This article discusses key factors for understanding social norms and their influence on behavior. It distinguishes between collective norms (group-level codes of conduct) and perceived norms (an individual's interpretation). It also differentiates between descriptive norms (perceptions of prevalence) and injunctive norms (perceptions of social sanctions). Communication plays a role in shaping both perceived norms and normative influences through interpersonal discussion and media exposure. The influence of norms depends on moderators like outcome expectations, identity, and ambiguity of the behavior. Accounting for these conceptual distinctions can enhance theories of normative influence.
WHO’S WITH ME FALSE CONSENSUS, BROKERAGE, ANDETHICAL DECISI.docxharold7fisher61282
WHO’S WITH ME? FALSE CONSENSUS, BROKERAGE, AND
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING IN ORGANIZATIONS
FRANCIS J. FLYNN
Stanford University
SCOTT S. WILTERMUTH
University of Southern California
We propose that organization members overestimate the degree to which others share
their views on ethical matters. Further, we argue that being a broker in an advice
network exacerbates this false consensus bias. That is, a high level of “betweenness
centrality” increases an individual’s estimates of agreement with others on ethical
issues beyond what is warranted by any actual increase in agreement. We tested these
ideas in three separate samples: graduate business students, executive students, and
employees. Individuals with higher betweenness centrality overestimated the level of
agreement between their ethical judgments and their colleagues’.
For members of organizations, ethical standards
can help guide individual decision making by clar-
ifying what the majority of others believe is appro-
priate. But given that ethical standards often are
tacitly held, rather than explicitly agreed upon
(Haidt, 2001; Turiel, 2002), individuals may strug-
gle to recognize the normative view—what most
others believe is the “right” course of action. Peo-
ple’s tendencies to project their own opinions can
alter their judgments about what others think is
ethical, perhaps giving them a sense of being in the
majority even when they are not. The ramifications
of this false consensus effect may be problematic: if
members of organizations erroneously assume that
their actions are in line with prevailing ethical
principles, they may subsequently learn of their
misjudgment when it is too late to avert the
consequences.
In the present research, we examine whether bro-
kers in a social network show evidence of false
consensus in ethical decision making. Because bro-
kers span structural holes (missing relationships
that inhibit information flow between people [see
Burt, 1992]), one might assume that these individ-
uals possess greater insight into others’ attitudes
and behaviors. But can acting as a broker (i.e., hav-
ing “betweenness”) inform a focal individual about
his or her peers’ ethical views? In interactions with
colleagues, people generally refrain from initiating
moral dialogue; rather, they prefer to discuss less
sensitive attitudes and opinions (Sabini & Silver,
1982). We argue that this tendency to avoid moral
discourse and instead discuss superficial connec-
tions worsens the false consensus bias in ethical
decision making, providing an illusion of consen-
sus where none exists.
The notion that having an advantageous position
in a social network might exacerbate, rather than
mitigate, false consensus bias in ethical decision
making represents a novel insight for those inter-
ested in the link between social networks and in-
dividual judgment. Prior work on identifying the
determinants of false consensus has focused pri-
marily on motivational drivers, such as ego protec.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the impact of ethics training on budgetary decision making. The study involved four groups that received different combinations of a pre-test, ethics intervention, and post-test. The findings indicate that formal ethics training had little to no impact on individual choices, and in some cases seemed to have a negative correlation. The data suggest that individual ethical standards are a stronger predictor of ethical behavior than other variables like ethics training. Further research is needed to identify the most effective ways to guide budgetary decisions along ethical lines.
2020 - Smillie - Personality and moral judgement.pdfsrinivasschandru
This study examined the relationship between personality traits and moral judgments that are either consequentialist (based on outcomes) or deontological (based on adherence to rules or duties). Specifically, it investigated how the Big Five personality traits of openness/intellect, agreeableness-compassion, and agreeableness-politeness related to these types of moral judgments.
Across two studies with over 800 participants total, intellect/openness uniquely predicted consequentialist moral judgments, supporting the view that deliberative cognitive processes underlie such judgments. Agreeableness-politeness uniquely predicted deontological moral judgments, supporting the view that adherence to social norms, rather than emotions, underlies such judgments. Agreeableness
Running head METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1METHODS USED IN CYB.docxjeanettehully
Running head: METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1
METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE3
Salina Khadgi
Professor Creider
1st February 1, 2020
Methods used in cyber warfare
Thesis: There are diverse methods that various people or nations, for a set of diverse reasons, can damage computers or information networks.
I. Introduction
A. Types of cyber attacks
i. Espionage
ii. Sabotage
iii. Propaganda
iv. Economic disruption
v. Surprise Cyber Attack
B. Methods used in Cyber Attacks
vi. Denial-of-service (DoS)
vii. Phishing and spear phishing attacks
viii. SQL injection attack
ix. Drive-by attacks
x. Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack
xi. Password attacks
xii. Malware attack
xiii. Eavesdropping attack
C. Motivators for cyber attacks
xiv. Military
xv. Civil
xvi. Private sector
xvii. Non-profit Research
II. Preparedness
III. Cyber counterintelligence
References
Andress, J., Winterfeld, S., Rogers, R., & Northcutt, S. (2011). Cyber warfare: Techniques, tactics and tools for security practitioners. Waltham, MA: Syngress.
It give an in depth description of the techniques that are used in cyber warfare. Also the necessary tools that are required to fight the cybercrimes.
In Chen, T. M., In Jarvis, L., & In Macdonald, S. (2014). Cyberterrorism: Understanding, assessment, and response.
The authors describe the aspect of terrorism and the cybercrimes. Assist in understanding the aspect of cyber warfare and the response that are put in place to deal with the attack.
In Yager, R. R., In Reformat, M., & In Alajlan, N. (2014). Intelligent methods for cyber warfare.
The methods that are used in the fight against the cyber warfare
Tavani, H. T. (2016). Ethics and technology: Controversies, questions, and strategies for ethical computing.
It talks about the common issues, the model and conceptual frameworks as regarding to cyber warfare. The computing aspects and controversies that are about the cyber warfare.
THE EFFECT OF ORGANIZATIONAL FORCES
ON INDIVIDUAL MORALITY:
JUDGMENT, MORAL APPROBATION, AND BEHAVIOR
Thomas M. Jones and Lori Verstegen Ryan
Abstract: To date, our understanding of ethical decision making and
behavior in organizations has been concentrated in the area of moral
judgment, largely because of the hundreds of studies done involv-
ing cognitive moral development. This paper addresses the problem
of our relative lack of understanding in other areas of human moral-
ity by applying a recently developed construct—moral appro-
bation—to illuminate the link between moral judgment and moral
action. This recent work is extended here by exploring the effect that
organizations have on ethical behavior in terms of the moral appro-
bation construct.
Our understanding of ethical decision making and behavior in organizationshas been informed by two largely separate streams of research. Formal
decision making models (e.g., Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and Vi tell, 1986;
Trevino, 1986; Jones, 1991) have dealt with the micro organizational aspects
of such decisi ...
Toward a Psychology of HumanAgencyAlbert BanduraStanfo.docxedwardmarivel
Toward a Psychology of Human
Agency
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
ABSTRACT—This article presents an agentic theory of hu-
man development, adaptation, and change. The evolu-
tionary emergence of advanced symbolizing capacity
enabled humans to transcend the dictates of their imme-
diate environment and made them unique in their power to
shape their life circumstances and the courses their lives
take. In this conception, people are contributors to their
life circumstances, not just products of them. Social cog-
nitive theory rejects a duality between human agency and
social structure. People create social systems, and these
systems, in turn, organize and influence people’s lives. This
article discusses the core properties of human agency, the
different forms it takes, its ontological and epistemological
status, its development and role in causal structures, its
growing primacy in the coevolution process, and its influ-
ential exercise at individual and collective levels across
diverse spheres of life and cultural systems.
Conceptions of human nature have changed markedly over time.
In the early theological conceptions, human nature was ordained
by original divine design. Evolutionism transformed the con-
ception to one in which human nature is shaped by environ-
mental pressures acting on random gene mutations and
reproductive recombinations. This nonteleological process is
devoid of deliberate plans or purposes. The symbolic ability to
comprehend, predict, and alter the course of events confers
considerable functional advantages. The evolutionary emer-
gence of language and abstract and deliberative cognitive ca-
pacities provided the neuronal structure for supplanting aimless
environmental selection with cognitive agency. Human fore-
bears evolved into a sentient agentic species. Their advanced
symbolizing capacity enabled humans to transcend the dictates
of their immediate environment and made them unique in their
power to shape their life circumstances and the course of their
lives. Through cognitive self-regulation, humans can create
visualized futures that act on the present; construct, evaluate,
and modify alternative courses of action to secure valued out-
comes; and override environmental influences. In a later sec-
tion, this article discusses the growing ascendancy of human
agency in the coevolution process through the force of social and
technological evolution.
CORE PROPERTIES OF HUMAN AGENCY
Social cognitive theory adopts an agentic perspective toward
human development, adaptation, and change (Bandura, 1986,
2001). To be an agent is to influence intentionally one’s func-
tioning and life circumstances. In this view, personal influence
is part of the causal structure. People are self-organizing, pro-
active, self-regulating, and self-reflecting. They are not simply
onlookers of their behavior. They are contributors to their life
circumstances, not just products of them.
There ...
Danny Maribao_Lesson 3-conformity and obediencedan_maribao
The document discusses different types of social influence including conformity, obedience, and social control. It defines conformity as changing one's beliefs or behaviors to fit in with a group, often due to pressures like bullying or criticism. Obedience refers to yielding to explicit orders from an authority figure. Social control involves regulating people's thoughts and behaviors through socialization and adopting social norms and values. Sanctions for violating norms can be formal like legal punishment, or informal like social disapproval. The buddy system is described as two people operating as a unit to monitor and help each other.
The document discusses psychological empowerment and issues related to developing a universal measure of the construct. The main points are:
1) The author argues that developing a global measure of psychological empowerment may not be feasible or appropriate, as empowerment differs across individuals, contexts, and times.
2) Psychological empowerment is presented as a multidimensional construct involving intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral components.
3) Two examples of measuring psychological empowerment in specific populations and settings are provided to illustrate how the relevant variables differ based on context.
- The document discusses crime versus deviant behavior, noting that crime is defined as an action that can be prosecuted by law, while deviant behavior does not conform to social norms and values.
- It notes that many people consider behaviors that are bad but not illegal to still be crimes, while others would categorize them as deviant behavior.
- The document goes on to say that it will inform the reader about the similarities and differences between crime and deviant behavior.
WHO’S WITH ME FALSE CONSENSUS, BROKERAGE, ANDETHICAL DECISI.docxharold7fisher61282
WHO’S WITH ME? FALSE CONSENSUS, BROKERAGE, AND
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING IN ORGANIZATIONS
FRANCIS J. FLYNN
Stanford University
SCOTT S. WILTERMUTH
University of Southern California
We propose that organization members overestimate the degree to which others share
their views on ethical matters. Further, we argue that being a broker in an advice
network exacerbates this false consensus bias. That is, a high level of “betweenness
centrality” increases an individual’s estimates of agreement with others on ethical
issues beyond what is warranted by any actual increase in agreement. We tested these
ideas in three separate samples: graduate business students, executive students, and
employees. Individuals with higher betweenness centrality overestimated the level of
agreement between their ethical judgments and their colleagues’.
For members of organizations, ethical standards
can help guide individual decision making by clar-
ifying what the majority of others believe is appro-
priate. But given that ethical standards often are
tacitly held, rather than explicitly agreed upon
(Haidt, 2001; Turiel, 2002), individuals may strug-
gle to recognize the normative view—what most
others believe is the “right” course of action. Peo-
ple’s tendencies to project their own opinions can
alter their judgments about what others think is
ethical, perhaps giving them a sense of being in the
majority even when they are not. The ramifications
of this false consensus effect may be problematic: if
members of organizations erroneously assume that
their actions are in line with prevailing ethical
principles, they may subsequently learn of their
misjudgment when it is too late to avert the
consequences.
In the present research, we examine whether bro-
kers in a social network show evidence of false
consensus in ethical decision making. Because bro-
kers span structural holes (missing relationships
that inhibit information flow between people [see
Burt, 1992]), one might assume that these individ-
uals possess greater insight into others’ attitudes
and behaviors. But can acting as a broker (i.e., hav-
ing “betweenness”) inform a focal individual about
his or her peers’ ethical views? In interactions with
colleagues, people generally refrain from initiating
moral dialogue; rather, they prefer to discuss less
sensitive attitudes and opinions (Sabini & Silver,
1982). We argue that this tendency to avoid moral
discourse and instead discuss superficial connec-
tions worsens the false consensus bias in ethical
decision making, providing an illusion of consen-
sus where none exists.
The notion that having an advantageous position
in a social network might exacerbate, rather than
mitigate, false consensus bias in ethical decision
making represents a novel insight for those inter-
ested in the link between social networks and in-
dividual judgment. Prior work on identifying the
determinants of false consensus has focused pri-
marily on motivational drivers, such as ego protec.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the impact of ethics training on budgetary decision making. The study involved four groups that received different combinations of a pre-test, ethics intervention, and post-test. The findings indicate that formal ethics training had little to no impact on individual choices, and in some cases seemed to have a negative correlation. The data suggest that individual ethical standards are a stronger predictor of ethical behavior than other variables like ethics training. Further research is needed to identify the most effective ways to guide budgetary decisions along ethical lines.
2020 - Smillie - Personality and moral judgement.pdfsrinivasschandru
This study examined the relationship between personality traits and moral judgments that are either consequentialist (based on outcomes) or deontological (based on adherence to rules or duties). Specifically, it investigated how the Big Five personality traits of openness/intellect, agreeableness-compassion, and agreeableness-politeness related to these types of moral judgments.
Across two studies with over 800 participants total, intellect/openness uniquely predicted consequentialist moral judgments, supporting the view that deliberative cognitive processes underlie such judgments. Agreeableness-politeness uniquely predicted deontological moral judgments, supporting the view that adherence to social norms, rather than emotions, underlies such judgments. Agreeableness
Running head METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1METHODS USED IN CYB.docxjeanettehully
Running head: METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1
METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE3
Salina Khadgi
Professor Creider
1st February 1, 2020
Methods used in cyber warfare
Thesis: There are diverse methods that various people or nations, for a set of diverse reasons, can damage computers or information networks.
I. Introduction
A. Types of cyber attacks
i. Espionage
ii. Sabotage
iii. Propaganda
iv. Economic disruption
v. Surprise Cyber Attack
B. Methods used in Cyber Attacks
vi. Denial-of-service (DoS)
vii. Phishing and spear phishing attacks
viii. SQL injection attack
ix. Drive-by attacks
x. Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack
xi. Password attacks
xii. Malware attack
xiii. Eavesdropping attack
C. Motivators for cyber attacks
xiv. Military
xv. Civil
xvi. Private sector
xvii. Non-profit Research
II. Preparedness
III. Cyber counterintelligence
References
Andress, J., Winterfeld, S., Rogers, R., & Northcutt, S. (2011). Cyber warfare: Techniques, tactics and tools for security practitioners. Waltham, MA: Syngress.
It give an in depth description of the techniques that are used in cyber warfare. Also the necessary tools that are required to fight the cybercrimes.
In Chen, T. M., In Jarvis, L., & In Macdonald, S. (2014). Cyberterrorism: Understanding, assessment, and response.
The authors describe the aspect of terrorism and the cybercrimes. Assist in understanding the aspect of cyber warfare and the response that are put in place to deal with the attack.
In Yager, R. R., In Reformat, M., & In Alajlan, N. (2014). Intelligent methods for cyber warfare.
The methods that are used in the fight against the cyber warfare
Tavani, H. T. (2016). Ethics and technology: Controversies, questions, and strategies for ethical computing.
It talks about the common issues, the model and conceptual frameworks as regarding to cyber warfare. The computing aspects and controversies that are about the cyber warfare.
THE EFFECT OF ORGANIZATIONAL FORCES
ON INDIVIDUAL MORALITY:
JUDGMENT, MORAL APPROBATION, AND BEHAVIOR
Thomas M. Jones and Lori Verstegen Ryan
Abstract: To date, our understanding of ethical decision making and
behavior in organizations has been concentrated in the area of moral
judgment, largely because of the hundreds of studies done involv-
ing cognitive moral development. This paper addresses the problem
of our relative lack of understanding in other areas of human moral-
ity by applying a recently developed construct—moral appro-
bation—to illuminate the link between moral judgment and moral
action. This recent work is extended here by exploring the effect that
organizations have on ethical behavior in terms of the moral appro-
bation construct.
Our understanding of ethical decision making and behavior in organizationshas been informed by two largely separate streams of research. Formal
decision making models (e.g., Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and Vi tell, 1986;
Trevino, 1986; Jones, 1991) have dealt with the micro organizational aspects
of such decisi ...
Toward a Psychology of HumanAgencyAlbert BanduraStanfo.docxedwardmarivel
Toward a Psychology of Human
Agency
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
ABSTRACT—This article presents an agentic theory of hu-
man development, adaptation, and change. The evolu-
tionary emergence of advanced symbolizing capacity
enabled humans to transcend the dictates of their imme-
diate environment and made them unique in their power to
shape their life circumstances and the courses their lives
take. In this conception, people are contributors to their
life circumstances, not just products of them. Social cog-
nitive theory rejects a duality between human agency and
social structure. People create social systems, and these
systems, in turn, organize and influence people’s lives. This
article discusses the core properties of human agency, the
different forms it takes, its ontological and epistemological
status, its development and role in causal structures, its
growing primacy in the coevolution process, and its influ-
ential exercise at individual and collective levels across
diverse spheres of life and cultural systems.
Conceptions of human nature have changed markedly over time.
In the early theological conceptions, human nature was ordained
by original divine design. Evolutionism transformed the con-
ception to one in which human nature is shaped by environ-
mental pressures acting on random gene mutations and
reproductive recombinations. This nonteleological process is
devoid of deliberate plans or purposes. The symbolic ability to
comprehend, predict, and alter the course of events confers
considerable functional advantages. The evolutionary emer-
gence of language and abstract and deliberative cognitive ca-
pacities provided the neuronal structure for supplanting aimless
environmental selection with cognitive agency. Human fore-
bears evolved into a sentient agentic species. Their advanced
symbolizing capacity enabled humans to transcend the dictates
of their immediate environment and made them unique in their
power to shape their life circumstances and the course of their
lives. Through cognitive self-regulation, humans can create
visualized futures that act on the present; construct, evaluate,
and modify alternative courses of action to secure valued out-
comes; and override environmental influences. In a later sec-
tion, this article discusses the growing ascendancy of human
agency in the coevolution process through the force of social and
technological evolution.
CORE PROPERTIES OF HUMAN AGENCY
Social cognitive theory adopts an agentic perspective toward
human development, adaptation, and change (Bandura, 1986,
2001). To be an agent is to influence intentionally one’s func-
tioning and life circumstances. In this view, personal influence
is part of the causal structure. People are self-organizing, pro-
active, self-regulating, and self-reflecting. They are not simply
onlookers of their behavior. They are contributors to their life
circumstances, not just products of them.
There ...
Danny Maribao_Lesson 3-conformity and obediencedan_maribao
The document discusses different types of social influence including conformity, obedience, and social control. It defines conformity as changing one's beliefs or behaviors to fit in with a group, often due to pressures like bullying or criticism. Obedience refers to yielding to explicit orders from an authority figure. Social control involves regulating people's thoughts and behaviors through socialization and adopting social norms and values. Sanctions for violating norms can be formal like legal punishment, or informal like social disapproval. The buddy system is described as two people operating as a unit to monitor and help each other.
The document discusses psychological empowerment and issues related to developing a universal measure of the construct. The main points are:
1) The author argues that developing a global measure of psychological empowerment may not be feasible or appropriate, as empowerment differs across individuals, contexts, and times.
2) Psychological empowerment is presented as a multidimensional construct involving intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral components.
3) Two examples of measuring psychological empowerment in specific populations and settings are provided to illustrate how the relevant variables differ based on context.
- The document discusses crime versus deviant behavior, noting that crime is defined as an action that can be prosecuted by law, while deviant behavior does not conform to social norms and values.
- It notes that many people consider behaviors that are bad but not illegal to still be crimes, while others would categorize them as deviant behavior.
- The document goes on to say that it will inform the reader about the similarities and differences between crime and deviant behavior.
This document discusses different approaches to defining deviance. It summarizes five conceptualizations:
1) The statistical approach defines deviance based on behavior that is unusual or atypical compared to most people in a group. However, social scientists rarely use this approach as norms are based more on perceptions of right and wrong than statistics.
2) The absolutist approach applies ideal standards of behavior decided by social scientists. But there is no agreement on absolute moral standards and values differ between individuals.
3) The legalistic approach defines deviant behaviors as those that are illegal. However, laws may reflect popular sentiment, elite interests, or a combination of both.
4) In summary, there is no consensus on a precise definition
Communication For Change: A Short Guide to Social and Behavior Change (SBCC) ...CChangeProgram
Many theories and models have been used to guide health and development communication work . This PowerPoint presentation provides more detailed background on the theories and models leading to Social and Behavior Change Communication (SBCC).
The essay examines Kurt Vonnegut's novel Slaughterhouse-Five and critiques Steven Weisenburger's theory of a dichotomy in satire. The essay argues that while Weisenburger rejects the idea of distinguishing "good" and "bad" examples, he presents degenerative examples as inherently good rather than evil. Additionally, while Weisenburger diagnoses satire as involving violence, Vonnegut's novel deviates from this by depicting how the sight of destruction can inspire readers rather than support a moral code. The essay also analyzes how Billy Pilgrim in the novel plays the role of a Christ figure.
Factors Influencing The Way In Which Decisions Are Made Looking a.docxPOLY33
Factors Influencing The Way In Which Decisions Are Made:
Looking at all sides of a conflict is not an easy task. Several factors, which we may not be aware of, contribute to our understanding (or misunderstanding) and hence, influence the final choice. Consequently, people involved in the same conflict may arrive at different solutions caused by any of the following:
•
Context
the circumstances surrounding the issue, influences what parts are thought important or unimportant. For instance, if the individuals in a conflict are acquainted, the nature of the relationship matters. The bond between family members is very different than the one between friends .Gender, past experiences, education and age also act as a frame, modifying how the problem and the consequences are understood.
•
Values,
which are derived from personal beliefs, are grounded in traditional sources such as family, religion and school. They form an underlying framework which focuses our attention on certain aspects of a problem and may advocate for a particular choice. Values vary from individual to individual reflecting cultural, religious and other personal experiences and may play a greater role in conflict solutions arising in situations where points of law are not in question.
•
Principles
, which are sometimes derived from external sources such as institutions or ethical theories, typically provide guidance rather than specify an action. They can assist in prioritizing values by lending greater weight to one value over another. Conflicts which involve legal issues may be solved more readily by a direct appeal to known principles. Professional codes of ethics and
laws(
rules), then specify how principles are carried out. The four major principles guiding many institutional practices are: beneficence, non-
maleficence
, autonomy and justice (fairness). From these, courses of actions are derived. Which principle has priority in any one decision varies depending on personal beliefs, facts and other contextual information.
•
Ethical systems
are an important part of the process of justifying a particular action. The simple identification of principles and values is typically not sufficient to make a complex, difficult decision. At some point, justification for a particular choice begins to take place. Three of the more common ethical systems select different components of the conflict as a focal point: a person's motives, the consequences of the action, or an appeal to an external system of principles. As in the case with perspective, the action chosen is influenced by a tension between external forces such as obeying rules or finding a good outcome, and the character of individual (integrity).
Some philosophers argue that there really are only two systems for determining what is right or good. How "right" and "good" are connected through a course of action is the primary difference between two of the most common ethical systems which are
1.
Teleological Theor ...
What Makes A Hero The Impact of Integrity onAdmiration and Inte.docxphilipnelson29183
What Makes A Hero? The Impact of Integrity on
Admiration and Interpersonal Judgment
Barry R. Schlenker,1 Michael F. Weigold,1 and
Kristine A. Schlenker2
1University of Florida
2Penn State University
ABSTRACT Principled and expedient ideologies affect self-regulation
and guide people along divergent ethical paths. A more principled ideology,
indicative of higher claimed integrity, involves a greater personal
commitment to ethical beliefs, standards, and self-schemas that facilitate
positive social activities and help resist the temptation of illicit activities.
Two studies showed that differences in reported integrity are related to
people’s preferences for and judgments of others. Those higher in integrity
spontaneously described their heroes as more principled, honest,
spiritual, and benevolently oriented toward others (Study 1). In addition,
integrity was related to people’s evaluations of characters who made
ethical or unethical career decisions (Study 2). The judgments of those
higher in integrity were greatly influenced by whether or not the decision
was ethical but were largely unaffected by the consequences (career
success or failure), whereas those lower in integrity were less influenced
by whether the decision was ethical and more influenced by the career
consequences.
Ethical dilemmas pit principles against expediency. Doing the right
thing is a basis for acts of heroism and laudable accomplishment but
often involves personal sacrifice. Doing the expedient thing is a basis
for acts of self-indulgence and opportunism but often at a cost
to others. How people resolve the tension between principles and
expediency tests an individual’s character and a society’s ability to
function effectively. Each path has a certain appeal—the principled
Correspondence concerning this article may be addressed to Barry R. Schlenker,
Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. E-mail:
[email protected]
Journal of Personality 76:2, April 2008
r 2008, Copyright the Authors
Journal compilation r 2008, Blackwell Publishing, Inc.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00488.x
path for its integrity and the expedient path for its profits. Informative
glimpses may be gained into the values, aspirations, and ideologies
of individuals and societies by examining whom they admire
and regard as a hero and what criteria they use to praise and condemn
others. The present studies examined individual differences in
whom people regard as their heroes, why they regard them as heroes,
and how they judge others based on how those others resolve
conflicts between principles and expediency.
Principled and Expedient Ideologies: Commitment to Integrity
An ethical ideology is an integrated system of beliefs, values,
standards, and self-definitions that define an individual’s orientation
toward matters of right and wrong or good and evil (Schlenker,
2007). It provides a moral schema for evaluating events and a moral
identity that describes one’s ethical charact.
Session 10_B324_Marketing and Society Block23 (2018)_SPRING 2020 2021.pptYacobFarajat
This document discusses several models of ethical decision making in marketing. It describes Rest's four components of moral behavior: moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character. It also discusses Hunt and Vitell's general theory of marketing ethics, which outlines a process individuals go through when detecting an ethical problem. Finally, it examines Jones' issue-contingent model, which emphasizes that the characteristics of the ethical issue influence all aspects of ethical decision making.
The document discusses several key concepts related to deviance:
- It defines deviance as behavior that violates social norms and explains that what is seen as deviant varies by culture and society.
- It outlines several sociological theories of deviance including functionalism, social control theory, strain theory, and labeling theory.
- It discusses different types of sanctions used to enforce social norms and regulate behavior.
- It differentiates between internal and external means of social control and biological, psychological, and sociological explanations of deviance.
Assignment 1locate an article that discusses the topic of busine.docxtrippettjettie
Assignment 1
locate an article that discusses the topic of business ethics. Topic ideas might include the role of ethics in the workplace, breach of ethics, the effect of internal and external forces on ethical compliance, global ethical considerations within a business or ethics and employees.
Note these are ideas; please expand within the parameters of ethical topics as they relate to business ethics. Respond to the following questions:
1. Summarize the article and align it with the author’s main point.
2. How does this article contribute to contemporary thinking about business ethics?
3. How can you apply information in this article to your field?
4. How did this article fit your ethical view?
Your response should be a minimum of 3 double-spaced pages not including the title and reference pages. Referenced sources must have accompanying citations complying with APA guidelines. References should include the attached article and 2 other sources.
Spread of Unethical Behavior in Organizations: A Dynamic Social
Network Perspective
Franziska Zuber
Received: 19 June 2013 / Accepted: 20 June 2014 / Published online: 10 July 2014
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract The spread of unethical behavior in organiza-
tions has mainly been studied in terms of processes
occurring in a general social context, rather than in terms of
actors’ reactions in the context of their specific social
relationships. This paper introduces a dynamic social net-
work analysis framework in which this spread is concep-
tualized as the result of the reactions of perpetrators,
victims, and observers to an initial act of unethical
behavior. This theoretical framework shows that the social
relationships of the actors involved in an initial act impact
in multiple ways the likelihood that unethical behavior
spreads. It reveals furthermore that social relationships may
change in the wake of unethical behavior, such that indirect
negative consequences can arise for organizations. The
proposed framework provides a basis for the development
of a formal stochastic actor-oriented model of network
dynamics which would enable simulations of the spread of
unethical behavior.
Keywords Unethical behavior � Misconduct �
Contagion � Spread � Social network analysis
Introduction
The Occupy Wall Street movement has most vividly
expressed a loss of trust in the prevailing (Western) eco-
nomic and political systems in the aftermath of the global
financial crisis. A ‘‘pattern of dishonesty on the part of
financial institutions’’ (Stiglitz 2008, p. 30) that is consid-
ered to have contributed to the global financial crisis has
fueled this loss of trust not only within this movement, but
also with many citizens. This illustrates that the negative
consequences of widespread unethical behavior in organi-
zations can be significant, not only for the involved orga-
nizations, but also for society, because organizations are
the central agen ...
Deviant behavior is any behavior that violates social norms. There are several sociological explanations for deviant behavior. Structural strain theory proposes that deviance results from an imbalance between cultural goals and the means to achieve them. Labeling theory argues that deviance is a social process defined by those in power, rather than inherent to individuals. Social control theory suggests deviance occurs when social bonds and conformity are weakened. Differential association theory views deviance as learned through interactions where criminal attitudes are learned.
SHCR Review 2015 - Appendix 1 Literature ReviewHorizons NHS
Appendix 1. Literature review - This section of the School evaluation presents a literature review exploring existing thinking and evidence on social learning and organisational change that underlie the focus, principles and methods of the evaluation, and the impact model.
Further information and links can be found on the link below;
http://theedge.nhsiq.nhs.uk/school/school-evaluation/
effects of applied social sciences processes.pptxmarites leanillo
Applied social sciences aim to improve well-being and social functioning through advocacy, counseling, case management and other skills. Professionals in this field can work in roles like caseworkers, counselors, and community social workers. They observe standards of social justice, dignity, and competence. Self-awareness and understanding how social and individual factors influence behaviors are important for professionals to effectively facilitate individual and social change. Changes in attitudes, behaviors, and structures over the long term are needed to achieve equity and sustainability.
The document discusses the concept of deviance and provides definitions. It states that deviance is defined as an absence of conformity to social norms. Not all deviant behaviors are illegal or harmful, as they can range from minor infractions to serious crimes. The degree and perception of deviance depends on a society's reactions and how much a behavior violates established cultural norms and expectations. Societies and their subcultures influence what is considered deviant or acceptable. Poverty and social pressures can also contribute to behaviors becoming normalized or driven underground.
Social norms are the implicit or explicit rules and behaviors that are considered acceptable within a society or group. The major societal force that shapes individuals' norms and values is socialization through things like family, education, peer groups, and media/technology. Twenty standard social norms provided include things like avoiding burping in public, saying please, chewing with your mouth closed, offering help to others, wearing clothes in public, and celebrating cultural holidays.
The video for this presentation is available on our Youtube channel:
https://youtube.com/allceuseducation A continuing education course for this presentation can be found at https://www.allceus.com/member/cart/index/index?c=
Unlimited Counseling CEUs for $59 https://www.allceus.com/
Specialty Certificate tracks (including criminal justice counseling professional) starting at $89 https://www.allceus.com/certificate-tracks/
Live Webinars $5/hour https://www.allceus.com/live-interactive-webinars/
Instagram: AllCEUs
Pinterest: drsnipes
Examines theories that attempt to explain the motivation for criminal behavior in order to help reduce recidivism and relapse among people with and without addictions in the criminal justice system
This document summarizes social exchange theory, which focuses on how humans acquire resources through social interaction and exchange. Some key points:
- SET is derived from theories like equity theory that view humans as self-interested actors who seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs in social exchanges.
- It assumes humans need resources to survive and developed language to facilitate exchanging resources with others based on norms like reciprocity.
- Social interaction can be viewed as a way to exchange symbolic resources like love, status, and information. It also allows people to negotiate exchange agreements and develop relationships and networks.
- While SET provides insights into communication processes, it has been criticized for oversimplifying human behavior and lacking precision to
This document provides an overview of social construction theory. Some key points:
- Social construction theory posits that people socially construct the world through their words, actions, and media. Both interaction and media creation are social accomplishments that require coordination.
- The theory lends itself to examining how micro-level words, images, and actions reveal macro-level processes like the maintenance of racism.
- From the beginning, social construction theory has emphasized reflexivity, or awareness of the researcher's role, and questioning assumptions in the construction of knowledge. Researchers must examine their own biases.
- Central to social construction theory are questions about what constitutes valid knowledge and evidence. The theory explicitly considers these issues less often addressed
This document discusses the nature of social problems from a sociological perspective. It provides definitions of key concepts, including that sociology is the scientific study of human social relationships and groups. It outlines four criteria for something to be considered a social problem: 1) a real objective condition must exist, 2) people must subjectively perceive the condition as a problem, 3) it involves a gap between social ideals and realities, and 4) it must be seen as capable of collective solution. The sociological approach to analyzing social problems uses theory and research methods like case studies and surveys. Different theoretical perspectives like social disorganization and value conflict are also discussed.
Social influence can be described as an effort to change another person's behavior or attitudes. It can come from real or imagined social pressure. Six main principles of social influence are scarcity, liking, commitment/consistency, reciprocity, social validation, and authority. Social impact theory focuses on the strength of social influences, which can be positive or negative. Conformity is when people go along with the group to be accepted. Normative influence is conforming to be liked, while informational influence is conforming because others seem more informed. Minority influence can impact the majority through consistency of views over time. Compliance involves changing behaviors through requests, while obedience involves following commands from those in positions of authority.
The document discusses the concepts of deviance and crime. It defines deviance as violating social norms, whether minor norms like etiquette or more serious moral codes. Crime is defined as deviant behavior that breaks codified law. Whether an act is considered deviant depends on social and cultural context. Structural functionalism views deviance as serving a constructive role in affirming social values, while conflict theory sees it as a result of inequality between social groups. The document also discusses theories for integrating explanations of crime, such as control theory which examines how social bonds influence law-abiding behavior.
How Can a Deontological Decision Lead to Moral BehaviorThe .docxpooleavelina
How Can a Deontological Decision Lead to Moral Behavior?
The Moderating Role of Moral Identity
Zhi Xing Xu • Hing Keung Ma
Received: 23 January 2014 / Accepted: 10 February 2015 / Published online: 18 February 2015
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
Abstract Deontology and utilitarianism are two com-
peting principles that guide our moral judgment. Recently,
deontology is thought to be intuitive and is based on an
error-prone and biased approach, whereas utilitarianism is
relatively reflective and a suitable framework for making
decision. In this research, the authors explored the rela-
tionship among moral identity, moral decision, and moral
behavior to see how a preference for the deontological
solution can lead to moral behavior. In study 1, a Web-
based survey demonstrated that when making decisions,
individuals who viewed themselves as moral people pre-
ferred deontological ideals to the utilitarian framework. In
study 2, the authors investigated the effect of moral identity
and moral decision on moral behavior in an experimental
study. The results showed that when deontology was cou-
pled with the motivational power of moral identity, indi-
viduals were most likely to behave morally.
Keywords Moral decision � Ethical predispositions �
Deontology � Utilitarianism � Moral identity � Moral
behavior
Introduction
Deontology and consequentialism are frequently discussed
in tandem as they are usually thought as two opposing
theories in normative ethics. Consequentialism focuses on
the utility of an action, while deontology emphasizes the
obligation of an individual to adhere to universal moral
rules, principle to determine moral behavior (Brady and
Wheeler 1996; Kant 1996). Some theorists argue that
consequentialism is a more appropriate framework when
making moral decisions, since the deontology is usually
moral shortcut and commits moral errors (see reviews in
Baron and Ritov 2009; Sunstein 2005). Recently, however,
Bartels and Pizarro (2011) found that those individuals who
are least prone to moral errors also possess a set of psy-
chological characteristics, such as have higher scores on
measure of antisocial personality traits, which many would
consider prototypically immoral. Though Bartels and
Pizarro’s research has provided evidence to justification for
deontological thinking in moral decision, we argue that the
existing investigations have disproportionately relied on
recording participants’ responses to ‘‘sacrificial’’ dilem-
mas. In these types of dilemmas, participants are asking
whether it is acceptable to kill a person to save others (e.g.,
Greene et al. 2001; Greene 2007). The protected value ‘‘not
to harm innocent person’s life’’ in these dilemmas is, we
argue that, rare confronted in daily life, especial in business
world. The basic conflict of economics is that people act in
ways to maximize their self-interest pit against the re-
spected rules and laws. From thi ...
The document discusses offensive speech and the FBI's priority to protect citizens from hate crimes and terrorism. While the First Amendment protects free speech, the government's view of offensive speech has evolved over time. Courts play a key role in protecting free speech from government overregulation based on interpreting the First Amendment.
How To Write An Opinion Essay Essay TigersMonica Waters
This document discusses HR recruitment practices for hiring employees. It explains that HR recruitment was originally used primarily by large corporations but is now common for many ordinary companies as well. The needs of HR recruitment in organizations have changed in recent years, and the process now exists in most organizations to improve efficiency. The recruitment system is at the heart of every business, so ensuring consistency at every level is important to enhance effectiveness in hiring and retention.
This document discusses different approaches to defining deviance. It summarizes five conceptualizations:
1) The statistical approach defines deviance based on behavior that is unusual or atypical compared to most people in a group. However, social scientists rarely use this approach as norms are based more on perceptions of right and wrong than statistics.
2) The absolutist approach applies ideal standards of behavior decided by social scientists. But there is no agreement on absolute moral standards and values differ between individuals.
3) The legalistic approach defines deviant behaviors as those that are illegal. However, laws may reflect popular sentiment, elite interests, or a combination of both.
4) In summary, there is no consensus on a precise definition
Communication For Change: A Short Guide to Social and Behavior Change (SBCC) ...CChangeProgram
Many theories and models have been used to guide health and development communication work . This PowerPoint presentation provides more detailed background on the theories and models leading to Social and Behavior Change Communication (SBCC).
The essay examines Kurt Vonnegut's novel Slaughterhouse-Five and critiques Steven Weisenburger's theory of a dichotomy in satire. The essay argues that while Weisenburger rejects the idea of distinguishing "good" and "bad" examples, he presents degenerative examples as inherently good rather than evil. Additionally, while Weisenburger diagnoses satire as involving violence, Vonnegut's novel deviates from this by depicting how the sight of destruction can inspire readers rather than support a moral code. The essay also analyzes how Billy Pilgrim in the novel plays the role of a Christ figure.
Factors Influencing The Way In Which Decisions Are Made Looking a.docxPOLY33
Factors Influencing The Way In Which Decisions Are Made:
Looking at all sides of a conflict is not an easy task. Several factors, which we may not be aware of, contribute to our understanding (or misunderstanding) and hence, influence the final choice. Consequently, people involved in the same conflict may arrive at different solutions caused by any of the following:
•
Context
the circumstances surrounding the issue, influences what parts are thought important or unimportant. For instance, if the individuals in a conflict are acquainted, the nature of the relationship matters. The bond between family members is very different than the one between friends .Gender, past experiences, education and age also act as a frame, modifying how the problem and the consequences are understood.
•
Values,
which are derived from personal beliefs, are grounded in traditional sources such as family, religion and school. They form an underlying framework which focuses our attention on certain aspects of a problem and may advocate for a particular choice. Values vary from individual to individual reflecting cultural, religious and other personal experiences and may play a greater role in conflict solutions arising in situations where points of law are not in question.
•
Principles
, which are sometimes derived from external sources such as institutions or ethical theories, typically provide guidance rather than specify an action. They can assist in prioritizing values by lending greater weight to one value over another. Conflicts which involve legal issues may be solved more readily by a direct appeal to known principles. Professional codes of ethics and
laws(
rules), then specify how principles are carried out. The four major principles guiding many institutional practices are: beneficence, non-
maleficence
, autonomy and justice (fairness). From these, courses of actions are derived. Which principle has priority in any one decision varies depending on personal beliefs, facts and other contextual information.
•
Ethical systems
are an important part of the process of justifying a particular action. The simple identification of principles and values is typically not sufficient to make a complex, difficult decision. At some point, justification for a particular choice begins to take place. Three of the more common ethical systems select different components of the conflict as a focal point: a person's motives, the consequences of the action, or an appeal to an external system of principles. As in the case with perspective, the action chosen is influenced by a tension between external forces such as obeying rules or finding a good outcome, and the character of individual (integrity).
Some philosophers argue that there really are only two systems for determining what is right or good. How "right" and "good" are connected through a course of action is the primary difference between two of the most common ethical systems which are
1.
Teleological Theor ...
What Makes A Hero The Impact of Integrity onAdmiration and Inte.docxphilipnelson29183
What Makes A Hero? The Impact of Integrity on
Admiration and Interpersonal Judgment
Barry R. Schlenker,1 Michael F. Weigold,1 and
Kristine A. Schlenker2
1University of Florida
2Penn State University
ABSTRACT Principled and expedient ideologies affect self-regulation
and guide people along divergent ethical paths. A more principled ideology,
indicative of higher claimed integrity, involves a greater personal
commitment to ethical beliefs, standards, and self-schemas that facilitate
positive social activities and help resist the temptation of illicit activities.
Two studies showed that differences in reported integrity are related to
people’s preferences for and judgments of others. Those higher in integrity
spontaneously described their heroes as more principled, honest,
spiritual, and benevolently oriented toward others (Study 1). In addition,
integrity was related to people’s evaluations of characters who made
ethical or unethical career decisions (Study 2). The judgments of those
higher in integrity were greatly influenced by whether or not the decision
was ethical but were largely unaffected by the consequences (career
success or failure), whereas those lower in integrity were less influenced
by whether the decision was ethical and more influenced by the career
consequences.
Ethical dilemmas pit principles against expediency. Doing the right
thing is a basis for acts of heroism and laudable accomplishment but
often involves personal sacrifice. Doing the expedient thing is a basis
for acts of self-indulgence and opportunism but often at a cost
to others. How people resolve the tension between principles and
expediency tests an individual’s character and a society’s ability to
function effectively. Each path has a certain appeal—the principled
Correspondence concerning this article may be addressed to Barry R. Schlenker,
Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. E-mail:
[email protected]
Journal of Personality 76:2, April 2008
r 2008, Copyright the Authors
Journal compilation r 2008, Blackwell Publishing, Inc.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00488.x
path for its integrity and the expedient path for its profits. Informative
glimpses may be gained into the values, aspirations, and ideologies
of individuals and societies by examining whom they admire
and regard as a hero and what criteria they use to praise and condemn
others. The present studies examined individual differences in
whom people regard as their heroes, why they regard them as heroes,
and how they judge others based on how those others resolve
conflicts between principles and expediency.
Principled and Expedient Ideologies: Commitment to Integrity
An ethical ideology is an integrated system of beliefs, values,
standards, and self-definitions that define an individual’s orientation
toward matters of right and wrong or good and evil (Schlenker,
2007). It provides a moral schema for evaluating events and a moral
identity that describes one’s ethical charact.
Session 10_B324_Marketing and Society Block23 (2018)_SPRING 2020 2021.pptYacobFarajat
This document discusses several models of ethical decision making in marketing. It describes Rest's four components of moral behavior: moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character. It also discusses Hunt and Vitell's general theory of marketing ethics, which outlines a process individuals go through when detecting an ethical problem. Finally, it examines Jones' issue-contingent model, which emphasizes that the characteristics of the ethical issue influence all aspects of ethical decision making.
The document discusses several key concepts related to deviance:
- It defines deviance as behavior that violates social norms and explains that what is seen as deviant varies by culture and society.
- It outlines several sociological theories of deviance including functionalism, social control theory, strain theory, and labeling theory.
- It discusses different types of sanctions used to enforce social norms and regulate behavior.
- It differentiates between internal and external means of social control and biological, psychological, and sociological explanations of deviance.
Assignment 1locate an article that discusses the topic of busine.docxtrippettjettie
Assignment 1
locate an article that discusses the topic of business ethics. Topic ideas might include the role of ethics in the workplace, breach of ethics, the effect of internal and external forces on ethical compliance, global ethical considerations within a business or ethics and employees.
Note these are ideas; please expand within the parameters of ethical topics as they relate to business ethics. Respond to the following questions:
1. Summarize the article and align it with the author’s main point.
2. How does this article contribute to contemporary thinking about business ethics?
3. How can you apply information in this article to your field?
4. How did this article fit your ethical view?
Your response should be a minimum of 3 double-spaced pages not including the title and reference pages. Referenced sources must have accompanying citations complying with APA guidelines. References should include the attached article and 2 other sources.
Spread of Unethical Behavior in Organizations: A Dynamic Social
Network Perspective
Franziska Zuber
Received: 19 June 2013 / Accepted: 20 June 2014 / Published online: 10 July 2014
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract The spread of unethical behavior in organiza-
tions has mainly been studied in terms of processes
occurring in a general social context, rather than in terms of
actors’ reactions in the context of their specific social
relationships. This paper introduces a dynamic social net-
work analysis framework in which this spread is concep-
tualized as the result of the reactions of perpetrators,
victims, and observers to an initial act of unethical
behavior. This theoretical framework shows that the social
relationships of the actors involved in an initial act impact
in multiple ways the likelihood that unethical behavior
spreads. It reveals furthermore that social relationships may
change in the wake of unethical behavior, such that indirect
negative consequences can arise for organizations. The
proposed framework provides a basis for the development
of a formal stochastic actor-oriented model of network
dynamics which would enable simulations of the spread of
unethical behavior.
Keywords Unethical behavior � Misconduct �
Contagion � Spread � Social network analysis
Introduction
The Occupy Wall Street movement has most vividly
expressed a loss of trust in the prevailing (Western) eco-
nomic and political systems in the aftermath of the global
financial crisis. A ‘‘pattern of dishonesty on the part of
financial institutions’’ (Stiglitz 2008, p. 30) that is consid-
ered to have contributed to the global financial crisis has
fueled this loss of trust not only within this movement, but
also with many citizens. This illustrates that the negative
consequences of widespread unethical behavior in organi-
zations can be significant, not only for the involved orga-
nizations, but also for society, because organizations are
the central agen ...
Deviant behavior is any behavior that violates social norms. There are several sociological explanations for deviant behavior. Structural strain theory proposes that deviance results from an imbalance between cultural goals and the means to achieve them. Labeling theory argues that deviance is a social process defined by those in power, rather than inherent to individuals. Social control theory suggests deviance occurs when social bonds and conformity are weakened. Differential association theory views deviance as learned through interactions where criminal attitudes are learned.
SHCR Review 2015 - Appendix 1 Literature ReviewHorizons NHS
Appendix 1. Literature review - This section of the School evaluation presents a literature review exploring existing thinking and evidence on social learning and organisational change that underlie the focus, principles and methods of the evaluation, and the impact model.
Further information and links can be found on the link below;
http://theedge.nhsiq.nhs.uk/school/school-evaluation/
effects of applied social sciences processes.pptxmarites leanillo
Applied social sciences aim to improve well-being and social functioning through advocacy, counseling, case management and other skills. Professionals in this field can work in roles like caseworkers, counselors, and community social workers. They observe standards of social justice, dignity, and competence. Self-awareness and understanding how social and individual factors influence behaviors are important for professionals to effectively facilitate individual and social change. Changes in attitudes, behaviors, and structures over the long term are needed to achieve equity and sustainability.
The document discusses the concept of deviance and provides definitions. It states that deviance is defined as an absence of conformity to social norms. Not all deviant behaviors are illegal or harmful, as they can range from minor infractions to serious crimes. The degree and perception of deviance depends on a society's reactions and how much a behavior violates established cultural norms and expectations. Societies and their subcultures influence what is considered deviant or acceptable. Poverty and social pressures can also contribute to behaviors becoming normalized or driven underground.
Social norms are the implicit or explicit rules and behaviors that are considered acceptable within a society or group. The major societal force that shapes individuals' norms and values is socialization through things like family, education, peer groups, and media/technology. Twenty standard social norms provided include things like avoiding burping in public, saying please, chewing with your mouth closed, offering help to others, wearing clothes in public, and celebrating cultural holidays.
The video for this presentation is available on our Youtube channel:
https://youtube.com/allceuseducation A continuing education course for this presentation can be found at https://www.allceus.com/member/cart/index/index?c=
Unlimited Counseling CEUs for $59 https://www.allceus.com/
Specialty Certificate tracks (including criminal justice counseling professional) starting at $89 https://www.allceus.com/certificate-tracks/
Live Webinars $5/hour https://www.allceus.com/live-interactive-webinars/
Instagram: AllCEUs
Pinterest: drsnipes
Examines theories that attempt to explain the motivation for criminal behavior in order to help reduce recidivism and relapse among people with and without addictions in the criminal justice system
This document summarizes social exchange theory, which focuses on how humans acquire resources through social interaction and exchange. Some key points:
- SET is derived from theories like equity theory that view humans as self-interested actors who seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs in social exchanges.
- It assumes humans need resources to survive and developed language to facilitate exchanging resources with others based on norms like reciprocity.
- Social interaction can be viewed as a way to exchange symbolic resources like love, status, and information. It also allows people to negotiate exchange agreements and develop relationships and networks.
- While SET provides insights into communication processes, it has been criticized for oversimplifying human behavior and lacking precision to
This document provides an overview of social construction theory. Some key points:
- Social construction theory posits that people socially construct the world through their words, actions, and media. Both interaction and media creation are social accomplishments that require coordination.
- The theory lends itself to examining how micro-level words, images, and actions reveal macro-level processes like the maintenance of racism.
- From the beginning, social construction theory has emphasized reflexivity, or awareness of the researcher's role, and questioning assumptions in the construction of knowledge. Researchers must examine their own biases.
- Central to social construction theory are questions about what constitutes valid knowledge and evidence. The theory explicitly considers these issues less often addressed
This document discusses the nature of social problems from a sociological perspective. It provides definitions of key concepts, including that sociology is the scientific study of human social relationships and groups. It outlines four criteria for something to be considered a social problem: 1) a real objective condition must exist, 2) people must subjectively perceive the condition as a problem, 3) it involves a gap between social ideals and realities, and 4) it must be seen as capable of collective solution. The sociological approach to analyzing social problems uses theory and research methods like case studies and surveys. Different theoretical perspectives like social disorganization and value conflict are also discussed.
Social influence can be described as an effort to change another person's behavior or attitudes. It can come from real or imagined social pressure. Six main principles of social influence are scarcity, liking, commitment/consistency, reciprocity, social validation, and authority. Social impact theory focuses on the strength of social influences, which can be positive or negative. Conformity is when people go along with the group to be accepted. Normative influence is conforming to be liked, while informational influence is conforming because others seem more informed. Minority influence can impact the majority through consistency of views over time. Compliance involves changing behaviors through requests, while obedience involves following commands from those in positions of authority.
The document discusses the concepts of deviance and crime. It defines deviance as violating social norms, whether minor norms like etiquette or more serious moral codes. Crime is defined as deviant behavior that breaks codified law. Whether an act is considered deviant depends on social and cultural context. Structural functionalism views deviance as serving a constructive role in affirming social values, while conflict theory sees it as a result of inequality between social groups. The document also discusses theories for integrating explanations of crime, such as control theory which examines how social bonds influence law-abiding behavior.
How Can a Deontological Decision Lead to Moral BehaviorThe .docxpooleavelina
How Can a Deontological Decision Lead to Moral Behavior?
The Moderating Role of Moral Identity
Zhi Xing Xu • Hing Keung Ma
Received: 23 January 2014 / Accepted: 10 February 2015 / Published online: 18 February 2015
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
Abstract Deontology and utilitarianism are two com-
peting principles that guide our moral judgment. Recently,
deontology is thought to be intuitive and is based on an
error-prone and biased approach, whereas utilitarianism is
relatively reflective and a suitable framework for making
decision. In this research, the authors explored the rela-
tionship among moral identity, moral decision, and moral
behavior to see how a preference for the deontological
solution can lead to moral behavior. In study 1, a Web-
based survey demonstrated that when making decisions,
individuals who viewed themselves as moral people pre-
ferred deontological ideals to the utilitarian framework. In
study 2, the authors investigated the effect of moral identity
and moral decision on moral behavior in an experimental
study. The results showed that when deontology was cou-
pled with the motivational power of moral identity, indi-
viduals were most likely to behave morally.
Keywords Moral decision � Ethical predispositions �
Deontology � Utilitarianism � Moral identity � Moral
behavior
Introduction
Deontology and consequentialism are frequently discussed
in tandem as they are usually thought as two opposing
theories in normative ethics. Consequentialism focuses on
the utility of an action, while deontology emphasizes the
obligation of an individual to adhere to universal moral
rules, principle to determine moral behavior (Brady and
Wheeler 1996; Kant 1996). Some theorists argue that
consequentialism is a more appropriate framework when
making moral decisions, since the deontology is usually
moral shortcut and commits moral errors (see reviews in
Baron and Ritov 2009; Sunstein 2005). Recently, however,
Bartels and Pizarro (2011) found that those individuals who
are least prone to moral errors also possess a set of psy-
chological characteristics, such as have higher scores on
measure of antisocial personality traits, which many would
consider prototypically immoral. Though Bartels and
Pizarro’s research has provided evidence to justification for
deontological thinking in moral decision, we argue that the
existing investigations have disproportionately relied on
recording participants’ responses to ‘‘sacrificial’’ dilem-
mas. In these types of dilemmas, participants are asking
whether it is acceptable to kill a person to save others (e.g.,
Greene et al. 2001; Greene 2007). The protected value ‘‘not
to harm innocent person’s life’’ in these dilemmas is, we
argue that, rare confronted in daily life, especial in business
world. The basic conflict of economics is that people act in
ways to maximize their self-interest pit against the re-
spected rules and laws. From thi ...
The document discusses offensive speech and the FBI's priority to protect citizens from hate crimes and terrorism. While the First Amendment protects free speech, the government's view of offensive speech has evolved over time. Courts play a key role in protecting free speech from government overregulation based on interpreting the First Amendment.
How To Write An Opinion Essay Essay TigersMonica Waters
This document discusses HR recruitment practices for hiring employees. It explains that HR recruitment was originally used primarily by large corporations but is now common for many ordinary companies as well. The needs of HR recruitment in organizations have changed in recent years, and the process now exists in most organizations to improve efficiency. The recruitment system is at the heart of every business, so ensuring consistency at every level is important to enhance effectiveness in hiring and retention.
Essay Contest Opens For High School Students NIH RecordMonica Waters
The article examines symbolic play in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder compared to typically
developing children. It found that children with ASD engaged in significantly less symbolic play and had
more difficulties with pretend play skills. The results suggest that assessing pretend play abilities can help
identify children with ASD and developing pretend play skills should be a focus of early intervention.
Edit My College Essay. 10 Most Common College EsMonica Waters
The document provides information about editing college essays through an online service. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete an order form with instructions and deadline; 3) Review writer bids and choose one; 4) Review the paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions until satisfied. It emphasizes original, high-quality work and refunds for plagiarism.
1. The document discusses a website called HelpWriting.net that provides writing assistance services.
2. It outlines a 5-step process for using their services, which includes creating an account, submitting a request form, reviewing writer bids, authorizing payment, and requesting revisions.
3. They promise original, high-quality work and refunds for plagiarized content, aiming to fully meet customer needs.
Persuasive Writing Paragraph. How To Write AMonica Waters
The document discusses the impact of media on children's lives and socialization. It notes that media is an influential factor in socialization, especially for children. Media can positively impact children by exposing them to new ideas and information. However, excessive media use can negatively impact children's development by replacing social interactions and outdoor activities. The document calls for moderation and guidance when children consume media to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks.
How Does Nurture Influence Development. How Does NMonica Waters
The document discusses how nurture influences development through several steps:
1. Create an account on the site to request writing help
2. Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, deadline, and sample work
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications to start the assignment
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if pleased, with options for revisions
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1. Racism led to an unjust legal system where Tom Robinson, an innocent black man, was wrongly convicted of a crime and sentenced to death simply due to the color of his skin and prejudice of the all-white jury.
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1) The U.S. already spends more on defense than the next several countries combined, indicating current spending levels are excessive.
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The passage discusses the Confucian philosophy and two influential Confucian thinkers, Mengzi and Xunzi. It notes that while Confucius sought to spread his teachings, later philosophers like Mengzi and Xunzi interpreted and debated his ideas, specifically around the question of whether human nature is inherently good or bad. The author argues against Mengzi's view that human nature is inherently good, instead asserting that it is completely self-interested.
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Here are a few key points about black women in America and their accomplishments:
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The document discusses drugs and alcohol in the criminal justice system. It notes that drug and alcohol abuse has long been part of human culture and American society. The period from 1950-2000 saw significant developments in how drugs and alcohol were viewed and addressed. Research and knowledge advanced, laws were passed, media coverage increased, and public views shifted. Overall, this time period was exceptionally active for American culture in terms of drugs and alcohol.
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The document discusses the author's experience visiting Yosemite National Park for the first time, expressing a sense of awe at the natural beauty of the park, including views of El Capitan. Yosemite National Park is located in California's Sierra Nevada mountains and was established in 1890 to protect its outstanding natural features spanning over 747,956 acres, including waterfalls, trees, cliffs and mountains. In just one hour at the park, the author was already amazed by what they had seen.
The document discusses the national nanotechnology initiative (NNI) and nanotechnology. It begins by defining nanotechnology as the study and manipulation of materials at the 1 to 100 nanometer scale, where materials exhibit novel properties due to their small size. It notes that the NNI was established to provide a general definition of nanotechnology. The document then discusses how nanoscience involves the study of nanomaterials, which have at least one dimension in the 1 to 100 nm range. It states that these nanomaterials have increased surface area and unique physical and chemical properties compared to larger materials.
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- AI systems in warfare could potentially reduce casualties by taking the place of human soldiers in dangerous situations. However, lethal autonomous weapons raise concerns about machines having the power to take human lives without meaningful human control.
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The document discusses a case study involving a business relationship between the author and Mr. Marshall. It began informally six months ago with the author supplying grapes to Mr. Marshall's health food store. Demand grew but issues arose regarding late or incomplete payments from Mr. Marshall. The author is considering ending the business relationship and asks what legal actions Mr. Marshall could take and what defenses they may have. Advice is sought on resolving disputes biblically to avoid negative impacts on both parties.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
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Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
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more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
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How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
2. 128
Communication
Theory
That human behavior is guided by perceptions about the popularity
of the behavior comes as no surprise to social influence scholars, mar-
keting professionals, or others interested in human decision-making pro-
cesses. A casual observation of almost any exercise in social persuasion
reveals that one of the factors people use in making behavioral decisions
pertains to their assessment as to whether others also engage in the be-
havior. Yet, the power of normative influences has to be understood in
the context of individuals’ own judgments and behavioral constraints.
Humans do not act solely on the basis of the popularity of a behavior.
Otherwise, the world would not have witnessed minority behaviors that
have shaped history, ones that are described as acts of bravery and cour-
age in fighting the powerful, and sometimes coercive, forces perpetrated by
the majority. Nor would we have seen acts of defiance in everyday life, in
which individuals take an unpopular stance despite group pressures.
Delineating the conditions that promote from those that inhibit nor-
mative influence makes the study of norms particularly fruitful. Impor-
tant questions remain in the literature, including these: How is norma-
tive information shared among group members? What factors must ex-
ist in order for people to exercise their own judgment and defy norma-
tive influences? Conversely, what factors promote the influence of norms?
As has been pointed out elsewhere (Cialdini, 2001), conforming to so-
cial norms is often the appropriate course of action because collective
wisdom tends to serve the individual, and the group, well. Among other
things, it can provide a convenient decision-making heuristic and thus
obviate the need to think critically about the consequences of each deci-
sion before acting on it, a process Cialdini called fixed-action patterns.
Special circumstances exist, however, when collective action is detrimental
to individual well-being. This has been demonstrated both experimen-
tally and through observational studies of mob inaction (see Latane &
Nida, 1981, for a review), bystander apathy (Latane & Darley, 1968)
being a particularly egregious form of inaction on the part of individuals
who interpret others’ unwillingness to help someone in need as a situa-
tion that requires no individual intervention.
Empirical support for normative influences is, at best, mixed. Inter-
ventions that attempt to change individuals’ behaviors by changing their
normative beliefs show few enduring effects, and many evaluations of
norms-based approaches suffer from methodological limitations, mak-
ing the results suspect (Berkowitz, 2004; Borsari & Carey, 2003). A
recent review of norms-based interventions to reduce college students’
alcohol consumption (Wechsler et al., 2003), for example, failed to find
behavior change across any of seven behavioral measures. Despite these
results, it would be incorrect to conclude that norms are inconsequen-
tial. Rather, given numerous reasons to believe the contrary (see Borsari
3. 129
Social Norms
& Carey, 2001), a more productive strategy would be to determine
whether the inclusion of communication in models of normative influ-
ences would provide more explanatory power. An examination of the
experimental literature on the influence of group norms on behavior
provides cross-sectional evidence for the short-term influence of norms,
potential moderators of the norm-behaviorrelationship(Cruz,Henningsen,
& Williams, 2000), and the nature of behaviors that are susceptible to
normative influence (Bagozzi, Wong, Abe, & Bergami, 2000). Before ad-
dressing these issues, however, we discuss several important conceptual dis-
tinctions in the literature on norms.
Specifying the Meaning of Norms
Collective and Perceived Norms
In order to clearly specify the process of normative influence and to
explicate the role of communication in this process, it is first necessary
to distinguish between norms that exist at the collective level (for ex-
ample, the level of the group, community, or culture; Arrow & Burns,
2004), on the one hand, and people’s understanding of those norms,
also called perceived norms, on the other hand. At the collective level,
norms serve as prevailing codes of conduct that either prescribe or pro-
scribe behaviors that members of a group can enact. Individuals’ inter-
pretation of these norms, the construct of interest in this article, is re-
ferred to as perceived norms. Individuals may or may not construe the
collective norm correctly; pluralistic ignorance (O’Gorman, 1988) is a
specific example of a mismatch between the two. Because collective norms
are seldom formally codified or explicitly stated (Cruz et al., 2000), there
is likely to be divergence in how people interpret them. For this reason,
an aggregation of perceived norms among members of a social system
will likely not represent the prevailing collective norm.
This distinction between collective and perceived norms highlights
the etiological difference between these two constructs. Collective norms
operate at the level of the social system, which could be a social network
or the entire society. They represent a collective social entity’s code of
conduct. Collective norms emerge through shared interaction among
members of a social group or community (Bettenhausen & Murnighan,
1985), and the manner in which norms emerge is dependent on, among
other things, how they are transmitted and socially construed. Perceived
norms, on the other hand, exist at the individual, psychological level.
They represent each individual’s interpretation of the prevailing collec-
tive norm.
Because collective norms exist at the social level and because they are
not explicitly codified, measuring them represents one of the primary
4. 130
Communication
Theory
challenges for communication scholars. There are, however, meaningful
indicators than can be used to tap into collective norms, some of which
could include a study of the media environment, structural characteris-
tics of the social system, and social networks. Collective norms are not
measured by aggregating individuals’ beliefs. If we were to ask individu-
als about their beliefs about what is normative behavior, we would be
tapping into perceived, rather than collective, norms. It is, of course,
likely that the two norms would be related, but they are conceptually
distinct. Assessing collective norms requires the collection of data at the
social level, as aggregating data collected at the individual level to repre-
sent collective norms is likely to be misleading. By the same token, per-
ceived norms are operationalized at the individual level, and deriving
perceived norms from measures taken at the collective level is likely to
suffer from ecological fallacy. Because perceived norms, by definition,
are the results of individuals’ construal processes, questions about the
role of communication in normative influences are asked in the domain
of perceived, not collective, norms.
Injunctive and Descriptive Norms
Bendor and Swistak (2001) proffer that norms are meaningful only to
the extent that individuals perceive that their violation will result in some
social sanction. To the extent that individuals’ behaviors are driven by a
desire to avoid social sanctions, we can conceptualize the underlying
influence as being driven by injunctive norms. Injunctive norms refer to
people’s beliefs about what ought to be done (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallren,
1990). Descriptive norms, on the other hand, refer to beliefs about what
is actually done by most others in one’s social group. The distinction
between people’s judgments about the prevalence of a behavior and the
social sanctions incurred for enacting the behavior is often confounded
(e.g., Mizuno, Kennedy, Seals, & Myllyluoma, 2000) or not acknowl-
edged in the literature on norms (e.g., Cheung, Chan, & Wong, 1999;
Ewing, 2001), despite other research indicating the benefits of doing so
(Borsari & Carey, 2001; Cialdini et al., 1990). Although both types
of norms promote behaviors by providing information about what is
adaptive behavior in a given situation (Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren,
1993), descriptive norms provide information about what is done,
and injunctive norms indicate what ought to be done (Kallgren, Reno,
& Cialdini, 2000). Thus, the primary difference between the two is
that descriptive norms typically do not involve social sanctions for
noncompliance with the norm.
Both descriptive and injunctive norms can be considered at the collec-
tive or individual level. At the individual level, descriptive norms pertain
to people’s perceptions about the prevalence of the behavior in question.
Similarly, injunctive norms pertain to pressures that individuals perceive
5. 0 131
Social Norms
to conform. At the collective level, information about descriptive norms
may be gathered by observing media depictions of trends surrounding a
particular issue. Similarly, information about injunctive norms may be
collected by studying policies enacted by specific communities to pro-
mote or proscribe a certain behavior.
It is quite often the case that injunctive and descriptive norms are
congruent. For example, individuals who attend a formal meeting may
notice that, because most others are silent and attentive (descriptive
norms), they are required to act in a similar manner and that they will
incur social sanctions if they do not comply (injunctive norms). Simi-
larly, college students may perceive that most of their peers consume
alcohol (Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986), and that they will lose friendships
if they themselves do not (Rimal & Real, 2003). There are many situa-
tions, however, when these two types of normative influences do not
overlap, such as when people approve of, but do not practice, particular
behaviors (Cialdini et al., 1990). Descriptive and injunctive norms can
also be antagonistic, and they may provide persons with conflicting in-
formation about normative behaviors in a given context.
Although he did not explicitly address the injunctive-descriptive norm
distinction, Festinger (1954) argued that persons use social comparison
processes to evaluate their own beliefs relative to the social reality. These
social comparison processes occur when people look to others for guid-
ance on how to behave in a situation, particularly when the situation is
characterized by ambiguity. Working from this idea, Jones and Gerard
(1967) suggested that normative influences typically take two forms.
First, because people are dependent on others to meet their needs, they
are concerned about others’ evaluation of their behaviors. Jones and
Gerard called this effect dependence. Second, individuals can look to
others in order to know what they are doing, a process that Jones and
Gerard called informational dependence.
Fazio’s (1990) model of spontaneous processing focuses on the infor-
mational nature of norms, suggesting that they serve to help persons
define a particular situation, and this definition allows them to under-
stand specific events within that situation. Informational dependence
can be further classified into two types, depending, in part, on whether
people believe their behaviors will be known by others. People may look
to their referents to determine the prevailing norms surrounding a par-
ticular behavior, but can also choose to defy the norms if they believe
that their behaviors will not become known to referent others. For ex-
ample, individuals may perceive that most others recycle their waste,
but they themselves may choose not to do so in a private setting because
enactment of this behavior will not be known to others (Ewing, 2001).
If, however, informational dependence is coupled with a perceived threat
6. 132
Communication
Theory
of social sanctions for defying the norm, then such influences may be
due to injunctive norms, or a combination of the two.
Individuals often misperceive the prevalence of a behavior (i.e., de-
scriptive norms) in their social midst (e.g., Clapp & McDonnell, 2000;
Perkins & Wechsler, 1996; see Berkowitz, 2004, and Borsari & Carey,
2003, for reviews), and the magnitude of this misperception is positively
related to interpersonal discussion about the topic (Real & Rimal, 2002).
Individuals who engage in interpersonal discussion about an issue (drink-
ing on campus, for example) seem to believe that many more others
engage in the behavior than is objectively the case. Thus, interpersonal
communication can result in the transmission of incorrect beliefs about
the prevalence of a behavior. A similar pattern of findings has also been
observed when the communication activity is mediated. Research based
on cultivation theory (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1994)
showed, for example, that heavy television viewing is positively corre-
lated with the perceived prevalence of professions most often depicted
in TV programs. Both lines of work demonstrate a positive association
between communication activity and perceived prevalence, indicating
that both interpersonal and mediated messages may influence percep-
tions of the prevalence of a behavior.
The relationship between injunctive norms and communication, how-
ever, has not been explicitly addressed in the literature. On the one hand,
it could be hypothesized that when people observe many others engag-
ing in a particular behavior, they likely conclude that the behavior is
socially acceptable, hence few social sanctions will be incurred by en-
gaging in the behavior. Similarly, observing that only few others engage
in the behavior could result in the belief that the behavior is deviant in
nature. On the other hand, whether particular behaviors are construed
as being socially acceptable or deviant in nature is likely determined by
the perceived similarity between oneself and the actors and observations
about whether the actors are subsequently sanctioned or rewarded for
their behaviors (Bandura, 1973). The larger point here is that, because
descriptive and injunctive norms may be communicated through differ-
ent mechanisms and because they can differentially exercise their influ-
ence on behaviors, theoretical models of normative influences should
take this distinction into account (Borsari & Carey, 2003).
The subjective norms construct, as articulated in the theory of rea-
soned action (TRA; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and theory of planned
behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1988), pertains to a form of injunctive norms. It
is concerned with people’s motivation to comply with the beliefs of im-
portant referents. The theory, however, does not address descriptive
norms. Further, the confounding of injunctive and descriptive norms is
apparent in the literature on norms-based interventions designed to
7. 2 133
Social Norms
modify misperceptions of norms and subsequent behaviors. Those de-
signed to curtail alcohol consumption among college students primarily
focus on modifying perceptions of descriptive norms (Bosari & Carey,
2003; Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986); those seeking to reduce adolescent
substance use, on injunctive norms (Unger, Rohrbach, Howard-Pitney,
Ritt-Olsen, & Mouttapa, 2001); and those promoting the use of condoms,
on a mixture of the two (Mizuno et al., 2000). Yet, all three types of
campaigns are conceptualized as being based on norms.
Rimal and Real (2003) argued that injunctive norms moderate the
relationship between descriptive norms and behavioral intention such
that the influence of descriptive norms on behaviors is heightened when
injunctive norms are also strong and attenuated when injunctive norms
are weak. Thus, when people perceive that social sanctions exist for
noncompliance, they are more likely to conform if they also perceive
that the behavior is widespread among their peers. The interactive effect
of injunctive and descriptive norms on behaviors can also be derived
from the Asch (1951) study in which injunctive norms were deliberately
manipulated to be strong (Kitayama & Burnstein, 1994). In a small-
group setting, all confederates provided an obviously incorrect response,
thus creating a situation in which naive subjects felt compelled to go
along with the group because they perceived the correct response was
obvious to everyone else and that others also expected them to conform
(Ross, Bierbrauer, & Hoffman, 1976). More relevant to our discussion
here, when the descriptive norms were low—as when other confederates
were shown not to conform with the majority—naive subjects did not
conform either. Thus, strong injunctive norms, by themselves, were not
adequate to influence behavior; greatest compliance was observed when
descriptive and injunctive norms were both high.
Toward a Theory of Normative Influences
The theory of normative social behavior (TNSB; Rimal & Real, in press)
builds from the work of Cialdini and others (Cialdini et al., 1990; Kallgren
et al., 2000; Reno et al., 1993) in that it distinguishes descriptive from
injunctive norms and focuses on factors that moderate the influence of
descriptive norms on behaviors. These moderators include injunctive
norms, outcome expectations, and group identity. Variables comprising
the model have consistently explained more than 50% of the variance in
behavioral intention in three studies (Rimal & Real, in press, 2003; Rimal,
Real, & Morrison, 2004). The TNSB, however, does not address the
ways in which normative information is communicated or the ways in
which communication might be used to augment normative perceptions.
Moreover, it does not address the moderating role of ego involvement
8. 134
Communication
Theory
on the descriptive norm–behavior relationship. In the following sections,
we briefly review the moderators of the relationship between descriptive
norms and behaviors, and then we extend the model by including the
role of communication as a variable in the model.
Moderators in the Influence
of Descriptive Norms
Empirical evidence suggests that there are a number of factors that mod-
erate the relationship between descriptive norms and behaviors (Bagozzi
et al., 2000; Cruz et al., 2000). Rimal and Real (2003) posited that the
explanatory power of norms-based models can be enhanced if careful
attention is paid to the underlying cognitive mechanisms. Rimal and
Real (in press) identified three such moderators—injunctive norms, out-
come expectations, and group identity—that influence behaviors directly
and also through their interaction with descriptive norms. The interac-
tion between injunctive and descriptive norms has been discussed above,
and it will not be repeated here. Research on social norms (Bagozzi et
al.; Cruz et al.; Rimal & Real, 2003) has indicated that the perceived
popularity of a behavior will compel people to act accordingly if they (a)
perceive that enacting the behavior will confer benefits (outcome expec-
tations), (b) share strong affinity with their referent group (group iden-
tity), or (c) view the attitude or behavior as central to their self-concept
(ego involvement).
Outcome Expectations. Outcome expectations refer to the beliefs that
enacting a particular behavior will confer the benefits that one seeks
(Bandura, 1986). More specificially, outcome expectations are concep-
tualized as the product of a mental calculus that people perform be-
tween the benefits of taking actions and costs associated with those ac-
tions (Rogers, 1975; Rosenstock, 1974). To the extent that outcome
expectations can be thought of as beliefs that guide behaviors, the TRA
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) treats outcome expectations as part of attitudes
toward a behavior.
When the high prevalence of a behavior is accompanied by beliefs
that the behavior results in significant benefits, individuals are more likely
to engage in the behavior (Rimal & Real, in press, 2003). That percep-
tions of benefits result in engagement of the behavior is not surprising;
other theoretical models, including the health belief model (Janz & Becker,
1984), TRA (Azjen & Fishbein, 1980), and social cognitive theory (SCT;
Bandura, 1986) have posited as much. It should also be noted that the
relationship between outcome expectations and behavior, by itself, is
not indicative of the influence of descriptive norms. It becomes so when
outcome expectations interact with descriptive norms to influence be-
haviors. By not engaging in a behavior known to have desirable out-
comes, individuals may also become fearful that they will be denied im-
9. 4 135
Social Norms
portant outcomes that others—many others—who engage in the behav-
ior are able to attain. Research indicates that the threat of a potential
loss looms large in people’s minds. Kahneman and Tversky (1984) and
Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler (1991) have shown, for example, that
the threat of losing something is a greater motivator of action than the
potential for gaining something of equal value. Hence, reluctance to
deprive oneself of benefits that one perceives many others derive from
the behavior can result in greater likelihood that one will enact the be-
havior (Rimal et al, 2004).
Group Identity. Numerous studies have documented the role that in-
dividuals’ social networks play in initiating and reinforcing both posi-
tive (Hibbard, 1985; House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988; Valente, 1994)
and negative (Donohew et al., 1999; Dorsey, Sherer, & Real, 1999; Fraser
& Hawkins, 1984; Kandel, 1973; Seeman, Seeman, & Sayles, 1985)
behaviors. In order for individuals to be influenced by their social net-
works, they must either feel some degree of affinity or desire connec-
tions with their reference group.1
Thus, identity with one’s reference
group enhances the likelihood of being influenced by members of this
group. Research on nominal groups has shown that identification plays
a central role in an in-group member’s ability to persuade other group
members (Wilder, 1990). In the absence of this form of identification,
there is no reason to expect group identity to affect individuals’ behav-
ioral choices. When people perceive that they are connected with mem-
bers of their reference group, there are likely two reasons why they would
be more likely to conform. First, members experience positive affect when
they do so (Christensen, Rothgerber, Wood, & Matz, 2004). Second,
there is an implicit understanding that their compliance (or failure to
comply) with the group behavior will be known by other group mem-
bers and that group members will have access to information about their
expression of group solidarity. When individuals perceive that the preva-
lence of a behavior among their reference group is widespread and their
identification with the group is strong, then they are more likely to en-
gage in the behavior themselves (Rimal & Real, in press). Conversely, if
members feel strong affinity with the group and concomitantly believe
that a behavior is unpopular among group members, then they are less
likely to engage in the behavior themselves.
Given the variation in the nature of group identity across cultures
(Triandis, 1989) and findings indicating that the nature of group iden-
tity may be determined by culture (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), one
cannot overlook the role of culture on identity-driven influences. Bagozzi
et al. (2000) tested the TRA in several cultures and found that the effect
size for the influence of subjective norms varied for members of differ-
ent cultural groups, with participants from China exhibiting the stron-
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gest relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intentions.
They suggested that this was due, in part, to Chinese participants having
stronger identification with referent groups than those from the United
States. Likewise, Park and Levine (1999) found that the normative fac-
tors in the TRA were significantly associated with interdependent but
not with independent (that is, the extent to which one is self rather than
collectively oriented) self-construal. It is likely then that, to the extent
that the strength of group identification is culturally determined, culture
can indirectly influence susceptibility to normative effects. Thus, in cul-
tures in which the collective is emphasized over the individual (Hofstede,
1980) or in which interdependent views of self predominate (Markus &
Kitayama), norms appear to exert a more powerful impact on behaviors
(Bagozzi et al.; Park & Levine).
Ego Involvement. Involvement is the “motivational state induced by
an association between an activated attitude and some aspect of the
self” (Johnson & Eagly, 1989, p. 293). Ego involvement refers to the
extent to which individuals’ self-concept is connected with their posi-
tion on a particular issue and forms an integral part of how individuals
define themselves (Johnson & Eagly, 1989; Lapinski & Boster, 2000;
Sherif & Hovland, 1961; Sherif, Kelly, Rodgers, Sarup, & Tittler, 1973).
Although discussions of ego involvement have generally centered around
attitudes (e.g., Johnson & Eagly), persons may also be highly ego-in-
volved in behaviors (Lapinski & Boster, 2001) if these behaviors are
linked with self-concept. For example, persons who see themselves as
“drinkers” view this role as a central part of their self-concept (Conner
& Armitage, 1998) and are thus likely to be highly ego-involved in be-
haviors related to alcohol consumption.
The effect of descriptive norms on behavior is strengthened for those
whose self-identity is closely aligned with the enactment of the behavior
or those who are highly ego-involved in a behavior. Rimal et al. (2004)
found, for example, that students’ self-perceptions surrounding alcohol
consumption had both a main effect as well as an interaction effect (with
descriptive norms) on their behavioral intention. Students who perceive
themselves as drinkers, compared to those who perceive themselves as
nondrinkers, are not only more likely to consume alcohol, but also more
influenced by their perceived prevalence of consumption. Although the
exact mechanism underlying this effect has yet to be determined, it is
possible that strong descriptive norms activate the relevant aspect of
self-concept and make one’s ego involvement more salient, thereby in-
creasing the likelihood of behavioral action. This is consistent with Fazio’s
(1986, 1990) model, which posited that attitude-behavior consistency is
enhanced when the relevant attitude is made salient at the time of be-
havioral action.
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Given the empirical evidence discussed above, it is expected that the
three moderators (outcome expectations, group identity, and ego involve-
ment) will have both direct effects and moderated effects (with descrip-
tive norms) on behaviors.
Communication of Norms
Many norms-based interventions seek to correct misperceptions about
the prevalence of a behavior with the belief that correcting these
misperceptions will result in behavior change (Berkowitz, 2004). These
interventions, particularly those around alcohol use on college campuses,
often focus on modifying descriptive norms (Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986;
see Borsari & Carey, 2001, 2003, for reviews). Thus, the underlying
strategy in these interventions is based on a central assumption about
the role of communication—that, through a communication interven-
tion, individuals’ misperceptions about the prevalence of a behavior can
be corrected. Indeed, there is support for this assertion, as revealed by a
recent meta-analysis (Borsari & Carey, 2003). What is often neglected
in this literature is the question of how these misperceived descriptive
norms are formed to begin with. It is our premise here that individuals’
communication patterns play a key role in the development of norma-
tive perceptions. Further, communication influences the extent to which
people perceive a discrepancy between their own and others’ attitudes
or behaviors such that they believe they are in the minority when they
are actually in the majority (pluralistic ignorance; Prentice & Miller,
1996), believe their behaviors are more different from others than they
actually are (false uniqueness; Ross, Greene, & House, 1977), or think
others think and act as they do when they do not (false consensus; Suls
& Wan, 1987).
The literature indicates that the magnitude of the misperception and
the influence of norms on behaviors will be determined by, among other
things, the source of the normative information (referent group member,
stranger, typical other; Borsari & Carey, 2003). For example, research
framed in the TRA and other norms-based interventions has indicated
not only that normative information from referent others can influence
behaviors, but also that the social distance between the actor and the
referent is negatively associated with the accuracy of normative percep-
tions (Baer, Stacey, & Larimer, 1991). Importantly, normative informa-
tion from strangers or acquaintances can also influence behaviors, as
has been demonstrated in previous research (Asch, 1951; Borsari & Carey,
2003; Cruz et al., 2000; Latane & Darley, 1968). Thus, referent group
members (for example, family, friends, and relational partners), as well
as acquaintances and strangers, can communicate normative informa-
tion. From a normative perspective, what distinguishes influences ema-
nating from familiar versus unfamiliar reference groups pertains to the
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accuracy of perceptions (Borsari & Carey2003), the durability of the
social influence, and whether the normative information is internalized
into the value system (Kelman, 1961). When individuals internalize nor-
mative information, the presence of the reference group is not required
for sustained normative effects (Sherif, 1935). If, however, individuals
enact a behavior in the absence of internalization—a process that Kelman
(1961) termed compliance—then the presence of the reference group is
required for normative influence to occur.
The role of communication in normative influences can also be de-
rived from a number of theoretical perspectives, including cultivation
theory (Gerbner et al., 1994), the diffusion of innovations (Rogers, 1995),
social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), and uncertainty reduction theory
(Berger, 1987; Berger & Calabrese, 1975) and its extensions (uncertainty
and anxiety management theory, among others; Brashers et al., 2000;
Gudykunst, 1995). Both cultivation theory and social cognitive theory,
for example, address how individuals internalize normative information
from exposure to messages in the media by developing perceptions about
the prevalence of the depicted acts (cultivation theory) or through obser-
vational learning (social cognitive theory). Similarly, the role of interper-
sonal communication in normative influences can be derived from the
diffusion of innovations and uncertainty reduction theory; in the former,
opinion leaders can be thought of as key players in the transmission of
normative information, whereas in the latter, active, passive, or interac-
tive strategies can be construed as mechanisms through which norma-
tive information is communicated. Although these theoretical perspec-
tives provide insight into the influence of people’s normative beliefs on
their behaviors or the process through which normative beliefs are
formed, there is a paucity of research on the attributes of behaviors that
make them more or less vulnerable to normative influences. Trafimow
and Finlay (2001) and Trafimow and Fishbein (1994) pointed out that
behaviors can be classified into those controlled normatively versus those
controlled attitudinally and that this behavior type moderates the rela-
tionship between subjective norms and behaviors as articulated in the
TRA. Extending this idea further, we propose that certain attributes of
behaviors make the behaviors more or less likely to be influenced by
perceptions about others’ beliefs and observation of others’ behaviors
(Bagozzi et al., 2000; Cialdini, 2001). Some of these attributes are dis-
cussed below.
Focus on Behavioral Attributes
Our discussion so far illustrates the need to consider both the role of
communication and the underlying cognitive processes in theorizing about
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normative influences. What has not been discussed in this article, and
what has remained largely ignored in the health communication litera-
ture in general and the norms literature in particular, is how the magni-
tude of normative influence varies according to the attributes of particu-
lar behaviors. Behavioral attributes refer to the defining features that
comprise the behavior rather than the situations or contexts in which
the behavior is enacted.
We distinguish behavioral attributes from behavioral domains in that
the latter term is used to signify the actual behaviors (getting tested for
HIV, smoking, voting, etc.), whereas the former is used to signify com-
ponents that comprise the behavior in question. So, for example, getting
tested for HIV, as a behavioral domain, is a behavior that has several
attributes, some of which may include concerns about confidentiality
(Delerga, Lovejoy, & Winstead, 1998; Woods et al., 1999), perceived
stigma (Aggleton & Parker, 2002; Capitanio & Herek, 1999), and so
forth. Each behavioral domain can be broken down into meaningful
attributes. What defines “meaningful,” of course, is a conceptual issue—
certain attributes may be more or less relevant for pursuing the underly-
ing relations in a particular theory.
The purpose of the following sections is to elaborate on two such
attributes, ambiguity and behavioral privacy, which are relevant for un-
derstanding normative influences. In each case, the extent to which these
behavioral attributes exist for a given behavior is not a dichotomous
issue. Behaviors can vary on a continuum from being characterized as
more or less ambiguous or private. We should also note that behavioral
attributes and situational or contextual factors may overlap. The same
behavior—say, donating to charity—may be enacted in different situations,
such as at home, away from the public eye, or in the workplace, among
one’s coworkers. Thus, different ends on the same (behavioral privacy) con-
tinuum may be relevant in different contexts. Finally, our selection of at-
tributes is not meant to be exhaustive; rather, the attributes are being pro-
posed as a means of stimulating research in this area.
Ambiguity
Bystander apathy is perhaps one of the best illustrations of the role of
ambiguity in normative influences, particularly because the situation is
characterized by the high prevalence of a behavior (persons not helping
others in need). Researchers who have studied this issue (e.g., Latane &
Nida, 1981) have posited that bystanders look to others for an interpre-
tation of the situation. Those others, in turn, interpret mass inaction as
a situation that requires no intervention. Cialdini (2001) called this phe-
nomenon “social proof,” the idea that people “view a behavior as cor-
rect in a given situation to the degree that we see others performing it”
(p. 100). In this context, we use ambiguity to mean a situation in which
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the appropriate course of action is unclear to the actor. Thus, ambiguity
about the appropriate behavior may exist because the behavior is new,
as when people find themselves in a new culture where the mores are not
clear to them, or because, although the situation is not new, there is no
obvious course of action, such as when an appraisal of the situation
provides people with contradictory information about the situation (e.g.,
whether or not to intervene in a domestic dispute, Nabi, Southwell, &
Hornik, 2002). In familiar situations—those marked with obvious be-
havioral responses—there is often no need to use others’ behaviors as
cues to inform decisions. After all, having experienced their own behav-
ior in the past, and having been exposed to the consequences of those
behaviors, people likely have a readily available repertoire of appropri-
ate choices, based on their own judgment or on precedence (Arrow &
Burns, 2004). It is when situations are characterized by ambiguity that
persons are particularly likely to seek information from those around
them for assistance in interpretation. Thus, though closely related, am-
biguity and novelty are not synonymous.
In order to illustrate how ambiguity as a behavioral attribute facili-
tates the influence of descriptive norms, one can turn to the literature on
college students’ alcohol consumption (Conner, Warren, Close, & Sparks,
1999; Dorsey et al., 1999; Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986). For many stu-
dents, going away to college is their first experience in a new and unfa-
miliar social environment, which means they have to learn new rituals
and modes of conduct. Entering college is a time when individuals are
faced with many new interpersonal, social, and academic demands. There
is evidence that such a time is difficult for some students and that the
stress they experience impacts both their physical and psychological health
(Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992; Baker, 2003). Going to college is also a time
when students experience a great deal of ambiguity, as they cannot rely
on many of the habitual behaviors familiar to them in prior years.
One of the primary functions descriptive norms serve is that, under
conditions of ambiguity, they help people understand the appropriate
mode of conduct (Cialdini et al., 1990; Latane & Darley, 1968). When
people are unsure about how to behave in a new or unfamiliar situation,
they look to the behaviors of others (Cialdini, 2001). Others’ engage-
ment in a behavior then provides social approval cues, and once cues of
perceived appropriate behavior are internalized, people are likely to en-
gage in similar behaviors in the future even in the absence of the social
cues (Kelman, 1961). In other words, ambiguity may at times facilitate
the conversion of descriptive norms to injunctive norms.
In the absence of ambiguity, however, observation of others engaging
in a behavior is likely to have little bearing on individuals’ own under-
standing of the appropriate mode of conduct; instead, they can rely on
15. 0 141
Social Norms
their own internal cues to determine how they should act. Further, if one
does not perceive ambiguity, one is not likely to seek out normative in-
formation via active or interactive means (Berger & Calabrese, 1975).
Thus, ambiguity is a facilitator of, but not a necessary condition for, the
influence of descriptive norms on behaviors. People can be guided by
others’ beliefs and behaviors even when the appropriate modes of be-
havior are unambiguous to themselves.
Behavioral Privacy
The extent to which a behavior is enacted in a public or private setting is
also likely to moderate normative influences (Bagozzi et al., 2000; Cialdini
et al., 1990). In the extreme case, if a behavior is enacted in a completely
private setting (for example, engaging in breast self-examination,
Jirojwong & MacLennan, 2003, or compliance with a therapeutic regi-
men, Cameron, 1996) and neither its enactment nor its consequences
are likely to be known by others (either by observation or by communi-
cation about the behavior), then injunctive norms would likely exercise
little influence on behavior, though they could affect internal attitudes
or beliefs. If a behavior is solely enacted away from the public eye, then
not only is there no opportunity to observe others’ behavior (and thus
no information about behavioral prevalence), but one’s own behaviors
would also not be observable for others’ scrutiny. Persons are also less
likely to engage in interrogation of others (Berger & Calabrese, 1975)
about largely private behaviors (e.g., condom use), further limiting the
exchange of normative information for privately enacted behaviors. In
this case, pressures to conform to others’ behaviors or their beliefs about
the appropriate course of action (i.e., injunctive norms) would be less
relevant because of the absence of accountability for one’s behaviors
and limited knowledge of prevalence or potential social sanctions.
At the other extreme, behaviors that are enacted exclusively in a pub-
lic setting are available for public scrutiny, via both observation and
interrogation. From the perspective of normative influences, this means
not only that people can observe others’ behavior, but also that their
behaviors, in their own minds, are observable to others. The implication
of being able to observe others’ behaviors, either directly or indirectly, is
that individuals have ready access to information about descriptive norms.
The implication of knowing that one’s own behaviors are available for
public scrutiny is that social sanctions can be exercised for violating
injunctive norms. Under these conditions, the pressures to conform, that
is, engage in behaviors perceived to be acceptable in others’ eyes, are
likely to be substantial. Thus, the influence of perceived norms is likely
to be greater in the presence of referent others than when alone (Bagozzi
et al., 2000) or when people perceive that others will have access to
information about their behaviors or behavioral outcomes. This sug-
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gests that, in order to understand how normative influences occur, re-
searchers need to investigate the extent to which the behaviors in ques-
tion are performed in a public or private setting.
Consider condom use (Albarracin, Johnson, Fishbein, & Muellerleile,
2001) and college students’ alcohol consumption (Perkins & Berkowitz,
1986). Because sexual behaviors are enacted in a private setting, indi-
viduals are not likely to have direct access to prevalence information,
and injunctive norms are less relevant because social sanctions are diffi-
cult to impose when violation of norms cannot be verified. Granted,
individuals may feel pressure from their partners to use a condom, and
this pressure can substantially influence behavior (Sheeran & Taylor,
1999), but such an influence is not normative; it is only interpersonal.
To the extent that individuals perceive that many others use condoms,
one can conclude that the underlying descriptive norms are based not on
direct observation of others’ behaviors, but rather on the communica-
tion of those norms to them via one of the mechanisms described above.
College students’ alcohol consumption, on the other hand, is usually
enacted in a public setting. Individual students not only have a more
direct access to others’ behaviors (through passive and active strategies,
as defined in URT, Berger & Calabrese, 1975), but their own behaviors
are also available for public scrutiny and interrogation. Thus, this be-
havior is likely to be affected by both descriptive and injunctive norms.
This discussion about the public scrutiny of one’s behavior highlights
two issues. First, it points to the differential impact of norms according
to the public nature of a behavior. Second, because researchers seldom
theorize about normative influences as a function of behavioral attributes,
it offers one explanation for the lack of consistent findings in the norms
literature. It may explain why some interventions designed to increase
condom use, a largely private behavior, find small effects for normative
influences (Sutton, McVey, & Glanz, 1999). Likewise, those that exam-
ine more public behaviors such as food consumption in restaurants
(Bagozzi et al., 2000) or waste paper recycling (Cheung et al., 1999;
Ewing, 2001) find significant normative effects.
Conclusion
In this article, we have argued that the research on normative influences
can be enhanced through (a) a clearer specification of the meaning of
norms; (b) delineating factors that moderate the influence of descriptive
norms on behaviors; (c) addressing the role of communication processes
in the transmission and formation of norms; and (d) theorizing about be-
havioral attributes that make normative influences more or less relevant.
17. 2 143
Social Norms
Following previous theorists, we classified norms as collective or per-
ceived and also as descriptive or injunctive. Whereas collective norms
are manifest at the social or institutional level, perceived norms are mani-
fest at the individual level. Both collective and perceived norms can be
either descriptive or injunctive in nature. At the level of the individual,
descriptive norms pertain to perceptions about the prevalence of the
behavior in question. Similarly, injunctive norms pertain to pressures
that individuals perceive to conform. At the level of the collective, infor-
mation about descriptive norms may be collected by observing media
depictions of trends surrounding a particular issue. Similarly, informa-
tion about injunctive norms may be collected by studying policies en-
acted by specific communities to promote or proscribe a certain behavior.
Although we have addressed a number of variables that moderate the
descriptive norm-behavior relationship, we acknowledge that there are
other possible moderators. It is possible, for example, that self-monitor-
ing—the extent to which one’s behavior is driven by concerns about
how one appears to others (Snyder, 1974)—will also influence one’s sus-
ceptibility to normative influences. Although this relationship seems logi-
cal, others have examined the relationship between norms and self-moni-
toring with mixed results (Dakin, 1998; DeBono & Omoto, 1993).
Moreover, other forms of involvement (e.g., impression-relevant, issue-
relevant) may also moderate the relationship between norms and behav-
iors (Johnson & Eagly, 1989). We have chosen to limit ourselves to expli-
cating relationships for which we have empirical evidence, and we leave
it to other researchers to add to our list.
The inclusion of communication processes in norms-based theories is
likely to enhance scholars understanding about how norms are formed,
transmitted, and modified among members of a social group. Further-
more, the expansion of theoretical models to include the role of various
moderators (outcome expectation, group identity, and ego involvement)
in the relationship between descriptive norms and behaviors is likely to
add significant explanatory power of these models.
Finally, in order to better understand how normative influences oc-
cur, it has been proffered here that researchers should focus on various
behavioral attributes that define particular behaviors. Ambiguity and
behavioral privacy have been highlighted as two attributes that are mean-
ingful from the perspective of normative influences. There are poten-
tially many other attributes (for example, level of addictiveness, level of
stigma, etc.) associated with particular behaviors, and hence the selec-
tion of these two is for illustrative purposes only. It is meant to stimulate
thinking about the intersection between the underlying theoretical assump-
tions, on the one hand, and the relevant behavioral attributes, on the other.
18. 144
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Maria Knight Lapinski (PhD, 2000, Michigan State University) is an assistant professor in the
Department of Communication at Western Michigan University. Rajiv N. Rimal (PhD, 1995, Stanford
University) is an assistant professor in the Department of Health Policy and Management at the
Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University. Comments should be directed to
mlapinsk@wmich.edu.
1
It should be noted that persons often identify with multiple reference groups, including those
defined by their engagement in or abstinence from a particular behavior. For example, students
may identify not only with their alcohol-consuming peers but also with others who do not consume
alcohol. The extent to which students’ perceptions about the prevalence of alcohol consumption
affect their own consumption, however, will likely depend on the affiliations that students consider
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