts of power; the legislative; the executive, in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive, in regard to things that depend on the civil law.
By virtue of the first, the prince or magistrate enacts temporary or perpetual laws, and amends or abrogates those that have been already enacted. By the second, he makes peace or war, sends or receives embassies; establishes the public security, and provides against invasions. By the third, he punishes criminals, or determines the disputes that arise between individuals. The latter we shall call the judiciary power, and the other simply the executive power of the state.
The political liberty of the subject is a tranquillity of mind, arising from the opinion each person has of his safety. In order to have this liberty, it is requisite the government be so constituted as one man need not be afraid of` another.
When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may anse, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner.
Again, there is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control, for the judge would then be the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge might behave with all the violence of an oppressor…
The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch; because this branch of government, which has always need of expedition, is better administered by one than by many: Whereas, whatever depends on the legislative power, is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person.
But if there was no monarch, and the executive power was committed to a certain number of persons selected from the legislative body, there would be an end then of liberty; by reason the two powers would be united, as the same persons would actually sometimes have, and would moreover be always able to have, a share in both…
The legislative body should not assemble of itself. For a body is supposed to have no will but when it is assembled; and besides, were it not to assemble unanimously, it would be impossible to determine which was really the legislative body, the part assembled, or the other. And if it had a right to prorogue itself, it might happen never to be prorogued; which would be extremely dangerous, in case it should ever attempt to encroach on the executive power. Besides, there are seasons, some of which are more proper than others, for assembling the legislative body: It is fit therefore that the executive power should regulate the time of convening, as well as the duration of those assemblies, according to ...
Civil Disobedience By Henry David Thoreau 1849 I h.docxclarebernice
Civil Disobedience
By Henry David Thoreau
1849
I heartily accept the motto, "That government is best which governs least"; and I
should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally
amounts to this, which also I believe- "That government is best which governs not at
all"; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they
will have. Government is at best but an expedient; but most governments are usually,
and all governments are sometimes, inexpedient. The objections which have been
brought against a standing army, and they are many and weighty, and deserve to
prevail, may also at last be brought against a standing government. The standing army
is only an arm of the standing government. The government itself, which is only the
mode which the people have chosen to execute their will, is equally liable to be
abused and perverted before the people can act through it. Witness the present
Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few individuals using the standing
government as their tool; for, in the outset, the people would not have consented to
this measure.
This American government- what is it but a tradition, though a recent one,
endeavoring to transmit itself unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of
its integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man
can bend it to his will. It is a sort of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not
the less necessary for this; for the people must have some complicated machinery or
other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of government which they have.
Governments show thus how successfully men can be imposed on, even impose on
themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must all allow. Yet this
government never of itself furthered any enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it
got out of its way. It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West. It does
not educate. The character inherent in the American people has done all that has been
accomplished; and it would have done somewhat more, if the government had not
sometimes got in its way. For government is an expedient by which men would fain
succeed in letting one another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most expedient,
the governed are most let alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not made of
india-rubber, would never manage to bounce over the obstacles which legislators are
continually putting in their way; and, if one were to judge these men wholly by the
effects of their actions and not partly by their intentions, they would deserve to be
classed and punished with those mischievous persons who put obstructions on the
railroads.
But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-
government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better
government. Let ...
Discourse on InequalityJean Jacques RousseauTable of.docxlynettearnold46882
Discourse on Inequality
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Table of Contents
Discourse on Inequality............................................................................................................................................1
Jean Jacques Rousseau...................................................................................................................................1
DEDICATION TO THE REPUBLIC OF GENEVA....................................................................................1
PREFACE......................................................................................................................................................6
A DISSERTATION ON THE ORIGIN AND FOUNDATION OF THE INEQUALITY OF
MANKIND ...................................................................................................................................................9
THE FIRST PART.......................................................................................................................................10
THE SECOND PART..................................................................................................................................23
Discourse on Inequality
i
Discourse on Inequality
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Translated by G. D. H. Cole
A DISCOURSE
ON A SUBJECT PROPOSED BY THE ACADEMY OF DIJON:
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF INEQUALITY AMONG MEN,
AND IS IT AUTHORISED BY NATURAL LAW?
We should consider what is natural not in things
depraved but in those which are rightly ordered
according to nature. Aristotle, Politics, Bk. i, ch. 5
DEDICATION TO THE REPUBLIC OF GENEVA
MOST HONOURABLE, MAGNIFICENT AND SOVEREIGN LORDS, convinced that only a virtuous citizen
can confer on his country honours which it can accept, I have been for thirty years past working to make myself
worthy to offer you some public homage; and, this fortunate opportunity supplementing in some degree the
insufficiency of my efforts, I have thought myself entitled to follow in embracing it the dictates of the zeal which
inspires me, rather than the right which should have been my authorisation. Having had the happiness to be born
among you, how could I reflect on the equality which nature has ordained between men, and the inequality which
they have introduced, without reflecting on the profound wisdom by which both are in this State happily
combined and made to coincide, in the manner that is most in conformity with natural law, and most favourable to
society, to the maintenance of public order and to the happiness of individuals? In my researches after the best
rules common sense can lay down for the constitution of a government, I have been so struck at finding them all
in actuality in your own, that even had I not been born within your walls I should have thought it indispensable
for me to offer this picture of human society to that people, which of all others seems to be possessed of its
greatest advantages, and to have best guarded aga.
18John LockeJust as the political philosophy of Thomas.docxdrennanmicah
18
John Locke
Just as the political philosophy of Thomas
Hobbes was shaped by the politics of absolutism,
so that of John Locke (1632-1704) represented a
response to experiments with republicanism.
Locke wrote his Two Treatises of Government
almost immediately after the Glorious Revolution
of 1688 in which a corrupt, absolutist British
monarch was replaced by William and Mary in a
bloodless coup that established a constitutional
monarchy.
As Locke stated in the preface of his Of Civil
Government , he hoped “to establish the throne of
our present King William; to make good his title,
in the consent of the people . . . and to justify to
the world the people of England, whose love of
their just and natural rights, with their resolution
to preserve them, saved the nation when it was on
the very birth of slavery and ruin.”
Locke’s Second Treatise had a clear and
profound influence on the American revolution.
His theory and justification of revolution appear in
almost verbatim quotations in the Declaration of
Independence (although Jefferson later denied any
knowing borrowing from Locke or anyone else),
and justify the separation from Britain by appeal
to high philosophical argument rather than merely
transient expediency.
Locke’s greatest contributions to the American
philosophy of government can be found in his
elaboration of the parliamentary ideals of mixed
government and separation of powers. He justifies
constitutional change by investigating the origins
and structure of civil (political) society. Locke’s
challenge to traditional absolutism arises in part
from the Protestant notion that each individual has
a direct relation to God. Hence, no political
intermediary (i.e. a king or monarch) is necessary.
God gives man free will to form his own civil
society.
Like Hobbes, Locke explains the civil society
by first addressing the state of nature. Man must
have a reason to form the civil society if God is
removed from the equation. Unlike Hobbes,
however, Locke argues that the state of nature is
not a state of anarchy, but a state of perfect
equality. It is only when men come into conflict
over property that the need for the civil society
becomes clear. Instead of joining the civil society
for self-preservation, men join to protect property.
For Locke, the function and end of government are
the preservation of life, liberty, and property.
Perhaps one of the key elements of Locke’s
argument is his emphasis on government as a
process. Government is not static; it responds to
the process of human development and to
changing human needs. We can alter or abolish it
accordingly as it suits our needs. In addition, it is
a process of moving from the state of nature where
total freedom and equality reign, to a civil society
where we give up certain liberties in order to gain
security.
As you read Locke, compare and contrast his
view of human nature and the justification and
legitimate power.
1. Reflect upon and discuss some particular topic or issue of your.docxpaynetawnya
1. Reflect upon and discuss some particular topic or issue of your choice that is directly relevant to the subject of this unit (Islam); AND
2. Discuss your personal reaction to it, and why or how it is relevant to you personally and/or for understanding religion today.
400-600 words. College level writing. No hence” or thus”, please. I have my own Turnitin account which will check your work along with my critique. Thanks for your time.
Glaukon's Challenge — Republic 2 1
357a
357a
b
c
d
358a
b
c
Glaukon's Challenge (REPUBLIC 2) — PLATO
Translated by Cathal Woods. 2010, Creative Commons BY-NC-ND
With these words I [Socrates] thought myself released from talking,
but it seems it was only a prelude, since Glaukon, who is always most brave
about everything, did not accept Thrasymachos' withdrawal but said,
"Socrates, do you want to seem to have persuaded us, or truly persuade us,
that justice is better than injustice in every respect?"
"I would prefer truly," I said, "if it were in my power."
"Well you aren't doing what you want," he said. "Tell me, do you
think there is the following kind of good, which we are pleased to possess
not because we desire its consequences, but which we welcome for its own
sake, such as pleasant experiences and pleasures that are harmless and give
rise to nothing else subsequently besides the pleasure of having them?"
"I certainly do think there is this kind of good," I said.
"And what about a kind that we love both in its own right and for
what comes from it, such as thinking and seeing and being healthy? We
welcome such things for both reasons, I suppose."
"Yes," I said.
"And do you see some third kind of good," he said, "which includes
exercise and medical treatment when sick and medical practice and other
forms of money-making, since we say these things are laborious and yet
beneficial for us, and we don't want to have them for their own sakes but
for the sake of the wages and various other things that come from them."
"There is indeed this third kind," I said. "But what of it?"
"Into which of these would you put justice?" he said.
"I think," I said, "into the most fine, the one that is loved, by the
person who intends to be blessed, for itself and for what comes from it."
"That's not where most people put it," he said, "but in the laborious
class, which must be practiced for the sake of wages and the standing that
comes from reputation, but which itself should be avoided because
difficult."
"I know it's thought of this way," I said, "and Thrasymachos has been
finding fault with it on such grounds for a long time, and praising injustice.
It seems I am somewhat slow to learn."
"Come then," he said, "listen to me and see if it still seems so to you.
For Thrasymachos appears to me to have been soothed by you, like a snake,
earlier than he should. For me, the presentation ...
Aristotle’s Informal fallacies 1. Argumentum ad Baculum or .docxfredharris32
Aristotle’s Informal fallacies
1. Argumentum ad Baculum or Argumentum Baculinum:
2. Argumentum ad Hominem (abusive):
3. Argumentum ad Hominem (circumstantial):
4. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam:
5. Argumentum ad Misericordiam:
6. Argumentum ad Populum:
7. Argumentum ad Verecundiam:
8. Accident:
9. Converse Accident or Hasty Generalization:
10. False Cause:
* non causa pro causa:
* post hoc ergo propter hoc:
11. Begging the Question or Petitio Principii or Circular Argument:
12. Complex Question:
13. Ignorantio Elenchi or Irrelevant Conclusion:
THE NEW ORGANON
OR TRUE DIRECTIONS CONCERNING THE INTERPRETATION OF NATURE
Francis Bacon
1620
http://www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm
sections XXXVIII-LXII (38-62)
XXXVIII
The idols and false notions which are now in possession of the human understanding, and have
taken deep root therein, not only so beset men's minds that truth can hardly find entrance, but
even after entrance is obtained, they will again in the very instauration of the sciences meet and
trouble us, unless men being forewarned of the danger fortify themselves as far as may be
against their assaults.
XXXIX
There are four classes of Idols which beset men's minds. To these for distinction's sake I have
assigned names, calling the first class Idols of the Tribe; the second, Idols of the Cave; the third,
Idols of the Market Place; the fourth, Idols of the Theater.
XL
The formation of ideas and axioms by true induction is no doubt the proper remedy to be applied
for the keeping off and clearing away of idols. To point them out, however, is of great use; for
the doctrine of Idols is to the interpretation of nature what the doctrine of the refutation of
sophisms is to common logic.
XLI
The Idols of the Tribe have their foundation in human nature itself, and in the tribe or race of
men. For it is a false assertion that the sense of man is the measure of things. On the contrary, all
perceptions as well of the sense as of the mind are according to the measure of the individual and
not according to the measure of the universe. And the human understanding is like a false mirror,
which, receiving rays irregularly, distorts and discolors the nature of things by mingling its own
nature with it.
XLII
The Idols of the Cave are the idols of the individual man. For everyone (besides the errors
common to human nature in general) has a cave or den of his own, which refracts and discolors
the light of nature, owing either to his own proper and peculiar nature; or to his education and
conversation with others; or to the reading of books, and the authority of those whom he esteems
and admires; or to the differences of impressions, accordingly as they take place in a mind
preoccupied and predisposed or in a mind indifferent and settled; or the like. So that the spirit of
man (according as it is meted out to different individuals) is in fact a thing variable and full of
perturbation ...
Read and print out this webpage about the Declaration of Senti.docxaudeleypearl
Read and print out this webpage about the Declaration of Sentiments, 1848http://ecssba.rutgers.edu/docs/seneca.html
New Study Guide Questions1. How does this Declaration compare with the Declaration of Independence? What points is it makingby imitating some aspects of the earlier declaration? What points does it echo? Does it ever critiquethe earlier declaration?
2. Where and how does the 1848 Declaration differ from the 1776 declaration? What do“sentiments” mean in 1848? (You can research this online—you must cite sources!) Cite specificlines and passages. If King George III is the villain in 1776, how would you understand theopponent in 1848?
3. Read this paragraph about the origins of The Declaration of Sentiments:
“Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, two American activists in the movement to abolish slavery called
together the first conference to address Women's rights and issues in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. Part of the
reason for doing so had been that Mott had been refused permission to speak at the world anti-slavery convention in
London, even though she had been an official delegate. Applying the analysis of human freedom developed in the
Abolitionist movement, Stanton and others began the public career of modern feminist analysis.”(http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/senecafalls.asp)Given that Abolitionists in England and America were often women, in what ways can you see theseearly feminists drawing upon their greater understanding of slavery to give themselves more power?Reading the The Declaration of Sentiments with this frame of reference in mind, how does it changeyour understanding of their ideals? Cite specific lines and passages.
4. Consider the resolutions before the declaration; how would you paraphrase each of these into ourcontemporary American English? Which of the 1848 concerns still serious issues for women andmen today? Cite specific lines and passages.
5. Consider the logic and reasoning used in the resolutions of 1848; how do they parallel use of logicand reason in the 1776 declaration? Consider the emotions in the two declarations; how are theyparallel or not parallel? Where does the 1848 declaration diverge from the 1776 declaration? Arethere parts that seem to be no longer valid or no longer relevant? What parts are the most relevanttoday? Cite specific lines and passages.
Read the “Address by Elizabeth Cady Stanton on Woman's RightsSeptember 1848," which fills five html pages. You have to click through the document.http://ecssba.rutgers.edu/docs/ecswoman1.html
6. Stanton in her opening explains why only a woman can speak for women. What are her reasons,and do you think they are valid even today? What is the reason that she brings up other cultures? How do women fare in her time? What is the meaning of the little quote from a Byron poem in herlecture? What famous and powerful women does she refer to, and what point is she making bybringing up their names? Cite specific lines and passages.
...
Answer ALL of the following questions1.Part One Renaissance Id.docxnolanalgernon
Answer ALL of the following questions:
1.
Part One: Renaissance Ideas
As Islam spread across large regions, Muslim scholars began to adopt ideas from Ancient philosophers. In the following passages, we read some thoughts about the role of Aristotle in Muslim and Renaissance Italian political thought. The first passage was written by Muslim scholar Mohammed Al-Farabi.
Now when one receives instruction.., if he perceives their ideas themselves with his intellect, and his assent to them is by means of certain demonstration, then the science that comprises these cognitions is philosophy. Therefore, according to the ancients [Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates], religion is an imitation of philosophy. Both comprise the same subjects and both give an account of the ultimate principles of the beings. For both supply knowledge about the first principle and cause of the beings, and both give an account of the ultimate end for the sake of which man is made - that is, supreme happiness - and the ultimate end of every one of the other beings. In everything of which philosophy gives an account based on intellectual perception or conception, religion gives an account based on imagination. In everything demonstrated by philosophy, religion employs persuasion. It follows, then, that the idea of Imam, Philosopher and Legislator is a single entity.
~ Al-Farabi (ca. 870-950)
Islam. (n.d.). Islam.
Retrieved from
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/arab-y67s11.asp
The following passage comes from medieval thinker Roger Bacon:
The next consideration from effects is taken by comparing our state with that of the ancient Philosophers; who, though they were without that quickening grace which makes man worthy of eternal life, and where into we enter at baptism, yet lived beyond all comparison better than we, both in all decency and in contempt of the world, with all its delights and riches and honors; as all men may read in the works of Aristotle Seneca, Tully [Cicero], Plato, Socrates, and others; and so it was that they attained to the secrets of wisdom and found out all knowledge. But we Christians have discovered nothing worthy of those philosophers, nor can we even understand their wisdom; which ignorance of ours springs from this cause, that our morals are worse than theirs. For it is impossible that wisdom should coexist with sin. But certain it is that, if there were so much wisdom in the world as men think, these evils would not be committed. And therefore, when we see everywhere (and especially among the clergy) such corruption of life, then their studies must needs be corrupt. Many wise men considering this, and pondering on God's wisdom and the learning of the saints and the truth of histories have reckoned that the times of Antichrist are at hand in these days of ours.
~ Roger Bacon ca. 1271
Paul Halsall (1996) Medieval Sourcebook: Roger Bacon: Despair over Thirteenth Century Learning
Retrieved from
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/bacon1.asp
Que.
This is a study of Jesus being defended by Pilate. He did all he knew how to do to set Jesus free, but he finally caved into the demands of the angry Jews who wanted Jesus crucified.
Rousseau Reading - On the Social ContractDan Ewert
Excerpts from Jean-Jacques Rousseau's On the Social Contract meant to illustrate his version of the social contract and its necessity. Questions follow the reading for helping guide the student into getting out of the reading what needs to be gotten.
BOOK IIAn Excerpt from The Republicby Plato (360 B.C.) Link.docxAASTHA76
BOOK II
An Excerpt from
The Republic
by Plato (360 B.C.) Link (Links to an external site.)
translated by Benjamin Jowett
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Kindly provided by Project Gutenberg.org Some business organizations are actively trying to block student access to free literature such as this, even though the copyrights for these publications expired many, many years ago. This battle occurs in the world's commercial courts. If you feel strongly that students should be allowed to read copyright-free literature, please consider making a donation to Project Gutenberg ---->Link (Links to an external site.)
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GLAUCON speaks:
They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice, evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when men have both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think that they had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the origin and nature of justice;—it is a mean or compromise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and origin of justice.
Now that those who practise justice do so involuntarily and because they have not the power to be unjust will best appear if we imagine something of this kind: having given both to the just and the unjust power to do what they will, let us watch and see whither desire will lead them; then we shall discover in the very act the just and unjust man to be proceeding along the same road, following their interest, which all natures deem to be their good, and are only diverted into the path of justice by the force of law. The liberty which we are supposing may be most completely given to them in the form of such a power as is said to have been possessed by Gyges the ancestor of Croesus the Lydian. According to the tradition, Gyges was a shepherd in the service of the king of Lydia; there was a great storm, and an earthquake made an opening in the earth at the place where he was feeding his flock. Amazed at the sight, he descended into the opening, where, among other marvels, he beheld a hollow brazen horse, having ...
W6a1.Part One Renaissance IdeasAs Islam spread across large r.docxmelbruce90096
W6a
1.Part One: Renaissance Ideas
As Islam spread across large regions, Muslim scholars began to adopt ideas from Ancient philosophers. In the following passages, we read some thoughts about the role of Aristotle in Muslim and Renaissance Italian political thought. The first passage was written by Muslim scholar Mohammed Al-Farabi.
Now when one receives instruction.., if he perceives their ideas themselves with his intellect, and his assent to them is by means of certain demonstration, then the science that comprises these cognitions is philosophy. Therefore, according to the ancients [Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates], religion is an imitation of philosophy. Both comprise the same subjects and both give an account of the ultimate principles of the beings. For both supply knowledge about the first principle and cause of the beings, and both give an account of the ultimate end for the sake of which man is made - that is, supreme happiness - and the ultimate end of every one of the other beings. In everything of which philosophy gives an account based on intellectual perception or conception, religion gives an account based on imagination. In everything demonstrated by philosophy, religion employs persuasion. It follows, then, that the idea of Imam, Philosopher and Legislator is a single entity. ~ Al-Farabi (ca. 870-950)
Islam. (n.d.). Islam.
Retrieved from http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/arab-y67s11.asp
The following passage comes from medieval thinker Roger Bacon:
The next consideration from effects is taken by comparing our state with that of the ancient Philosophers; who, though they were without that quickening grace which makes man worthy of eternal life, and where into we enter at baptism, yet lived beyond all comparison better than we, both in all decency and in contempt of the world, with all its delights and riches and honors; as all men may read in the works of Aristotle Seneca, Tully [Cicero], Plato, Socrates, and others; and so it was that they attained to the secrets of wisdom and found out all knowledge. But we Christians have discovered nothing worthy of those philosophers, nor can we even understand their wisdom; which ignorance of ours springs from this cause, that our morals are worse than theirs. For it is impossible that wisdom should coexist with sin. But certain it is that, if there were so much wisdom in the world as men think, these evils would not be committed. And therefore, when we see everywhere (and especially among the clergy) such corruption of life, then their studies must needs be corrupt. Many wise men considering this, and pondering on God's wisdom and the learning of the saints and the truth of histories have reckoned that the times of Antichrist are at hand in these days of ours. ~ Roger Bacon ca. 1271
Paul Halsall (1996) Medieval Sourcebook: Roger Bacon: Despair over Thirteenth Century Learning
Retrieved from http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/bacon1.asp
Question: Based on these words, what can we.
Similar to From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan THE INTRODUCTION Nature ( (20)
Hai,this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Hai,
this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research papers. subject is homeland security and contemporary issues and the topics are
1.Border security is key to immigration reform??
2.walls won't keep us safe
may i get it done by Thursday evening. and also lemme know the amount for both the papers. am also attaching the paper rubric here
thank you.
.
Guys I need your help with my international law class, Its a course.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guys I need your help with my international law class, It's a course on International Law but it's not in essence a law course but part of the concentration I'm in, which is International Relations (in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences) my essay question is the following:
Are the jurisdictions of states absolute and unlimited?
.
hare some memories of encounters with people who had very different .docxJeanmarieColbert3
hare some memories of encounters with people who had very different expectations of their children compared to your own (it doesn't matter if you have children or not, just think about what you would have expected in their place). We tend to think of these situations in terms of good parents and bad parents, but speculate about the possible role of culture. Are there ways to avoid problems when parents with different cultural standards mix?
.
Hacker or SupporterAnswer ONE of the following questionsQuestio.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Hacker or Supporter
Answer ONE of the following questions:
Question A
In a 2-4 page paper, critique the case of Julian Assange, who created the Web site Wikileaks. Is Assange a glorified hacker and threat to national and international security or is he a supporter for human rights and freedom of speech?
.
HA415 Unit 6Discussion TopicHealthcare systems are huge, compl.docxJeanmarieColbert3
HA415 Unit 6
Discussion Topic
Healthcare systems are huge, complex, and constantly changing as they respond to economic, technological, social, and historical factors. The availability of technology has a profound effect on the health care costs and the availability of medical care. Local, state and national policy makers have an impact on these systems. Explain what you would do to encourage and increase technological advances and availability and try to decrease costs for all the stakeholders involved.
Needs 250 -300 words paper, strictly on topic and original with a Scholar References. Please No Phagiarism!
.
HA410 Unit 7 AssignmentUnit outcomes addressed in this Assignment.docxJeanmarieColbert3
HA410 Unit 7 Assignment
Unit outcomes addressed in this Assignment:
● Identify significant standards for healthcare documentation.
● Understand important factors involved in regulations pertaining to paper and electronic health records.
Course outcomes addressed in this Assignment:
HS410-4: Compare standards and regulations for healthcare documentation.
Instructions:
Your boss is the Director of Medical Records at a large academic medical center. He is finding it difficult to monitor the ongoing legislative and policy changes related to Health Information Management. He has asked that you do the following:
1) Visit the AHIMA website (www.ahima,org) and visit the “Advocacy and Public Policy” tab.
2) From there, visit both the “Legislation” and “News and Alerts” menu options.
3) Prepare two pages report highlighting the two most important items your boss should be aware of.
4) Recommend a course of action for each.
Paper should be 600- 800 words length, strictly on topic, informative, and original with 2-3 scholar referencess. No repeatation of words. Please use and read the attached document and follow all the instructions and use the grading rubrics below to do this assignment.
NO PHARGIARIAM!!
Unit 7 Assignment Grading Rubrics:
Instructors: to complete the rubric, please enter the points the student earned in the green cells of column E. Then determine point deductions for writing, late policy, etc in the red cells to calculate the final grade.
Assignment Requirements
Points possible
Points earned by student
Student understands issues related to health information management.
0-40
Student can assess policy and news items impact health information management.
0-40
Student can make well supported recommendations to address current legislative and policy issues in health information management.
0-40
Student prepares a well-crafted report in APA format using the AHIMA website and other sources, as needed.
0-30
Total (Sum of all points)
150
0
*Writing Deductions (Maximum 30% from points earned):
Grammar/Punctuation/Spelling:
30%
Order of Ideas/Length requirement (if applicable):
30%
Format
10%
*Source citations
30%
Late Submission Deduction: (refer to Syllabus for late policy)
Adjusted total points
0
*If sources are not cited and work is plagiarized, grade is an automatic zero and further action may take place in accordance with the Academic Integrity Policy as described in the university catalog.
Final Percentage
0%
Feedback:
.
hacer oír salir suponer traer ver 1. para la clase a la.docxJeanmarieColbert3
hacer oír salir
suponer traer ver
1.
para la clase a las dos.
2.
Los fines de semana mi computadora a casa.
3.
que me gusta trabajar los sábados por la mañana.
4.
Por las mañanas, música en la radio.
5.
Cuando tengo hambre, un sándwich.
6.
Para descansar, películas en la televisión.
.
H07 Medical Coding IDirections Be sure to make an electronic c.docxJeanmarieColbert3
H07 Medical Coding I
Directions
: Be sure to make an electronic copy of your answer before submitting it to Ashworth College for grading. Unless otherwise stated, answer in complete sentences, and be sure to use correct English spelling and grammar. Sources must be cited in APA format. Your response should be two (2) to four (4) pages in length; refer to the "Assignment Format" page for specific format requirements.
Lesson 1, 2, 3, and 4 of this course has covered a wide variety of topics. Thus far, you have learned a great deal of information on health insurance, medical contracts, HIPAA, physician and hospital medical billing, and Medicare and Medicaid.
For this writing assignment, please explain why the following course objectives are important for medical billers and coder to understand:
1.
Understand the history and impact of health insurance on health care reimbursement process and recognize various types of health insurance coverage.
2.
Identify the key elements of a managed care contract and identify the role HIPAA plays in the health care industry.
3.
Recognize and explain the different components of physician and hospital billing and differentiate between the two types of services.
4.
Explain the difference between Medicare and Medicaid billing.
Please include at least 3 scholarly articles within your response. Overall response will be formatted according to APA style and the total assignment should be between 2-4 pages not including title page and reference page.
.
Guidelines1.Paper consisting of 2,000-2,250 words; however,.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines:
1.
Paper consisting of 2,000-2,250 words; however, the reference page isn’t included as any part of the word count.
2.
Provide a thesis and/or main claim that is clear and comprehensive. This is the essence of the paper.
3.
APA formatting: in-text citations, headings, correct sentence structure, paragraph transition.
4.
Please apply the attached (4) readings to this homework.
5.
Address the following in the paper:
a.
Briefly describe the company
REI
using the Baldrige Performance Excellence framework.
b.
Using the Baldrige framework, outline
REI
organization's leadership structure and practices (
innovation, communication, and diversity
) chosen to study.
c.
Describe the evidence you find to identify that organization's leadership style (
servant and authentic
) by using specific references from the research literature to support your description.
d.
As a researcher of organizational leadership, how does the Baldrige framework help assess organizational leadership?
e.
Identify any
gaps
in assessment the framework does not address, and describe them with references from other sources.
.
Guidelines12-point fontCambria fontSingle space50 words ma.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines
12-point font
Cambria font
Single space
50 words maximum per section summarized (Be concise. I would prefer less than 50 words)
Sections to summarize-
(50 words summary for each topic )
Genetics Versus Epigenetics
Defining Epigenetics
DNA methylation
RNAi and RNA-directed Gene Silencing
From Unicellular to Multicellular Systems
.
HA425 Unit 2 discussion- Organizational Behavior and Management in H.docxJeanmarieColbert3
HA425 Unit 2 discussion- Organizational Behavior and Management in Health Care - Discussion
Discussion Topics
1.
Discuss the role and importance of organizational culture in promoting organizational change, organizational learning, and quality of healthcare.
2. Explain how teamwork is used in the CQI process and its impact on the process.
NO PHARGIARISM!!! Paper must be 500 words, strictly on topic, well detailed and original with 2-3 scholar referencsea. No repeatation.
.
GuidelinesPaper is based on one novel , Frankenstein. We ha.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines
Paper is based on one novel ,
Frankenstein
. We have
learned that one element crucial to horror stories is a monster. After reading the
entire novel , you will write a two- to three-page paper analyzing whether Victor Frankenstein or the
creation is the true monster in the novel.
You must pick one. Then state three
reasons/actions why he is the monster.
DO NOT:
o
Claim they are both monsters
o
Claim that neither is
o
Claim that there is no monster because Victor is hallucinating, has
a split personality, is dreaming, etc.
o
Claim that the real monster is abstract/philosophical--narcissism,
society, nature vs. nurture, etc
These are all innovative and great and may make a great essay but that's not
the assignment.
You must make a claim that Victor is the true monster
OR his creation is the true monster and support your claim.
Even though it is your interpretation of who the monster is, when you write
academic essays, you are really asserting a claim and attempting to convince
readers to agree with your stance. To do this effectively, it’s best to create a
more objective tone, pulling back on personal statements and writing in terms of
what Shelley intended and how readers in general perceive/infer the information.
In other words, avoid statements like: “I think the monster is really Victor
Frankenstein.” And use statements like: “After careful analysis of Shelley’s
characters, readers agree that Victor is the true monster of the novel.” Also, a
major pitfall to avoid: Do not claim that the monster is Victor then focus on the
creation in the body of the essay and why the creation is not the monster.
Throughout the semester, I have been posing questions on the Discussion Board
that you have been responsible for. You were then required in some weeks to
respond to a peer’s answers. The purpose of this is to cultivate interaction among
peers as you are working in such solitude when in an online environment.
However, I know that it is hard to routinely read a lot of what your peers have to
say. So this second paper is the one opportunity for you to truly HEAR several
angles of a discussion, much like in a traditional classroom, and assimilate the
opinions of your classmates.
For the essay, after you first come to your own observation about who the true
monster is then read through a handful of each of the four
Frankenstein
discussion threads (Storyline Shift, Victor Frankenstein, The Creation, and
Frankenstein Finale). Find a few posts that support your observation. You do not
need to read through all of the posts for each thread but read through enough to
help inform your selection. Throughout your essay you will need to
include at
least three quotes from two different threads (one per body
paragraph/reason).
These quotes need to support your claim. In other words, if
you claim that Victor is the monster, don’t include a quote by a peer that focuses
on the monster’s compassion. Also, be.
Guidelines1.Paper word count should be 1,000-1,250. Refer.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines:
1.
Paper word count should be 1,000-1,250. Reference page should not be counted in the word count.
2.
Following issues to be addressed in the paper:
a.
Discuss the conceptual differences between Transformational-Transactional Leadership and the visions of future developments in leadership Warren Bennis was predicting.
b.
Using the guidance of both leadership theorists and applied behavioral scientists, compose your basic definition of organizational leadership that is functional in organizations you know.
c.
Drawing from tenets of the Christian worldview related to organizational leadership, compare the key points of that guidance with two key elements (leadership and integrity) of organizational leadership.
d.
Support your comparisons with substantive documentation for each of the two key elements of current theories.
3.
Due date: No later than Wednesday, October 12, 2016 at noon (EST)
.
Guided Response Respond to at least two of your classmates. Ch.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Respond to at least two of your classmates. Choose posts that address a different developmental period than you chose. Determine if the selected activity and toy is appropriate to the age group and is tied to Piaget’s theory. Provide feedback and suggestions for improvement.
Melissa Pieringer
An activity for the adolescent room: hypothetical problem solving
According to Piaget’s theory children 12 and over are in the formal operations stage of cognitive development. This is the final stage of cognitive development that takes place prior to adulthood. Children at this stage are developing abstract reasoning, deductive reasoning, and hypothetical thinking skills. Children at this stage are able to use hypothetico-deductive reasoning which involves forming a hypothesis, predicting a possible or likely outcome for a given scenario, and taking into consideration various factors that may influence the outcome (Mossler, 2014). At the formal operations stage children also develop the ability to think abstractly and weigh multiple potential outcomes for a given situation (Mossler, 2014). According to the Jean Piaget Society (2016), one of the best ways to promote the development of abstract thinking skills is to explore hypothetical topics, global issues, political issues, or social issues and allow children to come up with potential creative solutions to the problem (The Jean Piaget Society, 2016). A suggested hypothetical scenario to explore could be how humans could live in outer space (The Jean Piaget Society, 2016). Other present day issues to explore could include global warming, pollution, limited resources, war, poverty, famine, etc.
A toy or object for the adolescent room: art and crafting supplies
It is suggested that educators working with children at this stage use visual models such as charts, illustrations, and diagrams to keep children engaged in learning (The Jean Piaget Society, 2016). Furthermore, children should be encouraged to work creatively with a variety of materials. Art and crafting supplies could be used to create illustrations, diagrams, or posters demonstrating the solutions that they come up with to the topic or issue being explored. Therefore, I would request that a variety of art and crafting supplies be given to the adolescent room. Some ideas for materials could include the following:
· Poster paper or boards
· Paint
· Markers
· Colored pencils
· Crayons
· Scissors
· Glue or glue sticks
· Construction paper
· Old magazines
· Stencils
· Rulers
· String
References
Mossler, R. (2014).
Child and Adolescent Development
(2
nd
ed.) [Electronic ed.]. Retrieved
from:
https://content.ashford.edu/
The Jean Piaget Society. (2016). Educational implications of Piaget’s theory. Retrieved from:
http://piaget.weebly.com/educational-implications--activities.html
Christina Gutierrez
Cognitive De.
Guided ResponseReview the philosophies of education that your.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Review the philosophies of education that your classmates chose and write a minimum 150-word response to at least two of them. Comment on whether you agree or disagree with their philosophies of education and their rational for them. Suggest additional ways in which the theories they have chosen could be applied to educational environments.
By:
Melissa
I have been in the classroom for over 12 years, and every day I learn something new. Every day I encounter a new student or discover something new about a student in my class that has been there the whole year. Every encounter is different, every child is different, and not one child thinks the same or learns the same. I discovered this early on in my teaching career, but I am constantly reminded how we cannot take for granted streamlined teaching in the classroom.
Teachers are not the only ones who teach in the classroom, the students in your classroom teach each other and teach you the teacher how to explain something differently and view things differently and reach the same destination to answer the same question correctly. I believe that being an effective teacher one must get to know students on a personal level. Not by reading their folders at the beginning of the year, but by asking open ended questions, listening to how they respond and how they express themselves either verbally or written expression. Teachers need to listen to their students not just hear them and move on, but take the child as a whole and help them reach another level in their education journey.
Special education is more than just accommodations; it is accommodating children to their needs and finding what works for them. Some need verbal cues to know that they are doing well and motivate them to keep working towards success, while others need positive written expression to push them over the hump and work to accomplish their goals. Most children with learning disabilities suffer from low self esteem and act up or become the class clown are constantly in trouble. They become the trouble makers or the ones always in trouble for not completing homework assignments, and because teachers only see this on the surface they push them off to one side of the classroom. What most general education teachers don’t see is how much they are asking for help.
Education should be used to empower every student and every teacher. Being an educator is more than just teaching to a test, it is planting the seed of enjoying the love for learning. We need to remember that we are educating our future.
By:
Katrina
Children learn best in an environment where they feel safe, especially younger children in an early childhood program. For toddlers the progressivism philosophy is one that works best. Toddlers cannot sit still for long periods of time and they need things that are developmentally appropriate. They need activities that allow them to use all of their senses. As they are touching and seeing while list.
Guided Response When responding to your peers, suggest ways to.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
When responding to your peers, suggest ways to continue to strengthen the contribution listed, so that this influence remains strong in our education system today. Describe why you believe this contribution should continue to be a part of our current education system. Respond to at least two peers.
BY: Tiffany Futch
Improved teaching means teachers were taught to teach on more of a professional level by actual people qualified to teach. Normal schools broadened their curricula to the training of secondary school teachers, requirement of the completion of high school to be admitted to college for teacher training, teachers must have a bachelor’s degree. “High school completion was seldom required for admission, and the majority of instructors did not hold a college degree themselves.” (Diener, 2008). Society has come a long way when it comes to teaching, and who is qualified to teach. Higher education is required more than ever in today’s society, and all of these examples have helped with the success of the way teachers complete their degrees today.
When it comes to teaching in the 21
st
century, full time teachers are required to have a minimum of a four year bachelor’s degree. Technology helps play a role in the success of teachers and students in and out of the classroom. Like the rest of the class we are all completing our degree in an online program. When it comes to teaching in the classroom teachers can use computers and other devices to help children excel, and outside of the classroom, the students can utilize the internet to help them with projects, and even communicate with other students to help with projects.
Webb. L. D. (2014). History of American education: Voices and perspectives. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
BY:Christine Rodriguez
Teacher training is very important for teachers because they should be able to teach multiple subjects and be qualified in what they are teaching. Strengthening of the normal school curriculum and standards was needed in order for the school system to get better. In the 1900's schools exploded from 50 to almost 350, but with the low academic levels, teacher and students were not able to teach or learn at a college level. Teachers did not have, at this point, a college degree themselves. As the population kept increases and there was a higher demand for education, everyone began to need a high school diploma to be admitted for a college degree.
University enter teacher training: "Teacher training at the college or university level, typically consisted of one or two courses in the "science and art" of teaching, had been offered at a limited number of institutions as early as the 1830s, and the universities had always been institutions for the education of those who taught in the Latin grammar schools, academies, and high schools" (Webb, 2014).
This did not qualify them as teachers when they took these courses, but it did make them becom.
Guided Response As you read the responses of your classmates, con.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
As you read the responses of your classmates, consider how their negative educational experience could have been changed to support student learning. Respond to at least two of your classmates’ posts. Provide additional suggestions for them in creating their own positive, stimulating learning environment. Be sure to respond to any queries or comments posted by your instructor.
Melissa Cagno
The biggest negative experience that I have had is with a previous employer, and it was my first day as a preschool teacher in a facility nearby. On my first day, I walked into a situation that made a huge impact on the way I viewed this facility. When I started that day, I was told that I would not be in “my classroom” that I would be filling in for a teacher that was out that day. I didn’t have an issue with that fact and was actually up for the challenge. But when I entered the classroom I noticed there were no rules, no structure, no lesson plans and the classroom was complete chaos. I managed to create some spur of the moment lessons and engaged in music as much as possible. Then when it was time for lunch, and I went to serve it, it was pure sugar and very unhealthy. I left for the day feeling defeated, tired, frustrated and stressed and nowhere to turn. I expressed my concerns throughout the day along with a lot of severe health issues to the owner and was brushed off. I care a lot about the children’s safety and their learning environment, and I felt like I was drowning. Needless to say, I ended up moving on from that position because I felt helpless and without a direction to improve anything.
I have had several positive experiences throughout my educational background. The classrooms were always welcoming, warm and inviting and it showed that the teachers cared about their classrooms and their students. Those classrooms made me excited about becoming a teacher and gave me something to work towards in the future.
“The foundation for successful learning and a safe and secure classroom climate is the relationship that teachers develop with their students (Sousa, Tomlinson, 2011)”. The teacher-student relationship is something that should be built on from day one. If the students do not trust or know you, they will feel uneasy and unsafe in the classroom environment. It is so important to form the relationship with your students to ensure communication and safety of your students. Another way to provide a positive learning environment is with your attitude. If you have a positive and fun attitude, it will show through your lessons and your students will enjoy being in your class every day which will affect how they learn. Lastly, the organization is a big key to a positive and stimulating learning environment. If your classroom is packed full of stuff or the students, do not know where materials are it can cause frustrations for you and your students.
I firmly believe there are no stupid questions! I want to ensure my stude.
Guided ResponseReview several of your classmates’ posts and res.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Review several of your classmates’ posts and respond to at least two of your peers original posts. Please keep in mind that this assignment can be a sensitive subject and that people’s past experiences may have shaped their views. Choose one point from your peer’s post that made an impact on you and explain why this particular comment resonated with you. Share your thoughts on the disadvantages and advantages of segregation with your peers.
BY:
Tiffany
Bradley
When preparing for this week’s discussion post I was a little at awe, I personally had never heard of the little rock nine. And I’m not that far from Arkansas. The Little Rock Nine was a group of nine African American students that were enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. However, their enrollment was engaged by the Little Rock Crisis. Which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas. When President Dwight D. Eisenhower done an intervention, the students were then allowed to attend the school. The nine students were Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Jefferson Thomas, Terrance Roberts, Thelma Mothershed, and Melba Pattillo Beals. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine)
Personally, if I was in the situation that these nine students experienced I would have been lost, afraid, and felt like something was wrong with me. A child of any race should not have to be put in this situation to feel unwanted or that they are unwelcome because they are of a different color. Many times however that is not the case. And this was the case for these nine children. My reaction would have been a sense of sadness, and anger. I don’t believe I would not have made a seen, simply out of fear of being hurt. I would have wanted to stand up for myself as well as my peers of the same color. Nowadays, if the situation would arise that an African American child was not allowed into a while school, yes I would stand up. And voice my opinion. It should not matter the color of a child’s skin. They should be allowed to receive the proper education. Without first having to go through turmoil. This situation I’m sure was emotionally devastating for these nine children. Who simply just wanted to get an education. (Webb. L. D. (2014). History of American education: Voices and perspectives. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.)
De facto segregation, I believe does not have a detrimental effect on students nowadays. Some adults that were raised to racial, still are. But if children are taught not to be that way. Then most of the time children learn to except another student of a different minority. Where I live we have a lot of white and minority students. Which none are treated differently. They are all in school for the same reason to get an education. My own personal beliefs are we are all children of God, and just because we are different races, does not mean.
Guided ResponseYou must reply to at least one classmate. As y.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
You must reply to at least one classmate
. As you reply to your classmates, attempt to extend the conversation by examining their claims or arguments in more depth or by responding to the posts that they make to you. Keep the discussion on target and try to analyze things in as much detail as you can. For instance, you might consider sharing additional ways that information literacy skills can help them be critical consumers of information. Discuss similarities in how you and your classmates connected with the infographic or article
.
Guided ResponseRespond to at least one classmate that has been .docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Respond to at least one classmate that has been assigned a different position from you and offer a rebuttal. Be sure to provide evidence from the literature to support your opposition. Also, respond to your original post and provide your own opinion of inclusion based on the evidence from the research and the responses of your classmates. Did your thinking change after reading your classmates’ viewpoints? Share your concerns about working with students with special needs in the regular classroom.
BY:
Mallory Johnson
What is inclusion?
Inclusion is an educational environment in which all students are grouped together in the same classroom regardless of their intelligence level hence the phrase used, “Least Restrictive Environment”. This practice means that an increasing number of regular classroom teachers are called upon to teach exceptional children in regular classrooms, sometimes also termed inclusive classrooms (LeFrançois, G. 2011).
IDEA was established for children with learning disabilities and has been mandated as a part of every educational facility.
As defined by the American Psychological Association, “The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ensures that all children with disabilities are entitled to a free appropriate public education to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living.”
Not every student learns equally; however, every student should be given the equal opportunity to do so regardless of their learning abilities. With that, inclusion provides an environment where not only students will learn together, but regular students will respect and build friendships with students with learning disabilities. While I never had the change to experience this firsthand, this type of environment will enhance friendships and students helping one another. I think that when a child is included in something, their self confidence improves and they will strive to work harder.
Second, inclusion allows students to understand one another and learn from each other as far as customs and courtesies and attitudes. Students are vulnerable to imitate what they see whether it be good or bad. According to the text, one of the benefits of inclusion is the learning of socially appropriate behaviors by students with disabilities as a result of modeling the behavior of other students.
Lastly, inclusive classrooms provide students with learning disabilities access to general learning like the rest of their peers. They will learn the same information instead of the curriculum being adjusted which may omit valuable information. In this case, these students may be learning information that could be too easy depending on where they stand knowledge wise. For others, the adjustment may hinder learning more challenging information some could be ready for.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2016, from http://www.apa.org/about/.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Thesis Statement for students diagnonsed withADHD.ppt
From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan THE INTRODUCTION Nature (
1. From Thomas Hobbes Leviathan
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world)
is by the art of man, as in many
other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an
Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a
motion of Limbs, the begining whereof is in some principall
part within; why may we not say, that all
Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and
wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall
life? For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so
many Strings; and the Joynts, but so
many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was
intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet
further, imitating that Rationall and most excellent worke of
Nature, Man. For by Art is created that
great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE,
(in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall
Man […]
CHAPTER XIII.
OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND, AS
CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND MISERY
Nature hath made men so equall, in the faculties of body, and
mind; as that though there bee found
one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker
mind then another; yet when all is
2. reckoned together, the difference between man, and man, is not
so considerable, as that one man
can thereupon claim to himselfe any benefit, to which another
may not pretend, as well as he. For as
to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill
the strongest, either by secret
machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same
danger with himselfe.
And as to the faculties of the mind, (setting aside the arts
grounded upon words, and especially that
skill of proceeding upon generall, and infallible rules, called
Science; which very few have, and but in
few things; as being not a native faculty, born with us; nor
attained, (as Prudence,) while we look
after somewhat els,) I find yet a greater equality amongst men,
than that of strength […]
From Equality Proceeds Diffidence
From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the
attaining of our Ends. And therefore if
any two men desire the same thing, which neverthelesse they
cannot both enjoy, they become
enemies; and in the way to their End, (which is principally their
owne conservation, and sometimes
their delectation only,) endeavour to destroy, or subdue one an
other. And from hence it comes to
passe, that where an Invader hath no more to feare, than an
other mans single power; if one plant,
sow, build, or possesse a convenient Seat, others may probably
be expected to come prepared with
forces united, to dispossesse, and deprive him, not only of the
fruit of his labour, but also of his life,
or liberty. And the Invader again is in the like danger of
3. another.
From Diffidence Warre
And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any
man to secure himselfe, so
reasonable, as Anticipation; that is, by force, or wiles, to master
the persons of all men he can, so
long, till he see no other power great enough to endanger him:
And this is no more than his own
conservation requireth, and is generally allowed. Also because
there be some, that taking pleasure in
contemplating their own power in the acts of conquest, which
they pursue farther than their
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/3207/3207-h/3207-
h.htm#link2HCH0018
security requires; if others, that otherwise would be glad to be
at ease within modest bounds,
should not by invasion increase their power, they would not be
able, long time, by standing only on
their defence, to subsist. And by consequence, such
augmentation of dominion over men, being
necessary to a mans conservation, it ought to be allowed him.
Againe, men have no pleasure, (but on the contrary a great deale
of griefe) in keeping company,
where there is no power able to over-awe them all. For every
man looketh that his companion
should value him, at the same rate he sets upon himselfe: And
upon all signes of contempt, or
undervaluing, naturally endeavours, as far as he dares (which
amongst them that have no common
4. power, to keep them in quiet, is far enough to make them
destroy each other,) to extort a greater
value from his contemners, by dommage; and from others, by
the example.
So that in the nature of man, we find three principall causes of
quarrel. First, Competition; Secondly,
Diffidence; Thirdly, Glory.
The first, maketh men invade for Gain; the second, for Safety;
and the third, for Reputation. The first
use Violence, to make themselves Masters of other mens
persons, wives, children, and cattell; the
second, to defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word, a smile,
a different opinion, and any other
signe of undervalue, either direct in their Persons, or by
reflexion in their Kindred, their Friends, their
Nation, their Profession, or their Name.
Out Of Civil States, There Is Alwayes Warre Of Every One
Against Every One
Hereby it is manifest, that during the time men live without a
common Power to keep them all in
awe, they are in that condition which is called Warre; and such
a warre, as is of every man, against
every man. For WARRE, consisteth not in Battell onely, or the
act of fighting; but in a tract of time,
wherein the Will to contend by Battell is sufficiently known:
and therefore the notion of Time, is to
be considered in the nature of Warre; as it is in the nature of
Weather. For as the nature of Foule
weather, lyeth not in a showre or two of rain; but in an
inclination thereto of many dayes together:
So the nature of War, consisteth not in actuall fighting; but in
5. the known disposition thereto, during
all the time there is no assurance to the contrary. All other time
is PEACE.
CHAPTER XVIII.
OF THE RIGHTS OF SOVERAIGNES BY INSTITUTION
The Act Of Instituting A Common-wealth, What
A Common-wealth is said to be Instituted, when a Multitude of
men do Agree, and Covenant, Every
One With Every One, that to whatsoever Man, or Assembly Of
Men, shall be given by the major part,
the Right to Present the Person of them all, (that is to say, to be
their Representative;) every one, as
well he that Voted For It, as he that Voted Against It, shall
Authorise all the Actions and Judgements,
of that Man, or Assembly of men, in the same manner, as if they
were his own, to the end, to live
peaceably amongst themselves, and be protected against other
men […]
From Jean-Jacques Rousseau ‘A Discourse Upon The Origin
And The Foundation Of The
Inequality Among Mankind’ (also known as Rousseau’s ‘Second
Discourse’)
[...]
I conceive that there are two kinds of inequality among the
human species; one, which I call natural or
6. physical, because it is established by nature, and consists in a
difference of age, health, bodily strength,
and the qualities of the mind or of the soul: and another, which
may be called moral or political
inequality, because it depends on a kind of convention, and is
established, or at least authorised by the
consent of men. This latter consists of the different privileges,
which some men enjoy to the prejudice
of others; such as that of being more rich, more honoured, more
powerful or even in a position to exact
obedience.
It is useless to ask what is the source of natural inequality,
because that question is answered by the
simple definition of the word. Again, it is still more useless to
inquire whether there is any essential
connection between the two inequalities; for this would be only
asking, in other words, whether those
who command are necessarily better than those who obey, and if
strength of body or of mind, wisdom
or virtue are always found in particular individuals, in
proportion to their power or wealth: a question
fit perhaps to be discussed by slaves in the hearing of their
masters, but highly unbecoming to reasonable
and free men in search of the truth.
The subject of the present discourse, therefore, is more
precisely this. To mark, in the progress of things,
the moment at which right took the place of violence and nature
became subject to law, and to explain
by what sequence of miracles the strong came to submit to serve
the weak, and the people to purchase
imaginary repose at the expense of real felicity.
The philosophers, who have inquired into the foundations of
society, have all felt the necessity of going
7. back to a state of nature; but not one of them has got there.
Some of them have not hesitated to ascribe
to man, in such a state, the idea of just and unjust, without
troubling themselves to show that he must
be possessed of such an idea, or that it could be of any use to
him. Others have spoken of the natural
right of every man to keep what belongs to him, without
explaining what they meant by belongs. Others
again, beginning by giving the strong authority over the weak,
proceeded directly to the birth of
government, without regard to the time that must have elapsed
before the meaning of the words
authority and government could have existed among men. Every
one of them, in short, constantly
dwelling on wants, avidity, oppression, desires and pride, has
transferred to the state of nature ideas
which were acquired in society; so that, in speaking of the
savage, they described the social man. It has
not even entered into the heads of most of our writers to doubt
whether the state of nature ever existed;
but it is clear from the Holy Scriptures that the first man,
having received his understanding and
commandments immediately from God, was not himself in such
a state […]
Let us begin then by laying facts aside, as they do not affect the
question. The investigations we may
enter into, in treating this subject, must not be considered as
historical truths, but only as mere
conditional and hypothetical reasonings, rather calculated to
explain the nature of things, than to
ascertain their actual origin […] As my subject interests
mankind in general, I shall endeavour to make
use of a style adapted to all nations [...] I shall suppose […] the
whole human race for an audience.
8. O man, of whatever country you are, and whatever your
opinions may be, behold your history, such as
I have thought to read it, not in books written by your fellow-
creatures, who are liars, but in nature,
which never lies. All that comes from her will be true; nor will
you meet with anything false, unless I
have involuntarily put in something of my own. The times of
which I am going to speak are very remote:
how much are you changed from what you once were! It is so to
speak, the life of your species which I
am going to write, after the qualities which you have received,
which your education and habits may
have depraved, but cannot have entirely destroyed. There is, I
feel, an age at which the individual man
would wish to stop; you are about to inquire about the age at
which you would have liked your whole
species to stand still. Discontented with your present state, for
reasons which threaten your unfortunate
descendants with still greater discontent, you will perhaps wish
it were in your power to go back; and
this feeling should be a panegyric on your first ancestors, a
criticism of your contemporaries, and a
terror to the unfortunates who will come after you.
https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/11136/pg11136-
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https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/11136/pg11136-
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[…]
It appears, at first view, that men in a state of nature, having no
moral relations or determinate
obligations one with another, could not be either good nor bad,
virtuous or vicious; unless we take these
9. terms in a physical sense, and call, in an individual, those
qualities vices which may be injurious to his
preservation, and those virtues which contribute to it; in which
case, he would have to be accounted
most virtuous, who put least check on the pure impulses of
nature. But without deviating from the
ordinary sense of the words, it will be proper to suspend the
judgment we might be led to form on such
a state, and be on our guard against our prejudices, till we have
weighed the matter in the scales of
impartiality, and seen whether virtues or vices preponderate
among civilised men; and whether their
virtues do them more good than their vices do harm; till we
have discovered, whether the progress of
the sciences sufficiently indemnifies them for the mischiefs
they do one another, in proportion as they
are better informed of the good they ought to do; or whether
they would not be, on the whole, in a much
happier condition if they had nothing to fear or to hope from
any one, than as they are, subjected to
universal dependence, and obliged to take everything from those
who engage to give them nothing in
return.
Above all, let us not conclude, with Hobbes, that because man
has no idea of goodness, he must be
naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know
virtue; that he always refuses to do his
fellow-creatures services which he does not think they have a
right to demand; or that by virtue of the
right he truly claims to everything he needs, he foolishly
imagines himself the sole proprietor of the
whole universe. Hobbes had seen clearly the defects of all the
modern definitions of natural right: but
the consequences which he deduces from his own show that he
understands it in an equally false sense.
10. In reasoning on the principles he lays down, he ought to have
said that the state of nature, being that in
which the care for our own preservation is the least prejudicial
to that of others, was consequently the
best calculated to promote peace, and the most suitable for
mankind. He does say the exact opposite, in
consequence of having improperly admitted, as a part of savage
man's care for self-preservation, the
gratification of a multitude of passions which are the work of
society […] Hobbes did not reflect that
the same cause, which prevents a savage from making use of his
reason, as our jurists hold, prevents
him also from abusing his faculties, as Hobbes himself allows:
so that it may be justly said that savages
are not bad merely because they do not know what it is to be
good: for it is neither the development of
the understanding nor the restraint of law that hinders them
from doing ill; but the peacefulness of their
passions, and their ignorance of vice […] There is another
principle which has escaped Hobbes; which,
having been bestowed on mankind, to moderate, on certain
occasions, the impetuosity of egoism, or,
before its birth, the desire of self-preservation, tempers the
ardour with which he pursues his own
welfare, by an innate repugnance at seeing a fellow-creature
suffer. I think I need not fear contradiction
in holding man to be possessed of the only natural virtue, which
could not be denied him by the most
violent detractor of human virtue. I am speaking of compassion
which is a disposition suitable to
creatures so weak and subject to so many evils as we certainly
are: by so much the more universal and
useful to mankind, as it comes before any kind of reflection;
and at the same time so natural, that the
very brutes themselves sometimes give evident proofs of it.
11. […]
Let us conclude then that man in a state of nature, wandering up
and down the forests, without industry,
without speech, and without home, an equal stranger to war and
to all ties, neither standing in need of
his fellow-creatures nor having any desire to hurt them, and
perhaps even not distinguishing them one
from another; let us conclude that, being self-sufficient and
subject to so few passions, he could have
no feelings or knowledge but such as befitted his situation; that
he felt only his actual necessities, and
disregarded everything he did not think himself immediately
concerned to notice, and that his
understanding made no greater progress than his vanity. If by
accident he made any discovery, he was
the less able to communicate it to others, as he did not know
even his own children. Every art would
necessarily perish with its inventor, where there was no kind of
education among men, and generations
succeeded generations without the least advance; when, all
setting out from the same point, centuries
must have elapsed in the barbarism of the first ages; when the
race was already old, and man remained
a child.
If I have expatiated at such length on this supposed primitive
state, it is because I had so many ancient
errors and inveterate prejudices to eradicate, and therefore
thought it incumbent on me to dig down to
their very root, and show, by means of a true picture of the state
of nature, how far even the natural
inequalities of mankind are from having that reality and
influence which modern writers suppose.
12. It is in fact easy to see that many of the differences which
distinguish men are merely the effect of
habit and the different methods of life men adopt in society.
[…]
Having proved that the inequality of mankind is hardly felt, and
that its influence is next to nothing in
a state of nature, I must next show its origin and trace its
progress in the successive developments of
the human mind. Having shown that human perfectibility, the
social virtues, and the other faculties
which natural man potentially possessed, could never develop of
themselves, but must require the
fortuitous concurrence of many foreign causes that might never
arise, and without which he would
have remained for ever in his primitive condition, I must now
collect and consider the different
accidents which may have improved the human understanding
while depraving the species, and made
man wicked while making him sociable; so as to bring him and
the world from that distant period to
the point at which we now behold them.
[…]
The first man who, having enclosed a piece of ground,
bethought himself of saying This is mine, and
found people simple enough to believe him, was the real
founder of civil society. From how many
crimes, wars and murders, from how many horrors and
misfortunes might not any one have saved
mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and
crying to his fellows, "Beware of listening
to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the
13. fruits of the earth, belong to us all, and the
earth itself to nobody." But there is great probability that things
had then already come to such a pitch,
that they could no longer continue as they were; for the idea of
property depends on many prior ideas,
which could only be acquired successively, and cannot have
been formed all at once in the human mind.
Mankind must have made very considerable progress, and
acquired considerable knowledge and
industry which they must also have transmitted and increased
from age to age, before they arrived at
this last point of the state of nature.
[…]
The rich, in particular, must have felt how much they suffered
by a constant state of war, of which they
bore all the expense; and in which, though all risked their lives,
they alone risked their property. Besides,
however speciously they might disguise their usurpations, they
knew that they were founded on
precarious and false titles; so that, if others took from them by
force what they themselves had gained
by force, they would have no reason to complain. Even those
who had been enriched by their own
industry, could hardly base their proprietorship on better
claims. It was in vain to repeat, "I built this
well; I gained this spot by my industry." Who gave you your
standing, it might be answered, and what
right have you to demand payment of us for doing what we
never asked you to do? Do you not know
that numbers of your fellow-creatures are starving, for want of
what you have too much of? You ought
to have had the express and universal consent of mankind,
before appropriating more of the common
14. subsistence than you needed for your own maintenance.
Destitute of valid reasons to justify and
sufficient strength to defend himself, able to crush individuals
with ease, but easily crushed himself by
a troop of bandits, one against all, and incapable, on account of
mutual jealousy, of joining with his
equals against numerous enemies united by the common hope of
plunder, the rich man, thus urged by
necessity, conceived at length the profoundest plan that ever
entered the mind of man: this was to
employ in his favour the forces of those who attacked him, to
make allies of his adversaries, to inspire
them with different maxims, and to give them other institutions
as favourable to himself as the law of
nature was unfavourable.
With this view, after having represented to his neighbours the
horror of a situation which armed every
man against the rest, and made their possessions as burdensome
to them as their wants, and in which
no safety could be expected either in riches or in poverty, he
readily devised plausible arguments to
make them close with his design. "Let us join," said he, "to
guard the weak from oppression, to restrain
the ambitious, and secure to every man the possession of what
belongs to him: let us institute rules of
justice and peace, to which all without exception may be
obliged to conform; rules that may in some
measure make amends for the caprices of fortune, by subjecting
equally the powerful and the weak to
the observance of reciprocal obligations. Let us, in a word,
instead of turning our forces against
ourselves, collect them in a supreme power which may govern
15. us by wise laws, protect and defend all
the members of the association, repulse their common enemies,
and maintain eternal harmony among
us."
Far fewer words to this purpose would have been enough to
impose on men so barbarous and easily
seduced; especially as they had too many disputes among
themselves to do without arbitrators, and too
much ambition and avarice to go long without masters. All ran
headlong to their chains, in hopes of
securing their liberty; for they had just wit enough to perceive
the advantages of political institutions,
without experience enough to enable them to foresee the
dangers […]
Such was, or may well have been, the origin of society and law,
which bound new fetters on the poor,
and gave new powers to the rich; which irretrievably destroyed
natural liberty, eternally fixed the law
of property and inequality, converted clever usurpation into
unalterable right, and, for the advantage of
a few ambitious individuals, subjected all mankind to perpetual
labour, slavery and wretchedness. It is
easy to see how the establishment of one community made that
of all the rest necessary, and how, in
order to make head against united forces, the rest of mankind
had to unite in turn. Societies soon
multiplied and spread over the face of the earth, till hardly a
corner of the world was left in which a
man could escape the yoke, and withdraw his head from beneath
the sword which he saw perpetually
hanging over him by a thread. Civil right having thus become
the common rule among the members of
each community, the law of nature maintained its place only
between different communities, where,
16. under the name of the right of nations, it was qualified by
certain tacit conventions, in order to make
commerce practicable, and serve as a substitute for natural
compassion, which lost, when applied to
societies, almost all the influence it had over individuals, and
survived no longer except in some great
cosmopolitan spirits, who, breaking down the imaginary barriers
that separate different peoples, follow
the example of our Sovereign Creator, and include the whole
human race in their benevolence.
But bodies politic, remaining thus in a state of nature among
themselves, presently experienced the
inconveniences which had obliged individuals to forsake it; for
this state became still more fatal to these
great bodies than it had been to the individuals of whom they
were composed. Hence arose national
wars, battles, murders, and reprisals, which shock nature and
outrage reason; together with all those
horrible prejudices which class among the virtues the honour of
shedding human blood. The most
distinguished men hence learned to consider cutting each other's
throats a duty; at length men massacred
their fellow-creatures by thousands without so much as knowing
why, and committed more murders in
a single day's fighting, and more violent outrages in the sack of
a single town, than were committed in
the state of nature during whole ages over the whole earth. Such
were the first effects which we can see
to have followed the division of mankind into different
communities
[…]
It would be as unreasonable to suppose that men at first threw
themselves irretrievably and
17. unconditionally into the arms of an absolute master, and that the
first expedient which proud and
unsubdued men hit upon for their common security was to run
headlong into slavery. For what reason,
in fact, did they take to themselves superiors, if it was not in
order that they might be defended from
oppression, and have protection for their lives, liberties and
properties, which are, so to speak, the
constituent elements of their being? Now, in the relations
between man and man, the worst that can
happen is for one to find himself at the mercy of another, and it
would have been inconsistent with
common-sense to begin by bestowing on a chief the only things
they wanted his help to preserve.
[…]
The savage and the civilised man differ so much in the bottom
of their hearts and in their inclinations,
that what constitutes the supreme happiness of one would
reduce the other to despair. The former
breathes only peace and liberty; he desires only to live and be
free from labour […] Civilised man, on
the other hand, is always moving, sweating, toiling and racking
his brains to find still more laborious
occupations: he goes on in drudgery to his last moment, and
even seeks death to put himself in a position
to live, or renounces life to acquire immortality. He pays his
court to men in power, whom he hates,
and to the wealthy, whom he despises; he stops at nothing to
have the honour of serving them; he is not
ashamed to value himself on his own meanness and their
protection; and, proud of his slavery, he speaks
18. with disdain of those, who have not the honour of sharing it.
What a sight would the perplexing and
envied labours of a European minister of State present to the
eyes of a Caribean! […] In reality, the
source, of all these differences is, that the savage lives within
himself, while social man lives constantly
outside himself, and only knows how to live in the opinion of
others, so that he seems to receive the
consciousness of his own existence merely from the judgment of
others concerning him […] we have
nothing to show for ourselves but a frivolous and deceitful
appearance, honour without virtue, reason
without wisdom, and pleasure without happiness. It is sufficient
that I have proved that this is not by
any means the original state of man, but that it is merely the
spirit of society, and the inequality which
society produces, that thus transform and alter all our natural
inclinations.
I have endeavoured to trace the origin and progress of
inequality, and the institution and abuse of
political societies, as far as these are capable of being deduced
from the nature of man merely by the
light of reason, and independently of those sacred dogmas
which give the sanction of divine right to
sovereign authority. It follows from this survey that, as there is
hardly any inequality in the state of
nature, all the inequality which now prevails owes its strength
and growth to the development of our
faculties and the advance of the human mind, and becomes at
last permanent and legitimate by the
establishment of property and laws. Secondly, it follows that
moral inequality authorised by positive
right alone, clashes with natural right, whenever it is not
proportionate to physical inequality; a
distinction which sufficiently determines what we ought to
19. think of that species of inequality which
prevails in all civilised countries; since it is plainly contrary to
the law of nature, however defined, that
children should command old men, fools wise men, and that the
privileged few should gorge themselves
with superfluities, while the starving multitude are in want of
the bare necessities of life.
From Jean-Jacques Rousseau The Social Contract
Chapter VI ‘The Social Compact’
I suppose men to have reached the point at which the obstacles
in the way of their preservation in the
state of nature show their power of resistance to be greater than
the resources at the disposal of each
individual for his maintenance in that state. That primitive
condition can then subsist no longer; and the
human race would perish unless it changed its manner of
existence.
But, as men cannot engender new forces, but only unite and
direct existing ones, they have no other
means of preserving themselves than the formation, by
aggregation, of a sum of forces great enough to
overcome the resistance. These they have to bring into play by
means of a single motive power, and
cause to act in concert.
This sum of forces can arise only where several persons come
together: but, as the force and liberty of
each man are the chief instruments of his self-preservation, how
can he pledge them without harming
his own interests, and neglecting the care he owes to himself?
20. This difficulty, in its bearing on my
present subject, may be stated in the following terms—
"The problem is to find a form of association which will defend
and protect with the whole common
force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each,
while uniting himself with all, may
still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before." This is
the fundamental problem of which the
Social Contract provides the solution.
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h.htm#CHAPTER_VI
The clauses of this contract are so determined by the nature of
the act that the slightest modification
would make them vain and ineffective; so that, although they
have perhaps never been formally set
forth, they are everywhere the same and everywhere tacitly
admitted and recognised, until, on the
violation of the social compact, each regains his original rights
and resumes his natural liberty, while
losing the conventional liberty in favour of which he renounced
it.
These clauses, properly understood, may be reduced to one—the
total alienation of each associate,
together with all his rights, to the whole community for, in the
first place, as each gives himself
absolutely, the conditions are the same for all; and, this being
so, no one has any interest in making
them burdensome to others.
Moreover, the alienation being without reserve, the union is as
perfect as it can be, and no associate has
21. anything more to demand: for, if the individuals retained certain
rights, as there would be no common
superior to decide between them and the public, each, being on
one point his own judge, would ask to
be so on all; the state of nature would thus continue, and the
association would necessarily become
inoperative or tyrannical.
Finally, each man, in giving himself to all, gives himself to
nobody; and as there is no associate over
whom he does not acquire the same right as he yields others
over himself, he gains an equivalent for
everything he loses, and an increase of force for the
preservation of what he has.
If then we discard from the social compact what is not of its
essence, we shall find that it reduces itself
to the following terms—
"Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under
the supreme direction of the general
will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as
an indivisible part of the whole."
At once, in place of the individual personality of each
contracting party, this act of association creates
a moral and collective body, composed of as many members as
the assembly contains votes, and
receiving from this act its unity, its common identity, its life
and its will. This public person, so formed
by the union of all other persons, formerly took the name of
city, and now takes that of Republic or
body politic; it is called by its members State when passive,
Sovereign when active, and Power when
compared with others like itself. Those who are associated in it
take collectively the name of people,
22. and severally are called citizens, as sharing in the sovereign
power, and subjects, as being under the
laws of the State. But these terms are often confused and taken
one for another: it is enough to know
how to distinguish them when they are being used with
precision.
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