An intervention study examined whether changing a school's homework program to better meet students' psychological needs would improve student motivation for homework. The study involved 104 male students aged 10-12 who were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. While there was no overall effect on motivation, the intervention appeared to have a protective effect on motivation quality. The intervention was designed based on self-determination theory to support the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness in homework by providing choice, feedback, and opportunities for peer and student-teacher interaction.
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-201...William Kritsonis
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-2014 - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) - www.nationalforum.com
International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy • F.docxnormanibarber20063
International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy • Fall 2011 • Vol. XXXI, number 1 • 109
ACHIEVEMENT AMONG SECOND GRADE STUDENTS WHO RECEIVED INSTRUCTION
FROM EITHER TEACHERS TRAINED IN CHOICE THEORY/REALITY THERAPY OR
TEACHERS WHO WERE NOT SO TRAINED
Jane V. Hale, Ph.D, Assistant Professor of Counselor Education, Department of Counseling
and Development, Slippery Rock University
Joseph Maola, Ph.D, Professor (retired) of Counselor Education, Department of Counseling,
Psychology, and Special Education, Duquesne University
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if second grade students who were taught by
teachers trained in choice theory/reality therapy (CT/RT) methods had higher achievement
scores in mathematics and reading compared to students who were taught by teachers who
were not trained in CT/RT methods. This study was descriptive in nature and used
retrospective data. The participants (N=83) consisted of second grade students who took
the TerraNova, Multiple Assessments test in April 2008. An analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was conducted to measure the main effect of achievement in mathematics/reading and
CT/RT training status of teachers. A separate ANOVA was utilized to measure the
interaction effect of gender on mathematics/reading achievement and training status of
teachers. No significance was found in both analyses. Based on existing research, there is
substantial support for using CT/RT methods in education to improve the social climate
(Glasser, 2010), which ultimately has a positive effect on achievement (Brookover, Beady,
Flood, Schweitzer, & Wisenbaker, 1977; Haynes, Emmons, & Ben-Avie, 1997; Hoy &
Hannum, 1997; Niehbur & Niehbur, 1999; Rutter & Maughan, 2002). The American School
Counseling Association (ASCA) National Model suggests that school counselors need to be
active in the systemic processes of the school to provide comprehensive services to a large
number of students (ASCA, 2005). Training teachers in CT/RT is an example of an activity
that is consistent with ASCA‘s proposition. Concurrent with other research studies on
teacher trainings, lack of intensity (Jacob & Lefgran, 2004) emerged as an issue. The
teacher training program in this study was only six hours in duration and did not offer
follow-up trainings, or a collective plan to put new knowledge into practice. The findings are
discussed related to current research, limitations, and recommendations for future studies.
_______________________
It is difficult to dispute the fact that measures of achievement are an integral component of
the educational system. Measurement of learning helps students, parents, and teachers to
identify if a student is progressing and gaining knowledge. There are many ways student
learning is measured such as school grades, content of projects, conduct reports, portfolios,
curriculum-relevant tests, and standardized achiev.
Across the country schools face a multitude of challenges related to student discipline and school climate that potentially impact social and academic outcomes for students. Schools are continually changing and the demands that students face daily have increased at a rapid rate. When students are ill-equipped to face such demands, and traditional reactive approaches to discipline are employed, there is an increased likelihood that they will drop out, or will face punitive measures that do not ultimately improve behaviors (Morrissey et al., 2010). Choosing to dropout of high school may cause serious repercussions for students, their communities and families. Although many interventions currently used to decrease the number of dropouts do not have strong evidence to support their effectiveness (Freeman et al., 2015), several studies conducted in the past 20 years indicate that improved outcomes for students graduating high school have occurred through various interventions. School of Life (SOLF) is a intervention offered as an alternative to in school detention and suspensions. Although other dropout prevention programs have been evaluated, SOLF is a time and resource efficient method for targeting dropout and students who have participated in this intervention over the past three years have seen positive results, including higher rates of graduation (Baggaley, 2015). The purpose of the current study was to answer the following three research questions: 1. What is the effect of the SOLF on grade advancement/dropout rates? 2. What is the effect of SOLF on attendance? 3. What is the effect of SOLF on school connectedness and student motivation?
Classroom Social Environment and School Performance in The Selected Secondary...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research investigated teachers' perceptions of the social environment in the classroom and
student performance in a sample of secondary schools in the Philippines' Municipality of Iba and Botolan,
Zambales, including Amungan National High School, San Agustin Integrated School, Jesus F. Magsaysay High
School, President Ramon Magsaysay State University-laboratory High School, Botolan National High School,
and Bancal Integrated School. One hundred fifty-five respondents were chosen at random, and the researcher
used the descriptive research design and questionnaire as the primary instruments to collect data. The school
received a "Very High" rating for promotion, retention, and cohort or survival rates but a "Very Low" rating for
failure and drop-out rates.There was a significant difference in the perception of the classroom social
environment as to classroom mastery goals, classroom performance goals, classroom social interaction,
classroom mutual respect, and classroom academic self-efficacy. There was a significant difference in the level
of school performance on student progress and development as to failure rate, drop-out rate, promotion rate,
retention rate, and cohort survival rate. There is a negligible relationship between the classroom social
environment and the school student progress and development level.Regarding classroom mastery goals,
classroom performance goals, classroom social interaction, classroom mutual respect, and classroom academic
self-efficacy, there was a significant difference in perception. Concerning the failure rate, drop-out rate,
promotion rate, retention rate, and cohort survival rate, there was a considerable variation in the level of school
performance. The social climate in the classroom has very little bearing on how well students are progressing
academically.
KEYWORDS: Social Environment, Failure Rate, Drop-Out Rate, Survival Rate, Classroom Mastery Goals,
Classroom Performance Goals, Classroom Social Interaction, Classroom Academic Self-Efficacy
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-201...William Kritsonis
W. Sean Kearney and Scott Peters - Published in NFEAS JOURNAL, 31(1) 2013-2014 - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) - www.nationalforum.com
International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy • F.docxnormanibarber20063
International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy • Fall 2011 • Vol. XXXI, number 1 • 109
ACHIEVEMENT AMONG SECOND GRADE STUDENTS WHO RECEIVED INSTRUCTION
FROM EITHER TEACHERS TRAINED IN CHOICE THEORY/REALITY THERAPY OR
TEACHERS WHO WERE NOT SO TRAINED
Jane V. Hale, Ph.D, Assistant Professor of Counselor Education, Department of Counseling
and Development, Slippery Rock University
Joseph Maola, Ph.D, Professor (retired) of Counselor Education, Department of Counseling,
Psychology, and Special Education, Duquesne University
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if second grade students who were taught by
teachers trained in choice theory/reality therapy (CT/RT) methods had higher achievement
scores in mathematics and reading compared to students who were taught by teachers who
were not trained in CT/RT methods. This study was descriptive in nature and used
retrospective data. The participants (N=83) consisted of second grade students who took
the TerraNova, Multiple Assessments test in April 2008. An analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was conducted to measure the main effect of achievement in mathematics/reading and
CT/RT training status of teachers. A separate ANOVA was utilized to measure the
interaction effect of gender on mathematics/reading achievement and training status of
teachers. No significance was found in both analyses. Based on existing research, there is
substantial support for using CT/RT methods in education to improve the social climate
(Glasser, 2010), which ultimately has a positive effect on achievement (Brookover, Beady,
Flood, Schweitzer, & Wisenbaker, 1977; Haynes, Emmons, & Ben-Avie, 1997; Hoy &
Hannum, 1997; Niehbur & Niehbur, 1999; Rutter & Maughan, 2002). The American School
Counseling Association (ASCA) National Model suggests that school counselors need to be
active in the systemic processes of the school to provide comprehensive services to a large
number of students (ASCA, 2005). Training teachers in CT/RT is an example of an activity
that is consistent with ASCA‘s proposition. Concurrent with other research studies on
teacher trainings, lack of intensity (Jacob & Lefgran, 2004) emerged as an issue. The
teacher training program in this study was only six hours in duration and did not offer
follow-up trainings, or a collective plan to put new knowledge into practice. The findings are
discussed related to current research, limitations, and recommendations for future studies.
_______________________
It is difficult to dispute the fact that measures of achievement are an integral component of
the educational system. Measurement of learning helps students, parents, and teachers to
identify if a student is progressing and gaining knowledge. There are many ways student
learning is measured such as school grades, content of projects, conduct reports, portfolios,
curriculum-relevant tests, and standardized achiev.
Across the country schools face a multitude of challenges related to student discipline and school climate that potentially impact social and academic outcomes for students. Schools are continually changing and the demands that students face daily have increased at a rapid rate. When students are ill-equipped to face such demands, and traditional reactive approaches to discipline are employed, there is an increased likelihood that they will drop out, or will face punitive measures that do not ultimately improve behaviors (Morrissey et al., 2010). Choosing to dropout of high school may cause serious repercussions for students, their communities and families. Although many interventions currently used to decrease the number of dropouts do not have strong evidence to support their effectiveness (Freeman et al., 2015), several studies conducted in the past 20 years indicate that improved outcomes for students graduating high school have occurred through various interventions. School of Life (SOLF) is a intervention offered as an alternative to in school detention and suspensions. Although other dropout prevention programs have been evaluated, SOLF is a time and resource efficient method for targeting dropout and students who have participated in this intervention over the past three years have seen positive results, including higher rates of graduation (Baggaley, 2015). The purpose of the current study was to answer the following three research questions: 1. What is the effect of the SOLF on grade advancement/dropout rates? 2. What is the effect of SOLF on attendance? 3. What is the effect of SOLF on school connectedness and student motivation?
Classroom Social Environment and School Performance in The Selected Secondary...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research investigated teachers' perceptions of the social environment in the classroom and
student performance in a sample of secondary schools in the Philippines' Municipality of Iba and Botolan,
Zambales, including Amungan National High School, San Agustin Integrated School, Jesus F. Magsaysay High
School, President Ramon Magsaysay State University-laboratory High School, Botolan National High School,
and Bancal Integrated School. One hundred fifty-five respondents were chosen at random, and the researcher
used the descriptive research design and questionnaire as the primary instruments to collect data. The school
received a "Very High" rating for promotion, retention, and cohort or survival rates but a "Very Low" rating for
failure and drop-out rates.There was a significant difference in the perception of the classroom social
environment as to classroom mastery goals, classroom performance goals, classroom social interaction,
classroom mutual respect, and classroom academic self-efficacy. There was a significant difference in the level
of school performance on student progress and development as to failure rate, drop-out rate, promotion rate,
retention rate, and cohort survival rate. There is a negligible relationship between the classroom social
environment and the school student progress and development level.Regarding classroom mastery goals,
classroom performance goals, classroom social interaction, classroom mutual respect, and classroom academic
self-efficacy, there was a significant difference in perception. Concerning the failure rate, drop-out rate,
promotion rate, retention rate, and cohort survival rate, there was a considerable variation in the level of school
performance. The social climate in the classroom has very little bearing on how well students are progressing
academically.
KEYWORDS: Social Environment, Failure Rate, Drop-Out Rate, Survival Rate, Classroom Mastery Goals,
Classroom Performance Goals, Classroom Social Interaction, Classroom Academic Self-Efficacy
1Quantitative Research Plan (Draft)ByID # A00355270.docxeugeniadean34240
1
Quantitative Research Plan
(Draft)
By
ID # A00355270
Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership
Program: PhD in Education
Specialization: Educational Technology
RSCH 8200-Quantitative Reasoning
Dr. Wade Smith, Jr.
[email protected]
Walden University
September 13, 2015
Table of Contents
Introduction Comment by Dr. Wade Smith: Assign page numbers as you develop this doc.
Opening Statement
Problem
Purpose of Study
Theory Perspective
Research Questions
Theoretical Framework
Involvement for Success
Literature Review
Case Study
Theoretical Framework
Involvement for Success
Summary
Research Methodology
Setting
Population
Data Sources
Ethnicity
Research Design
Intervention
Survey Instrument
Summary
Introduction
Opening Statement
The students and parents are participants in an educational program. “Research often excludes youth participants, omitting their social and psychological realities, undermining their rights to participate and benefit from research, and weakening the validity of research. Researchers may be discouraged from including youth due to logistical (e.g. gaining access) or ethical (e.g. coercion risks based on developmental level) concerns. Increased discussion is needed around appropriate methods to use with child and youth participants that manage challenges related to developmental capacities, legal status, power differentials, and unpredictable aspects of qualitative research”(Sage, 2015). Eliminate the white pages.
Background Study
In this paper I will focus on experiences of researchers, describing solutions of internal and external validity. “The research design is the blueprint that enables the investigator to come up with solutions to these problems and guides him or her to various stages of research” (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008, p89) Internal validity is whether the effects observed in a research are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. External validity is the extent to which the results of a research can be generalized to settings and people. (McLeod, 2013).
Burger’s (2009) study of design is on the psychological research designed by Milgram. Burger (2009) identifies obedience to authority, increase in demands, resources of information in a novel situation, and responsibility not assigned or diffused as contributes toward the “high rates of obedience” (Burger, 2009, pp 2-3). His hypotheses question is ‘Would people still obey today?’ The tables are used to measure participants of the obedience screening according to gender and ethnicity, such as behavior and personality rates.
Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, Karns, and Dutka (1997) researched on various collaborative measurements. The appendix for Problems A & B is interesting. The methods to problems solving contain internal and external validity. This is a collaborative research because the tutor (educator) and tutee (learner) are doing an activity.
Problem Statement
The problem occurs when there is a lack of part.
THE INFLUENCE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING COMMUNITIES ON RESEARCH LITERACY AND ...ijejournal
The current study investigates two Problem-Based Learning (PBL) processes that were carried out in two different Online Learning Communities of 62 pre-service teachers who took a Research Literacy course as a part of their academic obligation. The first one was combined with the moderator based learning
scaffoldings (OLC+M), and the other one with the social based learning scaffoldings (OLC+S). The study seeks to map the differences between these two OLCs in terms of Achievement Goal Motivation and Research Literacy skills as a result of the PBL intervention, and the correlation between these aspects as is expressed in each group. The findings indicated that PBL had a significant positive effect on AGM in both groups, while only the OLC+S showed the significant outperforming in some of the Research Literacy skills, as well as the positive correlation between them and the Mastery Approach component of AGM. The discussion raises possible interpretations of theoretical and practical relationships between Research Literacy skills in the educational field and motivational factors among adult students, as they are expressed in online communication environments.
A Course-Based Qualitative Inquiry into the Potential Impact of the Bachelor ...inventionjournals
This course-based qualitative study aims to explore what 4th-year Child and Youth Care students and recent graduates of the Bachelor of Child and Youth Care program at MacEwan University think about their likely parenting styles as a direct result of their Child and Youth Care educational experience. A thematic analysis of the data revealed four major themes: (1) the desire to be an authoritative parent, (2) courses, (3) themes and concepts that were meaningful, and (4) a better understanding of theories relevant to parenting and the need for self-reflection
Contextual Influences on the Implementation of a Schoolwide .docxmelvinjrobinson2199
Contextual Influences on the
Implementation of a Schoolwide Intervention
to Promote Students’ Social, Emotional,
and Academic Learning
Yolanda Anyon, Nicole Nicotera, and Christopher A. Veeh
Schoolwide interventions are among the most effective approaches for improving students’
behavioral and academic outcomes. However, researchers have documented consistent chal-
lenges with implementation fidelity and have argued that school social workers should be
engaged in efforts to improve treatment integrity. This study examines contextual influences
on the implementation of a whole-school intervention called Responsive Classroom (RC)
in one urban K–8 public school serving a diverse student body. RC improves social, emo-
tional, literacy, and math outcomes for disadvantaged students with behavior problems by
building on the assets of teachers to intervene with misbehaving students in the classroom
setting or school environment. Yet little is understood regarding the factors that constrain or
enable implementation of RC in noncontrolled research conditions. Results from a mixed-
methods convergent analysis of focus group, observation, and survey data indicate the influ-
ence of the following three contextual factors on implementation fidelity: (1) intervention
characteristics such as compatibility with staff members’ beliefs about behavior change and
management, (2) organizational capacity such as principal and teacher buy-in, and (3) the
intervention support system such as training and technical assistance. Implications for future
school social work research and practice with respect to the implementation of schoolwide
programs are discussed.
KEY WORDS: context; fidelity; implementation; school social work; schoolwide interventions
School social workers are often called on to deliver interventions to improve the behavior of disruptive and off-task students, as these
young people are at greater risk than their peers for
academic and psychosocial problems extending
across the life span ( O’Shaughnessy, Lane, Gresham,
& Beebe-Frankenberger, 2003; Sprague & Hill,
2000). For example, behavior problems in elemen-
tary school are among the strongest predictors of
underachievement, delinquency, and violence later
in life ( Sprague & Hill, 2000). Moreover, low-
income children and adolescents of color are more
likely to be identified by school staff as having be-
havior problems but are less likely to have access to
supports they need to make improvements ( Reyes,
Elias, Parker, & Rosenblatt, 2013). In the larger con-
text of persistent racial and class disparities in aca-
demic achievement, the need for early interventions
among disadvantaged young people is clear ( Reyes
et al., 2013).
Emerging evidence suggests that schoolwide and
teacher-focused interventions are among the most
effective approaches for improving student behav-
ioral outcomes ( Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki,
Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). How.
08 test ideatets.JPGLiterature review on learning dSilvaGraf83
08 test idea/tets.JPG
Literature review on learning disability
Nature of problem
There are certain cases in children learning problems that instigate effective control over the barrier of learning new things. This study is based on the arithmetic interventions that are related to the linguistic approach. It individualizes the aspects of quick adaptability and the learning process with the orientation of the task (Allison, 2021).
The group of kindergarten students with collected data provided a comprehensive picture of the many facets of learning impairments. The term "problem solving" has been connected with the process of learning new things and comprehending facts, which has resulted in the exposure of several interventions (Christy, 2021). It demonstrates skill in resolving mathematical issues using language interventions and useful directions.
Subjects
The assessment of learning disability is judged with the kindergarten to the sixth-grade students. That included both male and female students randomly assessed. The sessions for problem-solving were of 50 minutes with a total of 34 sessions. The meta-analysis has instilled the perspective of dynamic range in subject choice with more task-oriented mathematic problems structured to resolve learning disabilities (Jennifer, 2021). There were 29 group-design studies and 10 single-subject studies (39 totals) were considered in the assessment of the meta-analysis
Procedures
Elements of educational possibilities exemplify the authoritative touch in a framed format. Continuous research to achieve a learning goal has resulted in psychological success and an authoritative demeanour. Students are likely to be relevant for the competent structure of the learning process. The usual models are instructed for people to learn with mathematical problems and stringent regulations. Every organization looks to the example of rules to understand the power of continual review. Recognizing the sluggish update in self-learning, the whole projects are framed by quality validation of the work and other refreshing information. This article contains the capabilities that are ready to survey students with innovation-related sections of development and typical cycles for moral assessment of program.
The author has conducted a diverse selection of meta-analyses of optimized studies on WPS. It assists the students with math disabilities or learning disabilities. The subjects were identified as MD if their scores fell below the 25th percentile on an average math test. The representation techniques are determined from the computer-assisted design of the test with significant changes in meta-analysis (Jennifer, 2021). The effectiveness of the procedure has instructional components with skill modeling and group identification. It promotes the various instructional barriers for students using WPS. The study manipulations were assorted that there were no significant differences in learning disability of stude ...
1Quantitative Research Plan (Draft)ByID # A00355270.docxeugeniadean34240
1
Quantitative Research Plan
(Draft)
By
ID # A00355270
Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership
Program: PhD in Education
Specialization: Educational Technology
RSCH 8200-Quantitative Reasoning
Dr. Wade Smith, Jr.
[email protected]
Walden University
September 13, 2015
Table of Contents
Introduction Comment by Dr. Wade Smith: Assign page numbers as you develop this doc.
Opening Statement
Problem
Purpose of Study
Theory Perspective
Research Questions
Theoretical Framework
Involvement for Success
Literature Review
Case Study
Theoretical Framework
Involvement for Success
Summary
Research Methodology
Setting
Population
Data Sources
Ethnicity
Research Design
Intervention
Survey Instrument
Summary
Introduction
Opening Statement
The students and parents are participants in an educational program. “Research often excludes youth participants, omitting their social and psychological realities, undermining their rights to participate and benefit from research, and weakening the validity of research. Researchers may be discouraged from including youth due to logistical (e.g. gaining access) or ethical (e.g. coercion risks based on developmental level) concerns. Increased discussion is needed around appropriate methods to use with child and youth participants that manage challenges related to developmental capacities, legal status, power differentials, and unpredictable aspects of qualitative research”(Sage, 2015). Eliminate the white pages.
Background Study
In this paper I will focus on experiences of researchers, describing solutions of internal and external validity. “The research design is the blueprint that enables the investigator to come up with solutions to these problems and guides him or her to various stages of research” (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008, p89) Internal validity is whether the effects observed in a research are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. External validity is the extent to which the results of a research can be generalized to settings and people. (McLeod, 2013).
Burger’s (2009) study of design is on the psychological research designed by Milgram. Burger (2009) identifies obedience to authority, increase in demands, resources of information in a novel situation, and responsibility not assigned or diffused as contributes toward the “high rates of obedience” (Burger, 2009, pp 2-3). His hypotheses question is ‘Would people still obey today?’ The tables are used to measure participants of the obedience screening according to gender and ethnicity, such as behavior and personality rates.
Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, Karns, and Dutka (1997) researched on various collaborative measurements. The appendix for Problems A & B is interesting. The methods to problems solving contain internal and external validity. This is a collaborative research because the tutor (educator) and tutee (learner) are doing an activity.
Problem Statement
The problem occurs when there is a lack of part.
THE INFLUENCE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING COMMUNITIES ON RESEARCH LITERACY AND ...ijejournal
The current study investigates two Problem-Based Learning (PBL) processes that were carried out in two different Online Learning Communities of 62 pre-service teachers who took a Research Literacy course as a part of their academic obligation. The first one was combined with the moderator based learning
scaffoldings (OLC+M), and the other one with the social based learning scaffoldings (OLC+S). The study seeks to map the differences between these two OLCs in terms of Achievement Goal Motivation and Research Literacy skills as a result of the PBL intervention, and the correlation between these aspects as is expressed in each group. The findings indicated that PBL had a significant positive effect on AGM in both groups, while only the OLC+S showed the significant outperforming in some of the Research Literacy skills, as well as the positive correlation between them and the Mastery Approach component of AGM. The discussion raises possible interpretations of theoretical and practical relationships between Research Literacy skills in the educational field and motivational factors among adult students, as they are expressed in online communication environments.
A Course-Based Qualitative Inquiry into the Potential Impact of the Bachelor ...inventionjournals
This course-based qualitative study aims to explore what 4th-year Child and Youth Care students and recent graduates of the Bachelor of Child and Youth Care program at MacEwan University think about their likely parenting styles as a direct result of their Child and Youth Care educational experience. A thematic analysis of the data revealed four major themes: (1) the desire to be an authoritative parent, (2) courses, (3) themes and concepts that were meaningful, and (4) a better understanding of theories relevant to parenting and the need for self-reflection
Contextual Influences on the Implementation of a Schoolwide .docxmelvinjrobinson2199
Contextual Influences on the
Implementation of a Schoolwide Intervention
to Promote Students’ Social, Emotional,
and Academic Learning
Yolanda Anyon, Nicole Nicotera, and Christopher A. Veeh
Schoolwide interventions are among the most effective approaches for improving students’
behavioral and academic outcomes. However, researchers have documented consistent chal-
lenges with implementation fidelity and have argued that school social workers should be
engaged in efforts to improve treatment integrity. This study examines contextual influences
on the implementation of a whole-school intervention called Responsive Classroom (RC)
in one urban K–8 public school serving a diverse student body. RC improves social, emo-
tional, literacy, and math outcomes for disadvantaged students with behavior problems by
building on the assets of teachers to intervene with misbehaving students in the classroom
setting or school environment. Yet little is understood regarding the factors that constrain or
enable implementation of RC in noncontrolled research conditions. Results from a mixed-
methods convergent analysis of focus group, observation, and survey data indicate the influ-
ence of the following three contextual factors on implementation fidelity: (1) intervention
characteristics such as compatibility with staff members’ beliefs about behavior change and
management, (2) organizational capacity such as principal and teacher buy-in, and (3) the
intervention support system such as training and technical assistance. Implications for future
school social work research and practice with respect to the implementation of schoolwide
programs are discussed.
KEY WORDS: context; fidelity; implementation; school social work; schoolwide interventions
School social workers are often called on to deliver interventions to improve the behavior of disruptive and off-task students, as these
young people are at greater risk than their peers for
academic and psychosocial problems extending
across the life span ( O’Shaughnessy, Lane, Gresham,
& Beebe-Frankenberger, 2003; Sprague & Hill,
2000). For example, behavior problems in elemen-
tary school are among the strongest predictors of
underachievement, delinquency, and violence later
in life ( Sprague & Hill, 2000). Moreover, low-
income children and adolescents of color are more
likely to be identified by school staff as having be-
havior problems but are less likely to have access to
supports they need to make improvements ( Reyes,
Elias, Parker, & Rosenblatt, 2013). In the larger con-
text of persistent racial and class disparities in aca-
demic achievement, the need for early interventions
among disadvantaged young people is clear ( Reyes
et al., 2013).
Emerging evidence suggests that schoolwide and
teacher-focused interventions are among the most
effective approaches for improving student behav-
ioral outcomes ( Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki,
Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). How.
08 test ideatets.JPGLiterature review on learning dSilvaGraf83
08 test idea/tets.JPG
Literature review on learning disability
Nature of problem
There are certain cases in children learning problems that instigate effective control over the barrier of learning new things. This study is based on the arithmetic interventions that are related to the linguistic approach. It individualizes the aspects of quick adaptability and the learning process with the orientation of the task (Allison, 2021).
The group of kindergarten students with collected data provided a comprehensive picture of the many facets of learning impairments. The term "problem solving" has been connected with the process of learning new things and comprehending facts, which has resulted in the exposure of several interventions (Christy, 2021). It demonstrates skill in resolving mathematical issues using language interventions and useful directions.
Subjects
The assessment of learning disability is judged with the kindergarten to the sixth-grade students. That included both male and female students randomly assessed. The sessions for problem-solving were of 50 minutes with a total of 34 sessions. The meta-analysis has instilled the perspective of dynamic range in subject choice with more task-oriented mathematic problems structured to resolve learning disabilities (Jennifer, 2021). There were 29 group-design studies and 10 single-subject studies (39 totals) were considered in the assessment of the meta-analysis
Procedures
Elements of educational possibilities exemplify the authoritative touch in a framed format. Continuous research to achieve a learning goal has resulted in psychological success and an authoritative demeanour. Students are likely to be relevant for the competent structure of the learning process. The usual models are instructed for people to learn with mathematical problems and stringent regulations. Every organization looks to the example of rules to understand the power of continual review. Recognizing the sluggish update in self-learning, the whole projects are framed by quality validation of the work and other refreshing information. This article contains the capabilities that are ready to survey students with innovation-related sections of development and typical cycles for moral assessment of program.
The author has conducted a diverse selection of meta-analyses of optimized studies on WPS. It assists the students with math disabilities or learning disabilities. The subjects were identified as MD if their scores fell below the 25th percentile on an average math test. The representation techniques are determined from the computer-assisted design of the test with significant changes in meta-analysis (Jennifer, 2021). The effectiveness of the procedure has instructional components with skill modeling and group identification. It promotes the various instructional barriers for students using WPS. The study manipulations were assorted that there were no significant differences in learning disability of stude ...
Similar to An Intervention To Improve Motivation For Homework (20)
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Sectors of the Indian Economy - Class 10 Study Notes pdf
An Intervention To Improve Motivation For Homework
1. Article
An Intervention to Improve
Motivation for Homework
Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
A repeated measures design, with randomly assigned intervention and control
groups and multiple sources of information on each participant, was used to
examine whether changing the method of delivery of a school’s homework pro-
gram in order to better meet the students’ needs for autonomy, relatedness
and competence would lead to more positive student attitudes to homework,
and whether there would also be a positive change in overall motivation. The
participants were 104 male students aged 10 to 12 years who attended a single
sex high school. There was no overall intervention effect on motivation; how-
ever, the intervention appeared to have a protective effect on the quality of
motivation.
Keywords: homework, motivation, self-determination theory, intervention
There are two contrasting views about homework. On one side of the debate are
those who call for homework to be reduced or reformed, pointing to its nega-
tive family impact, capacity to entrench ability and socioeconomic differences, and
limited value for academic achievement (Horsley Walker, 2013; Kohn, 2006;
Trautwein, Köller, Schmitz Baumert, 2001). On the other side are those who cite
positive associations between homework and academic achievement (Cooper, Lind-
say, Nye, Greathouse, 1998; Cooper Valentine, 2001; Marzano Pickering,
2007).
It is clear that homework potentially has both costs and benefits, so is it possible
to increase children’s access to the benefits while reducing their exposure to the
costs? The benefits of homework are available only to those children who actually
do their homework (Cooper, Valentine, Nye, Lindsay, 1999). Similarly, fam-
ily conflict over homework reduces sharply if children do not resist completing
homework (Kohn, 2006). Thus, the problem is how to create a situation in which
children do their homework willingly. The answer may lie in the significant body
of research on motivation.
Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci Ryan, 2000, 2008) provides a concep-
tual framework for exploring motivation in contexts such as schools. SDT proposes
address for correspondence: Linda Gilmore, School of Learning and Professional Studies,
Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove QLD 4059, Australia.
Email: l.gilmore@qut.edu.au
34 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
Volume 23 | Issue 1 | 2013 | pp. 34–48 | c
The Authors 2013 | doi 10.1017/jgc.2013.2
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
2. Homework Intervention
a continuum of motivation styles from intrinsic (fully internally motivated), through
identification (a mostly internal motivation style indicated by conscious external-
goal endorsement) and introjection (a mostly external motivation style indicated by
a need for approval from others) to extrinsic (fully externally motivated; Ryan
Connell, 1989). Vansteenkist, Sierens, Soenens, Luyckx, and Lens (2009) confirmed
the presence of the four motivational profiles suggested by SDT in a school envi-
ronment and further confirmed that the more motivation tends toward the intrinsic
end of the SDT continuum, the better effect it has on student outcomes.
SDT proposes that motivation is driven by core underlying psychological needs
for autonomy, relatedness and competence (Deci Ryan, 2000, 2008). Autonomy
refers to volition and the desire to organise one’s own experience and behaviour;
relatedness refers to the need for secure attachments; and competence is the need
for (positive) information about satisfactory performance on an activity. The fac-
tors affecting each of these psychological needs in educational settings have been
the subject of considerable research. Autonomy support is sometimes completely
conflated with offering choice; however, work by Katz and Assor (2007) found
that only choices that were relevant to student interests were effectively supportive
of autonomy. Further, a range of strategies beyond choice are also supportive of
autonomy. Black and Deci (2000) found that teachers’ autonomy support increased
students’ overall motivation and specifically increased their sense of autonomy and
perceived competence. Earlier work by Grolnick, Kurowski and Gurland (1999)
indicated that autonomy supportive environments shared a set of specific features:
problem-solving was encouraged, the environment was structured and predictable,
and emotional resources were provided to students.
Deci and Ryan (2000) linked relatedness directly to attachment — the bond
between a child and his or her primary caregiver, so meeting such a need in an
educational context may seem difficult; however, research by Hetherington (1993)
found that school environments could be classified into types that strongly paral-
leled those found in parenting styles literature: authoritative, authoritarian, per-
missive and chaotic/neglecting. As with parenting styles, school environments that
were authoritative (i.e., high on responsiveness to students, with high expectations
of students within a stable, predictable environment) were associated with better
student outcomes.
Patrick, Kaplan, and Ryan (2011) found that classroom environment predicted
whether students endorsed mastery goals (success is accompanied by effort and
is indicated by personal improvement or achievement of a set standard) or per-
formance goals (learning is a means of achieving recognition of personal worth
and success is indicated by outperforming others). Classroom environments that
promote a mastery orientation successfully meet the need for competence of all stu-
dents; however, class environments that promote a performance orientation better
meet the need for competence of the highest achieving students and can have a
negative impact on lower achieving students (Patrick et al., 2011). Competence is
related not only to classroom environment, but also to the nature and frequency
of feedback (Levesque, Zuehlke, Stanek, Ryan, 2004). In a study comparing
German and US college students, Levesque et al. (2004) found that high frequency
feedback, even when it was of low quality (grades without comments), led to higher
feelings of competence than very infrequent, but high quality feedback.
Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 35
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
3. Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
Given the well-established relationship between effective support for the psy-
chological needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence and increases in mo-
tivation, as well as a small amount of evidence suggesting that teacher support
may be important particularly for homework motivation (Katz, Kaplan, Gueta,
2010), we hypothesised that a homework program specifically designed to ad-
dress these needs would lead to an increase in homework-specific motivation, a
decrease in homework-related distress, and possibly also an increase in overall
motivation. Surprisingly, few homework interventions have been documented in
the literature. Difficulties with homework completion have tended to be viewed
as behavioural issues that require a behavioural intervention, using strategies such
as self-management (e.g., Axelrod, Zhe, Haugen, Klein, 2009) and positive
reinforcement (Theodore et al., 2009). Another goal of homework interventions
has been to increase parental involvement in children’s homework (e.g., Frolland,
2011; Haas Reiley, 2008; Van Voorhis, 2011). In a small study (n = 15), Frol-
land (2011) taught parents how to support their young child’s autonomy with
homework (e.g., by setting goals independently) and reported positive benefits for
children’s subsequent homework-related affect, but no overall improvements in
academic motivation or autonomy. Drawing on SDT theory, Patall, Cooper, and
Wynn (2010) found that high school students who were offered choice in their
homework assignments reported higher motivation for homework, completed a
greater amount of homework, and perceived themselves to be more competent
than did a control group. However, students in the intervention group did not
make more effort with their homework, nor did they report decreased levels of
stress associated with homework.
The current homework intervention was designed to incorporate not only sup-
port for autonomy through the provision of choice among homework options,
but also a focus on encouraging relatedness through an increase in both peer
and student–teacher interactions, and developing competence through personalised
feedback. Thus, all three components of SDT were included in the intervention.
Method
Participants
The participants were 104 students (mean age = 11.2 years, SD = 0.5, range 10
to 12 years) who were enrolled in four Year 7 classes at a private boys’ school
in Brisbane, Australia. Four class teachers also participated. The research was
initiated by staff at the school, and students were given the opportunity to decline
to participate. All took part in the study. Parents were also invited to complete
online questionnaires. However, because only 12 parents from the 104 families
responded, these data were not included in analyses.
Instruments
Children’s Attitude to Homework Questionnaire (CAHQ). The Children’s Attitude
to Homework Questionnaire (CAHQ) (Gilmore, 2007) is a 22-item questionnaire
designed to assess homework habits and attitudes to homework. There is a student
version and a parent version. The CAHQ consists of a range of multiple choice,
Likert-scaled and open response items. It is intended to gather information about
36 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
4. Homework Intervention
the frequency and nature of homework, attitudes to homework, the influence of
homework on child-parent interactions, and a student’s general attitude towards
school.
Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ-17). The Dimensions of Mastery
Questionnaire (DMQ-17; Morgan, Busch-Rossnagel, Barrett, Wang, 2009) is
a 45-item questionnaire that provides ratings of motivation. All responses are on
a Likert scale from 1 (not at all typical) to 5 (very typical). Items load onto six
motivation subscales: Persistence on Cognitive Tasks, Gross Motor Persistence,
Social Persistence with Adults, Social Persistence with Children, Mastery Pleasure,
and Negative Reactions to Failure, as well as a General Competence subscale.
The General Competence and Gross Motor Persistence subscales were not used in
the current study. There is a DMQ version for parents to report on their child’s
motivation, as well as a child self-report for older children and adolescents. In the
current study, to create a teacher version the parent DMQ was modified slightly
(instruction wording ‘your child’ was changed to ‘this student’).
Study Design and Procedure
The study examined a modified homework program through a repeated mea-
sures design with randomly assigned intervention and control groups and multiple
sources of information on each participant. The entire Year 7 cohort participated
in the study. The four existing class groupings were used as these were not streamed
or academically stratified in any way. Two classes were randomly assigned to the
intervention condition (n = 52) and two were allocated to the control condition
(n = 52). Class teachers were shared between the pairs of classes in each condition,
but only one teacher completed measures on each class.
Pre-intervention measures were taken at the end of the first 10-week term of
the school year. Students completed the CAHQ and the DMQ in an online format
during class time. For each student, one class teacher completed the DMQ. Parents
were invited to complete the CAHQ in an online format via the school’s website.
The intervention, described below, was implemented for the whole of the second
term (10 weeks). During this time control group classes adhered to the school’s usual
homework program. Questionnaires (CAHQ and DMQ) were then readministered
online to all students early in the third term, and class teachers completed the DMQ
for each student. Parents were again invited to complete the CAHQ.
Intervention Design
The intervention was designed to incorporate elements that have been linked con-
sistently to higher student motivation for learning: autonomy, relatedness and com-
petence (Ryan Deci, 2000). One of the researchers (the first author) collaborated
with the Head of Curriculum to modify the school’s usual homework program
in the areas of English, Maths, Science, and Studies of Society and Environment.
Students in the intervention group also participated in one lesson conducted by
a teacher in the first week of the intervention that was designed to link the skills
acquired through homework with the achievement of later life goals.
Autonomy was targeted through the provision of more choice in the home-
work program. For example, in English, students were given the opportunity to
Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 37
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
5. Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
choose between ‘standard’ and ‘creative’ versions of the same task; maths problems
could be ‘standard’ or ‘challenge’ (i.e., standard drill practice of maths problems,
or complex applied problems that required the use of appropriate mathematical
procedures), and different response mediums were available (e.g., written, visual,
digital). Relatedness was emphasised both between students and adults, and be-
tween students and their peers. The Studies of Society and Environment/English
teacher scheduled open consultation times during specific lunch breaks for students
to be able to access his support and guidance with larger homework-based assign-
ments. Students were also encouraged to use each other as resources during these
sessions. The Maths/Science teacher established and promoted an online bulletin
board to enable the boys to seek peer help with homework tasks. This teacher also
paired students of different maths ability and encouraged the pairs to help each
other with homework exercises and preparation for assessment. The focus on com-
petence was achieved through more frequent and more personalised feedback on
high-volume, rote homework tasks (maths drills, grammar exercises) which were
previously checked only for completion, not accuracy.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
One teacher was unavailable to respond to the post-intervention DMQs for his
students, and these questionnaires were completed by one of the other class teachers.
Preliminary analyses indicated significant differences on all DMQ subscales for this
group. As the differences were considered likely to be an unintended artefact of
the change in assessor, the teacher data for this entire class were excluded from
subsequent analysis.
Children’s Attitude to Homework Questionnaire (CAHQ)
An initial principal component analysis was conducted on the 22-item CAHQ. In
order to facilitate this, open-ended items were recoded to a 5-point Likert scale.
Items with a Likert scale and an ‘other’ option had all ‘other’ responses recoded
to the Likert scale based on the content of the associated comment. Two pre-
intervention and two post-intervention responses were recoded for ‘How often
do you do homework?’ Eleven pre-intervention and 11 post-intervention responses
were recoded for ‘How much homework do you get?’ Eight components with eigen-
values greater than one were identified in the initial PCA. Of these, five components
had two or fewer items loading. Ten low- and cross-loading items were removed,
and a further principal component analysis with oblique rotation was conducted
separately for pre- and post-intervention responses on the remaining 12 items, with
a forced three-factor solution.
The factor structure (see Table 1) converged in six iterations for pre-intervention
responses and eight iterations for post-intervention responses, and resulted in iden-
tical groupings of items. The three components were labelled ‘Homework Conflict’,
‘Homework Engagement’ and ‘Homework Difficulty’, based on high scores on the
constituent items. Using Cronbach’s alpha, internal consistencies were calculated
separately for each of the three subscales for pre- and post-intervention. These
were considered good to acceptable: Homework Conflict (pre-intervention = .81;
38 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
6. Homework Intervention
TABLE 1
Factor Structure of the Children’s Attitude to Homework Questionnaire at Pre- and Post-Intervention
Homework Homework Homework
Item Conflict Engagement Difficulty
How often do you have arguments at home about your
homework?
.81 (.74)
How often do you have fights at home about your
homework?
.90 (.66)
How often do your parents get upset about your homework? .78 (.80)
How often do you become upset about your homework .71 (.77)
Do you think your teacher gives you: too much homework /
about the right amount / not enough
−.48 (.69)
How often do you complete your set homework? −.57 (.48)
How often do you find homework interesting? −.75 (.75)
How often do you find homework boring? (Reverse coded) −.72 (.63)
Please indicate how much you like school: I hate school/I do
not like school much / I neither like nor dislike school /
I usually like school / I really love school
−.78 (.72)
Generally, do you find homework: way too easy / quite easy /
neither easy nor hard/ quite hard / way too hard
.82 (−.81)
How often do you find homework challenging? .92 (−.84)
How often does an adult help you with your homework? .66 (−.40)
Note: Post-intervention loadings in brackets.
post-intervention = .76), Homework Engagement (pre-intervention = .70; post-
intervention = .66) and Homework Difficulty (pre-intervention = .75; post-
intervention = .61). The total variance explained for the retained factors was
59.37% for the pre-intervention responses and 55.34% for the post-intervention
responses.
A repeated measures MANOVA was conducted with the two-level Within-
Subject factor Time (Pre-intervention and Post-intervention), the two-level
Between-Subjects factor Group (Intervention and Control), and the three CAHQ
subscales as the repeated measures. Assumptions were met after one univariate
outlier was filtered out and a reciprocal transformation of the Homework Conflict
scores was undertaken.
There was a significant main effect for Time, F(3,69) = 2.73, p = .05; Wilks’
Lambda = .894; partial eta squared = .11, observed power = .64. However, there
was no main effect for Group, or interaction between Group and Time. Post-
hoc univariate analysis indicated that Homework Difficulty decreased over time,
F(1,71) = 5.70, p = .02, partial eta squared = .07, observed power = .65. See
Tables 2 and 3 for means and standard deviations of the three CAHQ subscales in
the two groups.
Each student’s relative intrinsic-extrinsic motivation for homework was assessed
using two open-ended questions on the CAHQ: ‘Why do you think teachers give
you homework?’ ‘What do you perceive to be the benefits of homework?’ Based on
their content, responses were coded into a 5-level Likert scale that aligned with Deci
Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 39
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
7. Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
TABLE 2
Means and Standard Deviations of CAHQ subscales: Intervention Group
Time 1 Time 2
Subscale Range n M SD Range n M SD
Homework Conflict 4–20 51 6.92 3.74 4–14 41 5.71 2.26
Homework Engagement 8–21 51 15.16 2.88 9–20 41 15.49 2.73
Homework Difficulty 3–14 49 8.51 2.36 4–11 41 8.22 1.75
TABLE 3
Means and Standard Deviations of CAHQ Subscales: Control Group
Time 1 Time 2
Subscale Range n M SD Range n M SD
Homework Conflict 4–10 43 5.81 1.72 4–12 46 6.11 2.19
Homework Engagement 7–21 42 14.57 3.39 9–20 44 15.00 2.75
Homework Difficulty 4–13 43 8.33 1.87 4–13 46 7.96 1.87
TABLE 4
Key to Coding of Open-ended Responses into Motivation Types
Code Description Key concepts Sample responses
1 Extrinsic Focus on negatives ‘So they don’t have to teach you.’ ‘I see no benefit.’
‘The only thing homework teaches you is how to
do homework.’
2 Introjected Extra work/cover
more/things missed
in class, Revise (short
term)
‘It helps you revise for the next day.’ ‘It helps you set
in the work of the day.’
3 Identified Remember (long term)
Learn (more)
‘ . . . that we remember things more clearly and you
know, method to do things.’ ‘ . . . to get smart.’
4 Integrated Independent learning
Future, Helpful later
in life
‘I think we have homework so we can do good later
in our lives.’ ‘Our brain is always learning, which
helps us become better people.’ ‘You will learn
important things that will help you in future years
of work.’
5 Intrinsic Enjoyment ‘Fun!’
and Ryan’s (2000) levels of motivation. Each level of motivation was associated
with a set of key concepts, responses were assessed against the key concepts, and
then coded based on the dominant concepts present. The coding of key responses
in terms of levels of motivation is detailed in Table 4.
A repeated measures MANOVA was conducted with the two-level Within-
Subject factor Time (Pre-intervention and Post-intervention), the two-level
Between-Subjects factor Group (Intervention and Control), and the two measures
of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation as the repeated measures. Assumptions were met
40 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
8. Homework Intervention
TABLE 5
Means and Standard Deviations of Intrinsic-Extrinsic Motivation Items: Intervention Group
Time 1 Time 2
Item Range n M SD Range n M SD
Why do you think teachers give you homework? 1–4 50 2.34 0.82 1–4 41 2.56 0.78
What do you perceive to be the benefits of
homework?
1–4 50 2.28 0.88 1–4 41 2.71 0.68
TABLE 6
Means and Standard Deviations of Intrinsic-Extrinsic Motivation Items: Control Group
Time 1 Time 2
Item Range n M SD Range n M SD
Why do you think teachers give you homework? 1–4 43 2.37 0.87 46 1–4 2.65 0.82
What do you perceive to be the benefits of
homework?
1–4 43 2.47 1.12 46 1–5 2.85 0.87
after a log transformation of the four variables was undertaken. There was a sig-
nificant main effect for Time, F(2,74) = 9.16, p .001; Wilks’ Lambda = .802;
partial eta squared = .20, observed power = .97, but there was no main effect for
Group, and no significant interaction between Group and Time. Post-hoc univari-
ate analysis showed that perceptions of the benefits of homework were framed in
more intrinsic terms over time, F(1,74) = 15.96, p .001, partial eta squared =
.18, observed power = .98. See Tables 5 and 6 for means and standard deviations
of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation items.
A measure of change in motivation was calculated by averaging each student’s
coded response to the two intrinsic-extrinsic motivation items, and subtracting the
score at pre-intervention from the score at post-intervention. Changes in motivation
by group are shown in Table 7. The Control group displayed more change in mo-
tivation overall as only 28.9% of this group experienced no change in motivation,
compared with 61.5% of the intervention group. The Control group experienced
18.4% negative change in motivation, compared with 0% for the Intervention
group, and 52.7% positive change, compared with 38.5% for the Intervention
group. On this measure a negative change in motivation means a shift towards a
more extrinsic / less intrinsic style of motivation and a positive change in motivation
means a shift towards a more intrinsic / less extrinsic style.
Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ)
Internal consistencies were calculated for all subscales using Cronbach’s alpha.
Values ranged from .55 (Negative Reactions to Failure) to .81 (Mastery Pleasure)
for student self-reports, and from .59 (Social Persistence with Children) to .92
(Mastery Pleasure and Persistence at Cognitive Tasks) for teacher ratings. Scale
pairs with both alpha values above .65 were used in further analyses. For students,
Persistence at Cognitive Tasks, Social Persistence with Adults, Social Persistence
Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 41
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
9. Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
TABLE 7
Changes in Motivation by Group (Cross-Tabulation)
Group
Motivation change Intervention Control Total
−2.00 Count 0 1 1
% within group .0% 2.6% 1.3%
% of total .0% 1.3% 1.3%
−1.00 Count 0 3 3
% within group .0% 7.9% 3.9%
% of total .0% 3.9% 3.9%
−.50 Count 0 3 3
% within group .0% 7.9% 3.9%
% of total .0% 3.9% 3.9%
.00 Count 24 11 35
% within group 61.5% 28.9% 45.5%
% of total 31.2% 14.3% 45.5%
.50 Count 9 8 17
% within group 23.1% 21.1% 22.1%
% of total 11.7% 10.4% 22.1%
1.00 Count 5 9 14
% within group 12.8% 23.7% 18.2%
% of total 6.5% 11.7% 18.2%
1.50 Count 1 2 3
% within group 2.6% 5.3% 3.9%
% of total 1.3% 2.6% 3.9%
2.00 Count 0 1 1
% within group .0% 2.6% 1.3%
% of total .0% 1.3% 1.3%
Count 39 38 77
% within group 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of total 50.6% 49.4% 100.0%
with Children and Mastery Pleasure were used. Teacher ratings of Persistence at
Cognitive Tasks, Social Persistence with Adults, Mastery Pleasure and Negative
Reactions to Failure were retained.
For the student data, a repeated measures MANOVA was conducted with the
two-level Within-Subject factor Time (Pre-intervention and Post-intervention), the
two-level Between-Subjects factor Group (Intervention and Control), and the four
DMQ subscales (Persistence at Cognitive Tasks, Mastery Pleasure, Social Persis-
tence with Adults, and Social Persistence with Children) as the repeated measures.
Assumptions were met after all measures were standardised. Box’s M was not sig-
nificant. There was no main effect for Time or Group, and no interaction effect.
Means and standard deviations for all subscales are shown in Table 8.
A repeated measures MANOVA was conducted for the teacher ratings with the
two-level Within-Subject factor Time (Pre-intervention and Post-intervention), the
42 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
10. Homework Intervention
TABLE 8
Means and Standard Deviations of Student-Completed DMQ Subscales
Control group Intervention group
Time 1 Time 2 Time 1 Time 2
(n = 43) (n = 46) (n = 47) (n = 36)
DMQ Subscale M SD M SD M SD M SD
Persistence at Cognitive Tasks 3.64 0.55 3.69 0.58 3.78 0.68 3.76 0.51
Mastery Pleasure 3.62 0.78 3.69 0.76 3.40 1.01 3.58 0.82
Social Persistence with Adults 3.10 0.85 3.36 0.78 3.28 0.81 3.40 0.82
Social Persistence with Children 3.69 0.67 3.70 0.65 3.80 0.68 3.66 0.72
two-level Between-Subjects factor Group (Intervention and Control), and the three
DMQ subscales (Persistence at Cognitive Tasks, Social Persistence with Adults
and Negative Reaction to Failure) as the repeated measures. The Mastery Pleasure
subscale was not included in the analysis as the data set violated assumptions of
normality even after transformation and the omission of outliers. The exclusion
of one class group resulted in unequal cell sizes (Intervention n = 46, Control
n = 22), so normality of distribution, outliers and homogeneity of variance were
checked carefully. All subscales were standardised and univariate outliers were ex-
cluded from the analysis. Assumptions of homogeneity of variance and covariance
were met. Levene’s test was not significant for any subscale and Box’s M was not
significant.
There was a significant effect for Group, F(3,64) = 14.10, p .001, Pillai’s
trace = .40, partial eta squared = .40, observed power = 1.0 and a significant effect
for Time, F(3,64) = 13.00, p .001, Pillai’s trace = .38, partial eta squared = .38,
observed power = 1.0, but no significant interaction between Time and Group. Post-
hoc univariate analysis indicated that Social Persistence with Adults differed be-
tween groups. The Intervention group scored higher than the Control group at both
pre- and post-intervention, F(66,1) = 24.55, p .001, partial eta squared = .27,
observed power = 1.0. Scores on several scales varied significantly across the two
time points. There were higher scores post-intervention for Persistence at Cognitive
Tasks, F(66,1) = 31.35, p .001, partial eta squared = .32, observed power =
1.0; Social Persistence with Adults, F(66,1) = 5.33, p = .02, partial eta squared =
.08, observed power = .62; and Negative Reaction to Failure, F(66,1) = 18.79, p
.001, partial eta squared = .22, observed power = .99. See Table 9 for means and
standard deviations in the two groups.
Discussion
In this study, a repeated measures design was used to examine whether modifying
the delivery of a school’s homework program in order to better meet the theoretical
components of intrinsic motivation (autonomy, relatedness and competence; Deci
Ryan, 2008; Ryan Deci, 2000) would lead to more positive student attitudes
to homework and whether there would be a positive change in general motivation.
Although there were no overall intervention effects, it appears the intervention
Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 43
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
11. Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
TABLE 9
Means and Standard Deviations of Teacher-Completed DMQ Subscales
Control group Intervention group
Time 1 Time 2 Time 1 Time 2
(n = 22) (n = 22) (n = 46) (n = 46)
DMQ Subscale M SD M SD M SD M SD
Persistence at Cognitive Tasks 2.94 0.61 3.12 0.71 3.14 0.59 3.24 0.65
Social Persistence with Adults 2.89 0.54 3.00 0.55 3.46 0.55 3.81 0.60
Negative Reaction to Failure 2.53 0.49 2.64 0.50 2.57 0.75 2.72 0.57
may have had a protective effect on the motivation of students in the intervention
group. Motivation in this group did not decrease across the 10 week duration of
the intervention as was the case for the control group.
The Children’s Attitude to Homework Questionnaire (CAHQ) had not previ-
ously been factor analysed, so an exploratory factor analysis was conducted. The
three derived factors relate in a meaningful way to common perceptions about
homework — that it can be a source of family conflict (Homework Conflict), that
the work itself can be engaging (Homework Engagement), and that homework can
be difficult (Homework Difficulty). These factors also relate to the psychological
needs believed to underpin the SDT model of motivation (Deci Ryan, 2000).
High conflict is likely to decrease feelings of relatedness while low levels of conflict
does not; low engagement suggests that a task is far from intrinsically motivating,
whereas high engagement suggests that the task is intrinsically motivating; and high
difficulty suggests that a task is likely to decrease feelings of competence, whereas
low difficulty does not.
Future revisions of the CAHQ could consider reframing some items in order
to strengthen the instrument’s internal consistency. Of the three derived scales,
Homework Difficulty has the weakest internal consistency, and this may be due to
the ambiguity of one particular item: How often does an adult help you with your
homework? In order to align more strongly with the other items in the scale, this
item might be rephrased as How often does an adult help you with difficulties with
your homework? This wording would focus on difficulty as the cause of the help,
and perhaps distinguish this help from a more positive general parental guidance.
The focus would also make sense in terms of SDT, as it more clearly separates out
notions of competence and relatedness (Deci Ryan, 2000).
There were no differences between the intervention and control groups on the
three aspects of homework measured by the CAHQ, nor were there any group
differences in motivation as assessed on the DMQ. Both groups of students re-
ported a decrease in homework difficulty over time, suggesting that they became
acculturated to the school’s homework expectations across the timeframe of the
study. Homework became easier and less challenging, and students received less
help than earlier in the year. Homework difficulty links most closely with the need
for competence, and it is likely that as students settle into the school year and
44 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
12. Homework Intervention
become more familiar with the demands and expectations of their teachers, their
feelings of competence with homework increase.
Analysis of the CAHQ homework motivation items highlights the shift to a more
intrinsic style of motivation over time. This change was seen in relation to benefits
of homework but was unrelated to the intervention. At the commencement of the
study, the whole group mean for benefits of homework indicated a motivation style
between introjected and identified, but closer to introjected. At post-intervention
the group mean was closer to identified, although still falling short of the desirable
integrated level of motivation. This shift in the perceived benefits of homework is
not surprising given that the school strongly endorses the value of homework in
school literature and information provided to students and parents.
The cross-tabulation of change in motivation against experimental grouping of-
fers some insights into the possible processes underlying changes in motivation. For
the control group, there was evidence of a wide range of change, suggesting that
the school’s culture and existing homework program may have been motivating
for some students and demotivating for others. Interestingly, motivation was un-
changed in less than one third of the control group. By contrast, the intervention
group showed a different profile of motivation change across the school term. For
more than half of the students there was no change in the relative strength of in-
trinsic motivation, and the remainder reported an increase. Notably, no students in
the intervention group showed a decrease in intrinsic motivation. So it seems that
the intervention may have had a protective effect on students’ pre-existing levels of
motivation. If continued over a longer period of time, the intervention may have
enhanced homework attitudes and overall motivation.
Apart from the relatively short duration of the intervention, several other factors
may have limited its effectiveness. In retrospect, we believe that the core psycho-
logical needs targeted by the intervention (autonomy, relatedness and competence)
could have been met in a more comprehensive and more thoroughly curriculum-
integrated way. The intervention took the form of additions, minor extensions, and
‘tweaking’ of the existing homework program which had been built up over time
and was thoroughly integrated with the school curriculum. Katz and Assor (2007)
found that students are relatively sensitive to superficial efforts to target needs, and
that such efforts can be demotivating rather than motivating, and this may have
been one of the factors at play here.
Another possible explanation for the non-significant findings is that there
may have been some inconsistencies between the intervention as discussed and
planned with teaching staff and the intervention as implemented in the class-
room, even though the program was designed collaboratively with teachers. In
post-intervention interviews, teachers reported not implementing some changes be-
cause they felt ‘the existing program already met student needs’ and because ‘it
would be too hard to assess all students fairly if they submitted different types of
responses’. Although the goals of the intervention and the expected outcomes were
discussed with individual teachers, this was done on an ad hoc basis rather than
in more formal sessions that may have increased teachers’ understanding and mo-
tivation for the modified homework program. The study design would have been
strengthened also by the addition of measures of teacher engagement and fidelity
checks on the intervention’s implementation.
Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 45
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
13. Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
Unfortunately, we were unable to take into account the perspective of parents.
Although the study design included parent questionnaires at both pre- and post-
intervention, the response rate was so low that parent data could not be analysed.
Thus, we do not know whether the intervention might have produced effects that
were apparent in the home environment.
The focus of this study on boys in a private single-sex school naturally limits
the generalisability of our findings. We studied male students because the research
was initiated by a boys’ school. Given that homework completion is more of a
problem for boys than girls (Rogers Hallam, 2006; Xu, 2011) and that students
at single-sex schools tend to be more highly engaged than those at co-educational
schools (Fullarton, 2002), our intervention may have worked differently in other
groups. Future research with girls, with students in co-educational schools, and
with both younger and older students would be valuable for further evaluating the
effectiveness of the intervention.
Despite these limitations, the current research makes an important contribution
to the sparse literature about homework interventions. The study design using re-
peated measures, randomly assigned intervention and control groups, and multiple
sources of information on each participant is sound, and the theoretical framework
of self-determination theory is appropriate. We targeted the underlying psycho-
logical needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence through strategies that are
supported by extensive prior research (Black Deci, 2000; Deci Ryan, 2000,
2008; Katz Assor, 2007; Levesque et al., 2004). Although the intervention did
not improve motivation for homework or overall motivation, it did appear to have
a protective effect on the quality of student motivation. Future research could build
on the current study, working with schools over a longer period of time in order to
develop or re-develop their homework programs from the ground up, and focusing
also on engaging parents and teachers.
The findings from this study are likely to have practical value for guidance
counsellors and school psychologists. Motivation is one of the most important
topics in educational psychology, and a central concern for educators. In applying
SDT to the problem of homework motivation, we have demonstrated a way in
which theory can be translated into practice. We designed a homework intervention
grounded in robust theory, and evaluated its effectiveness in a design that can be
replicated or that could stimulate other intervention approaches for homework
and motivation. In addition, the questionnaire measures may be useful tools for
psychologists who are attempting to understand issues around homework, and the
contrasting perceptions of individual students and their parents. Given the potential
for homework to produce individual stress and family conflict, it is imperative that
further attempts are made to create motivating, engaging homework programs that
minimise the costs and give students access to the benefits that homework can
bring.
References
Axelrod, M.I., Zhe, E J., Haugen, K.A., Klein, J.A. (2009). Self-management of on-
task homework behaviour: A promising strategy for adolescents with attention and
behaviour problems. School Psychology Review, 38, 325–333.
46 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
14. Homework Intervention
Black, A., Deci, E. (2000). The effects of instructors’ autonomy support and students’
autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self-determination theory
perspective. Science Education, 84, 740–756.
Cooper, H., Lindsay, J., Nye, B., Greathouse, S. (1998). Relationships among atti-
tudes about homework, amount of homework assigned and completed, and student
achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 70–83.
Cooper, H., Valentine, J. (2001). Using research to answer practical questions about
homework. Educational Psychologist, 36, 143–153.
Cooper, H., Valentine, J., Nye, B., Lindsay, J. (1999). Relationships between five
after-school activities and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychol-
ogy, 91, 369–378.
Deci, E., Ryan, R. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and
self-determination of behaviour. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.
Deci, E., Ryan, R. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-
being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14–23.
Frolland, J.M. (2011). Parental autonomy support and student learning goals: A pre-
liminary examination of an intrinsic motivation intervention. Child Youth Care
Forum, 40, 135–149.
Fullarton, S. (2002). Student engagement with school: Individual and school-level in-
fluences (Research Report No. 27). Melbourne, Australia: ACER.
Gilmore, L. (2007, September). Homework: A necessary evil? Paper presented at the
APS Annual Conference, Brisbane, Australia.
Grolnick, W., Kurowski, C., Gurland, S. (1999). Family processes and the develop-
ment of children’s self-regulation. Educational Psychologist, 34, 3–14.
Haas, R., Reiley, K. (2008). Increasing homework completion of middle school
students by using parental involvement strategies and establishing routines (Master’s
thesis). Saint Xavier University, Chicago, IL.
Hetherington, E. (1993). An overview of the Virginia longitudinal study of divorce
and remarriage with a focus on early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 7,
39–56.
Horsley, M., Walker, R. (2013). Reforming homework: Practices, learning and
policy. Macmillan: Australia.
Katz, I., Assor, A. (2007). When choice motivates and when it does not. Educational
Psychology Review, 19, 429–442.
Katz, I., Kaplan, A., Gueta, G. (2010). Students’ needs, teachers’ support, and moti-
vation for doing homework: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Experimental Edu-
cation, 78, 246–267.
Kohn, A. (2006). The homework myth. Why our kids get too much of a bad thing.
Cambridge, MA: DeCapo Press.
Levesque, C., Zuehlke, A., Stanek, L., Ryan, R. (2004). Autonomy and competence
in German and American university students: A comparative study based on self-
determination theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 68–84.
Marzano, R.J., Pickering, D.J. (2007). Special topic: The case for and against home-
work. Educational Leadership, 64, 74–79.
Morgan, G.A., Busch-Rossnagel, N.A., Barrett, K.C., Wang, J. (2009) The Dimen-
sions of Mastery Questionnaire (DMQ): A manual about its development, psy-
chometrics and use. Fort Collins, CO: Human Development and Family Studies
Department, Colorado State University.
Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 47
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,
15. Elisabeth Akioka and Linda Gilmore
Patall, E.A., Cooper, H., Wynn, S. R. (2010). The effectiveness and relative impor-
tance of choice in the classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 896–915.
Patrick, H., Kaplan, A., Ryan, A. (2011). Positive classroom motivational environ-
ments: Convergence between mastery goal structure and classroom social climate.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 367–382.
Rogers, L., Hallam, S. (2006). Gender differences in approaches to studying for the
GCSE among high-achieving pupils. Educational Studies, 32, 59–71.
Ryan, R., Connell, J. (1989). Perceived locus on causality and internalization: Ex-
amining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psy-
chology, 57, 749–761.
Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2000). Self-Determination Theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
Theodore, L.A., Dioguardi, R.J., Hughes, T.L., Aloiso, D., Carlo, M., Eccles, D.
(2009). A class-wide intervention for improving homework performance. Journal of
Educational and Psychological Consultation, 19, 275–299.
Trautwein, U., Köller, O, Schmitz, B., Baumert, J. (2001). Do homework assignments
enhance achievement? A multilevel analysis in 7th-grade mathematics. Contempo-
rary Educational Psychology, 27, 26–50.
Van Voorhis, F.L. (2011). Costs and benefits of family involvement in homework.
Journal of Advanced Academics, 22, 220–249.
Vansteenkist, M., Sierens, E., Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., Lens, W. (2009). Motivational
profiles from a self-determination perspective: The quality of motivation matters.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 671–688.
Xu, J. (2011). Homework completion at the secondary school level: A multilevel anal-
ysis. Journal of Educational Research, 104, 171–182.
48 Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling
available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2013.2
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 01 Apr 2019 at 07:57:18, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use,