The document discusses psychological empowerment and issues related to developing a universal measure of the construct. The main points are:
1) The author argues that developing a global measure of psychological empowerment may not be feasible or appropriate, as empowerment differs across individuals, contexts, and times.
2) Psychological empowerment is presented as a multidimensional construct involving intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral components.
3) Two examples of measuring psychological empowerment in specific populations and settings are provided to illustrate how the relevant variables differ based on context.
This document discusses the role of information technology in nursing. It describes how computers are used to store, process, and transmit patient information. It also discusses how computer technologies like electronic medical records, clinical decision support systems, and bar coding help improve patient care, reduce errors, and increase efficiency. Nursing informatics is mentioned as the field that applies information science to nursing practice and healthcare.
\nNurses play an important role in quality improvement by monitoring for adverse events and complications, and providing timely care to patients experiencing issues. Quality improvement in nursing involves reviewing data to identify areas for improvement, formulating goals, and evaluating nursing performance to improve patient care and work environment. Nurses can collect quality improvement data through various tools like patient safety surveys, error reporting, and record reviews. Common nursing quality indicators include falls, pressure ulcers, pain assessment, and staffing levels.
The document discusses leadership characteristics for present and future leaders. It defines an authentic leader as someone who is consistent, positive, trustworthy, and acts in accordance with their values. Authentic leaders inspire followers and facilitate transformation by cultivating excitement and anticipated success. The change process theory involves three steps: unfreezing the current state, changing to a new state, and refreezing the new state. Six key characteristics of future leaders are being a lifelong learner, having strong emotional intelligence, advocating for patients, pursuing excellence, dedicating themselves to improvement, and basing practices on research.
The document discusses nursing informatics, which is defined as the combination of computer science, information science, and nursing science used to manage and process nursing data, information, and knowledge. It provides an overview of the historical development of nursing informatics and the roles of nurse informaticists. Key points covered include the use of electronic health records, telehealth, and computerized documentation systems in healthcare. The importance of technical, utility, and leadership competencies for nursing informatics is also highlighted.
There are different theories of organization to predict and explain the process and also behavior patterns in an organizational setting. There are three different types of organizational theory: Classical Organization Theory, Neo-Classical Organizational Theory, and Modern Organizational Theory.
The document discusses various traditional models for organizing patient care delivery systems including total patient care, functional nursing, team and modular nursing, primary nursing, and case management. It provides details on each model and notes that many newer models are modified versions of older ones. The five most well-known traditional means of organizing nursing care are described as total patient care, functional nursing, team and modular nursing, primary nursing, and case management. Differentiated nursing practice and selecting the optimal patient care model depends on factors like staff skills, nurse availability, organizational resources, and patient acuity and needs.
This document discusses organization concepts, principles, objectives, types and theories. It defines organization as a group of people working together towards common goals. The key points are:
1. Organization must have defined goals and structure duties to achieve those goals.
2. There are four connotations of organization - as an administrative function, system, operation, and result.
3. Principles of organization include unity of command, span of control, specialization, and hierarchy.
4. Organization can be formal, with defined roles and authority, or informal, arising from social relationships. Both types have advantages and disadvantages.
The patient was admitted to the hospital for bowel surgery and later minor surgery. His condition deteriorated in the hospital. He was operated on without identification and his family was asked to identify him. On the ward, he was not cleaned or dressed and staff discussed his low chances of survival in front of him. Five days later, he died. The document discusses the need for ward sisters to have a supervisory role and be present in the clinical area to oversee standards of care and provide leadership. It provides the RCN's definition of a supervisory role and discusses benefits seen at one hospital where ward sisters were given full release from providing direct care.
This document discusses the role of information technology in nursing. It describes how computers are used to store, process, and transmit patient information. It also discusses how computer technologies like electronic medical records, clinical decision support systems, and bar coding help improve patient care, reduce errors, and increase efficiency. Nursing informatics is mentioned as the field that applies information science to nursing practice and healthcare.
\nNurses play an important role in quality improvement by monitoring for adverse events and complications, and providing timely care to patients experiencing issues. Quality improvement in nursing involves reviewing data to identify areas for improvement, formulating goals, and evaluating nursing performance to improve patient care and work environment. Nurses can collect quality improvement data through various tools like patient safety surveys, error reporting, and record reviews. Common nursing quality indicators include falls, pressure ulcers, pain assessment, and staffing levels.
The document discusses leadership characteristics for present and future leaders. It defines an authentic leader as someone who is consistent, positive, trustworthy, and acts in accordance with their values. Authentic leaders inspire followers and facilitate transformation by cultivating excitement and anticipated success. The change process theory involves three steps: unfreezing the current state, changing to a new state, and refreezing the new state. Six key characteristics of future leaders are being a lifelong learner, having strong emotional intelligence, advocating for patients, pursuing excellence, dedicating themselves to improvement, and basing practices on research.
The document discusses nursing informatics, which is defined as the combination of computer science, information science, and nursing science used to manage and process nursing data, information, and knowledge. It provides an overview of the historical development of nursing informatics and the roles of nurse informaticists. Key points covered include the use of electronic health records, telehealth, and computerized documentation systems in healthcare. The importance of technical, utility, and leadership competencies for nursing informatics is also highlighted.
There are different theories of organization to predict and explain the process and also behavior patterns in an organizational setting. There are three different types of organizational theory: Classical Organization Theory, Neo-Classical Organizational Theory, and Modern Organizational Theory.
The document discusses various traditional models for organizing patient care delivery systems including total patient care, functional nursing, team and modular nursing, primary nursing, and case management. It provides details on each model and notes that many newer models are modified versions of older ones. The five most well-known traditional means of organizing nursing care are described as total patient care, functional nursing, team and modular nursing, primary nursing, and case management. Differentiated nursing practice and selecting the optimal patient care model depends on factors like staff skills, nurse availability, organizational resources, and patient acuity and needs.
This document discusses organization concepts, principles, objectives, types and theories. It defines organization as a group of people working together towards common goals. The key points are:
1. Organization must have defined goals and structure duties to achieve those goals.
2. There are four connotations of organization - as an administrative function, system, operation, and result.
3. Principles of organization include unity of command, span of control, specialization, and hierarchy.
4. Organization can be formal, with defined roles and authority, or informal, arising from social relationships. Both types have advantages and disadvantages.
The patient was admitted to the hospital for bowel surgery and later minor surgery. His condition deteriorated in the hospital. He was operated on without identification and his family was asked to identify him. On the ward, he was not cleaned or dressed and staff discussed his low chances of survival in front of him. Five days later, he died. The document discusses the need for ward sisters to have a supervisory role and be present in the clinical area to oversee standards of care and provide leadership. It provides the RCN's definition of a supervisory role and discusses benefits seen at one hospital where ward sisters were given full release from providing direct care.
This document discusses leadership in nursing. It defines leadership and outlines key qualities and roles of effective leaders such as vision, influence, and developing followers. It also discusses types of power, sources of power, and strategies for developing a powerful image. Finally, it examines different styles of leadership including autocratic, people-oriented, and permissive leadership.
Tools for Risk Assessment in Nursing - Return to Nursing ProgramIHNA Australia
Clinical Risk Assessment Tools are specific assessments that are used to measure levels of risk for certain situations, procedures and outcomes in hospitals and other healthcare settings.
In the clinical setting, nurses use a variety of clinical risk assessment tools that will help with the patients care.
This presentation will provide an outline of two key risk assessment tools:
1. Braden Scale, which is used to predict pressure sore risk.
2. Falls Risk Assessment, which is used to predict the likelihood of a fall occurring.
Risk assessment scales and screenshots of relevant forms are included in this presentation.
This presentation was compiled by Gulzar Malik, an experienced and qualified Nursing Educator at IHNA. For more information about our return to nursing programs, please call 1800 22 52 83.
Current trends in nursing administrationGayathri R
The document discusses current trends in nursing administration. It outlines several key trends:
1) Changing demographics and increasing diversity are leading to more diverse patient populations with different health needs, requiring culturally competent care.
2) Technological advances are allowing for computerized documentation, wireless devices, and telehealth to expand access to care.
3) Higher educated consumers and emphasis on evidence-based practices are shifting care approaches to focus on proven best practices and quality assurance.
The document discusses several key concepts in nursing theory, including definitions of theory, concepts, models, and propositions. It also discusses the importance of nursing theory in describing, predicting, and explaining nursing phenomena. Several nursing theorists and their theories are summarized, including Nightingale's Environmental Theory, Peplau's Interpersonal Relations Theory, Abdellah's Concept of 21 Nursing Problems, and Johnson's Behavioral Systems Model. The document provides an overview of foundational concepts and elements of nursing theory.
unit 4 organizational behaviour and human relations.pptxSulekhaDeshmukh
This document provides an overview of organization behavior and leadership styles. It discusses key concepts like organizational structure, organizational charts, elements of organizational behavior, and theories of organization behavior such as classical, neoclassical, and modern theories. It also describes different leadership styles like autocratic, democratic, and delegative leadership. Leadership theories covered include great man theories, trait theories, behavioral theories, and situational theories.
The document discusses Nola Pender's Health Promotion Model. Some key points:
- Pender developed the Health Promotion Model in the 1980s to explore factors influencing health behaviors. It focuses on health promotion rather than disease/illness.
- The model has cognitive-perceptual factors like perceived benefits/barriers, and modifying factors like interpersonal/situational influences. Commitment to a plan and competing preferences also factor in.
- The model draws from social cognitive theory and expectancy value theory. It views individuals as active in regulating their own behavior and interacting with their environment.
- Pender's research career focused on health promotion. The Health Promotion Model is widely
This document discusses critical thinking in nursing. It defines critical thinking as an organized cognitive process used to carefully examine one's own thinking and the thinking of others based on evidence rather than assumptions. Critical thinking is needed for nurses to make accurate clinical decisions, solve problems, plan individualized care, and think creatively. It involves reflection, language skills, and intuition. Critical thinking progresses from basic to complex levels and involves commitment to decisions. Key competencies include using the scientific method, problem solving, decision making, diagnostic reasoning, and clinical decision making. A critical thinking model incorporates knowledge, experience, competencies, attitudes like curiosity and integrity, and standards.
This document outlines Madeleine Leininger's Cultural Care Diversity and Universality Theory, which established transcultural nursing as a field of study. It provides biographical information about Leininger and defines key terms in transcultural nursing such as culture, health, nursing, and environment from Leininger's perspective. The theory is based on the premise that caring is universal but expressed differently in various cultures.
The nursing process is a systematic, cyclical approach to planning and providing patient care. It consists of five core phases - assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Assessment involves collecting patient data through various methods like interviews, examinations, and record reviews. Diagnosis identifies the patient's actual or potential health problems. Planning develops goals and interventions. Implementation puts the care plan into action. Evaluation assesses the patient's response to interventions and progress toward goals. The nursing process provides structure and organization to nursing care and aims to promote optimal patient outcomes.
The document discusses planning nursing care through establishing priorities, setting goals and expected outcomes, and selecting appropriate nursing interventions. It covers different types of planning including initial, ongoing, and discharge planning. Key aspects of planning discussed include establishing priorities by ranking patient problems, setting goals that are patient-centered and measurable, selecting evidence-based nursing interventions, and documenting the plan of care using systems like standardized plans or concept maps. Effective communication during shift changes and consulting other professionals is also emphasized.
Madeleine Leininger was a pioneer in the field of transcultural nursing. She developed the Culture Care Diversity and Universality Theory in the 1950s-1960s to guide nursing care that is culturally congruent. The theory focuses on understanding care from an emic (insider) perspective to reduce conflicts between professional care and cultural values. Leininger established the first transcultural nursing program and organizations like the Transcultural Nursing Society to advance research and education in this area. She developed methods like the Sunrise Enabler model to systematically assess culture and its influence on health, illness, and caring practices.
Nursing informatics is the use of computers and information technology to support nursing practice, education, administration, research, and clinical care. It involves managing nursing data, information, and knowledge through technologies like electronic health records. The goal is to improve patient health outcomes and support nurses' decision-making. While nursing informatics is still emerging, national nursing organizations recommend nurses become computer literate as healthcare increasingly relies on digital tools and data.
The document discusses shared governance in healthcare. It defines shared governance as a model where decision making power is shared between management, physicians, and nurses. This aims to empower nurses and improve the work environment. Under shared governance, councils are formed to make decisions related to areas like clinical practice, quality, education, research, and management. Barriers to implementing shared governance include resistance from managers accustomed to autocratic decision making and the significant long-term commitment required.
Management is the art of securing maximum results with a minimum of effort so as to secure maximum prosperity and happiness for both employer and employee and give the public the best possible service.
~John Mee
The document discusses patient safety culture and climate. It defines safety culture as the shared values and behaviors regarding safety in an organization. Safety climate refers to perceptions of safety at a point in time and is measurable. The document outlines tools for assessing safety culture, including the AHRQ Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture, which measures 12 dimensions of safety culture. It provides guidance on using the survey results to identify strengths and areas for improvement to enhance patient safety.
This document provides an overview of the field of nursing, including: definitions of nursing from pioneers like Florence Nightingale and Virginia Henderson; recipients of nursing care such as patients, clients, and consumers; the scope of nursing practice including health promotion, illness prevention, restoring health, and end-of-life care; settings of nursing practice; standards of clinical practice; and roles of nurses including caregiver, communicator, teacher, advocate, counselor, change agent, leader, manager, case manager, and research consumer.
Nursing informatics involves the use of computer technology to support nursing practice, education, administration, and research. It has evolved from early systems that automated paperwork to more advanced applications that integrate data to support clinical decision making. Key trends include a shift toward electronic medical records and using informatics to improve care coordination and patient outcomes. Future directions may include greater use of telehealth and mobile technologies to enhance access to care. Overall, nursing informatics aims to leverage information and knowledge to enhance the quality and efficiency of nursing work.
This document discusses cultural diversity in health care. It defines culture and explains that cultural diversity manifests both obviously through factors like religion, ethnicity, and gender, as well as less obviously through age, education, mobility, and sexual orientation. The document emphasizes that healthcare workers must be culturally competent by understanding how personal biases and values influence communication with patients from diverse backgrounds. It provides tips for acquiring cultural competence, such as being aware of different cultural health beliefs, customs, and language barriers when providing care.
The document discusses various clinical teaching methods used in nursing education. It describes methods like bedside clinics, nursing rounds, nursing assignments, nursing care conferences, morning and evening reports, clinical simulation, field visits, and process recording. The goal of clinical teaching is to help nursing students develop skills needed in clinical settings by providing hands-on learning experiences with patients under supervision. Selecting the appropriate teaching method depends on the objective and needs of the students.
The document defines empowerment as a psychological state of competence, control, and entitlement. It also discusses Kanter's structural theory of power in organizations, which identifies four factors that give people power: access to information, support, resources, and opportunities. The document then reviews several theories of empowerment proposed by researchers like Conger & Kanungo and Thomas & Velthouse. Finally, it outlines a four-step process for empowerment within organizations, including having a mission that values individuals, expecting excellence, seeking balance in relationships, and supporting reasonable risk-taking.
This document provides an overview of organizational behavior concepts including:
1. Definitions of organizational behavior focusing on understanding individual and group behavior to improve organizational effectiveness.
2. Frederick Taylor's scientific management approach which studied work efficiency and developed techniques like standardized jobs and piece-rate pay.
3. The contingency approach which recognizes there is no universal solution and behaviors depend on situational factors like culture and technology.
4. Key aspects of communication including encoding messages, decoding, potential for distortion, and the importance of feedback.
This document discusses leadership in nursing. It defines leadership and outlines key qualities and roles of effective leaders such as vision, influence, and developing followers. It also discusses types of power, sources of power, and strategies for developing a powerful image. Finally, it examines different styles of leadership including autocratic, people-oriented, and permissive leadership.
Tools for Risk Assessment in Nursing - Return to Nursing ProgramIHNA Australia
Clinical Risk Assessment Tools are specific assessments that are used to measure levels of risk for certain situations, procedures and outcomes in hospitals and other healthcare settings.
In the clinical setting, nurses use a variety of clinical risk assessment tools that will help with the patients care.
This presentation will provide an outline of two key risk assessment tools:
1. Braden Scale, which is used to predict pressure sore risk.
2. Falls Risk Assessment, which is used to predict the likelihood of a fall occurring.
Risk assessment scales and screenshots of relevant forms are included in this presentation.
This presentation was compiled by Gulzar Malik, an experienced and qualified Nursing Educator at IHNA. For more information about our return to nursing programs, please call 1800 22 52 83.
Current trends in nursing administrationGayathri R
The document discusses current trends in nursing administration. It outlines several key trends:
1) Changing demographics and increasing diversity are leading to more diverse patient populations with different health needs, requiring culturally competent care.
2) Technological advances are allowing for computerized documentation, wireless devices, and telehealth to expand access to care.
3) Higher educated consumers and emphasis on evidence-based practices are shifting care approaches to focus on proven best practices and quality assurance.
The document discusses several key concepts in nursing theory, including definitions of theory, concepts, models, and propositions. It also discusses the importance of nursing theory in describing, predicting, and explaining nursing phenomena. Several nursing theorists and their theories are summarized, including Nightingale's Environmental Theory, Peplau's Interpersonal Relations Theory, Abdellah's Concept of 21 Nursing Problems, and Johnson's Behavioral Systems Model. The document provides an overview of foundational concepts and elements of nursing theory.
unit 4 organizational behaviour and human relations.pptxSulekhaDeshmukh
This document provides an overview of organization behavior and leadership styles. It discusses key concepts like organizational structure, organizational charts, elements of organizational behavior, and theories of organization behavior such as classical, neoclassical, and modern theories. It also describes different leadership styles like autocratic, democratic, and delegative leadership. Leadership theories covered include great man theories, trait theories, behavioral theories, and situational theories.
The document discusses Nola Pender's Health Promotion Model. Some key points:
- Pender developed the Health Promotion Model in the 1980s to explore factors influencing health behaviors. It focuses on health promotion rather than disease/illness.
- The model has cognitive-perceptual factors like perceived benefits/barriers, and modifying factors like interpersonal/situational influences. Commitment to a plan and competing preferences also factor in.
- The model draws from social cognitive theory and expectancy value theory. It views individuals as active in regulating their own behavior and interacting with their environment.
- Pender's research career focused on health promotion. The Health Promotion Model is widely
This document discusses critical thinking in nursing. It defines critical thinking as an organized cognitive process used to carefully examine one's own thinking and the thinking of others based on evidence rather than assumptions. Critical thinking is needed for nurses to make accurate clinical decisions, solve problems, plan individualized care, and think creatively. It involves reflection, language skills, and intuition. Critical thinking progresses from basic to complex levels and involves commitment to decisions. Key competencies include using the scientific method, problem solving, decision making, diagnostic reasoning, and clinical decision making. A critical thinking model incorporates knowledge, experience, competencies, attitudes like curiosity and integrity, and standards.
This document outlines Madeleine Leininger's Cultural Care Diversity and Universality Theory, which established transcultural nursing as a field of study. It provides biographical information about Leininger and defines key terms in transcultural nursing such as culture, health, nursing, and environment from Leininger's perspective. The theory is based on the premise that caring is universal but expressed differently in various cultures.
The nursing process is a systematic, cyclical approach to planning and providing patient care. It consists of five core phases - assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Assessment involves collecting patient data through various methods like interviews, examinations, and record reviews. Diagnosis identifies the patient's actual or potential health problems. Planning develops goals and interventions. Implementation puts the care plan into action. Evaluation assesses the patient's response to interventions and progress toward goals. The nursing process provides structure and organization to nursing care and aims to promote optimal patient outcomes.
The document discusses planning nursing care through establishing priorities, setting goals and expected outcomes, and selecting appropriate nursing interventions. It covers different types of planning including initial, ongoing, and discharge planning. Key aspects of planning discussed include establishing priorities by ranking patient problems, setting goals that are patient-centered and measurable, selecting evidence-based nursing interventions, and documenting the plan of care using systems like standardized plans or concept maps. Effective communication during shift changes and consulting other professionals is also emphasized.
Madeleine Leininger was a pioneer in the field of transcultural nursing. She developed the Culture Care Diversity and Universality Theory in the 1950s-1960s to guide nursing care that is culturally congruent. The theory focuses on understanding care from an emic (insider) perspective to reduce conflicts between professional care and cultural values. Leininger established the first transcultural nursing program and organizations like the Transcultural Nursing Society to advance research and education in this area. She developed methods like the Sunrise Enabler model to systematically assess culture and its influence on health, illness, and caring practices.
Nursing informatics is the use of computers and information technology to support nursing practice, education, administration, research, and clinical care. It involves managing nursing data, information, and knowledge through technologies like electronic health records. The goal is to improve patient health outcomes and support nurses' decision-making. While nursing informatics is still emerging, national nursing organizations recommend nurses become computer literate as healthcare increasingly relies on digital tools and data.
The document discusses shared governance in healthcare. It defines shared governance as a model where decision making power is shared between management, physicians, and nurses. This aims to empower nurses and improve the work environment. Under shared governance, councils are formed to make decisions related to areas like clinical practice, quality, education, research, and management. Barriers to implementing shared governance include resistance from managers accustomed to autocratic decision making and the significant long-term commitment required.
Management is the art of securing maximum results with a minimum of effort so as to secure maximum prosperity and happiness for both employer and employee and give the public the best possible service.
~John Mee
The document discusses patient safety culture and climate. It defines safety culture as the shared values and behaviors regarding safety in an organization. Safety climate refers to perceptions of safety at a point in time and is measurable. The document outlines tools for assessing safety culture, including the AHRQ Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture, which measures 12 dimensions of safety culture. It provides guidance on using the survey results to identify strengths and areas for improvement to enhance patient safety.
This document provides an overview of the field of nursing, including: definitions of nursing from pioneers like Florence Nightingale and Virginia Henderson; recipients of nursing care such as patients, clients, and consumers; the scope of nursing practice including health promotion, illness prevention, restoring health, and end-of-life care; settings of nursing practice; standards of clinical practice; and roles of nurses including caregiver, communicator, teacher, advocate, counselor, change agent, leader, manager, case manager, and research consumer.
Nursing informatics involves the use of computer technology to support nursing practice, education, administration, and research. It has evolved from early systems that automated paperwork to more advanced applications that integrate data to support clinical decision making. Key trends include a shift toward electronic medical records and using informatics to improve care coordination and patient outcomes. Future directions may include greater use of telehealth and mobile technologies to enhance access to care. Overall, nursing informatics aims to leverage information and knowledge to enhance the quality and efficiency of nursing work.
This document discusses cultural diversity in health care. It defines culture and explains that cultural diversity manifests both obviously through factors like religion, ethnicity, and gender, as well as less obviously through age, education, mobility, and sexual orientation. The document emphasizes that healthcare workers must be culturally competent by understanding how personal biases and values influence communication with patients from diverse backgrounds. It provides tips for acquiring cultural competence, such as being aware of different cultural health beliefs, customs, and language barriers when providing care.
The document discusses various clinical teaching methods used in nursing education. It describes methods like bedside clinics, nursing rounds, nursing assignments, nursing care conferences, morning and evening reports, clinical simulation, field visits, and process recording. The goal of clinical teaching is to help nursing students develop skills needed in clinical settings by providing hands-on learning experiences with patients under supervision. Selecting the appropriate teaching method depends on the objective and needs of the students.
The document defines empowerment as a psychological state of competence, control, and entitlement. It also discusses Kanter's structural theory of power in organizations, which identifies four factors that give people power: access to information, support, resources, and opportunities. The document then reviews several theories of empowerment proposed by researchers like Conger & Kanungo and Thomas & Velthouse. Finally, it outlines a four-step process for empowerment within organizations, including having a mission that values individuals, expecting excellence, seeking balance in relationships, and supporting reasonable risk-taking.
This document provides an overview of organizational behavior concepts including:
1. Definitions of organizational behavior focusing on understanding individual and group behavior to improve organizational effectiveness.
2. Frederick Taylor's scientific management approach which studied work efficiency and developed techniques like standardized jobs and piece-rate pay.
3. The contingency approach which recognizes there is no universal solution and behaviors depend on situational factors like culture and technology.
4. Key aspects of communication including encoding messages, decoding, potential for distortion, and the importance of feedback.
Power and politics and Work groups and teamsAnas Ahmed
This document discusses power and politics in organizations and factors that influence work team effectiveness. Regarding power and politics, it defines different types of power, how power can be used ethically, and the relationship between power and organizational politics. It also differentiates between work groups and teams and identifies five key factors that influence team effectiveness: team orientation, team leadership, mutual performance monitoring, backup behavior, and adaptability. The conclusion reflects on examples from the author's experience to illustrate how these concepts impacted outcomes in their organization.
This document summarizes a paper presented at the Young African Scholars Program in Cambridge, UK on community engagement. It discusses concepts from literature on community participation, empowerment, and capacity building. The paper defines community engagement as working collaboratively with groups of people to address issues affecting their well-being. It notes that engaging entire communities through participation, empowerment, and capacity building leads to more effective outcomes than individualized approaches. The document also introduces the SEED-SCALE approach and how its underlying principles relate to the necessary conditions for successful community engagement.
The document summarizes a study on the process of personal empowerment. It discusses 5 main themes that emerged from interviews with 41 individuals who experienced extensive powerlessness:
1) Feelings of powerlessness stemmed from social isolation, unresponsive systems/services, poverty, and abuse.
2) The impetus for empowerment was often a "provoking" event that motivated change.
3) Social support from people, such as mentors and peers, provided encouragement in the empowerment process.
4) Access to valued resources like information, education, and employment opportunities facilitated increased control over lives.
5) Participation in community life through collective organizations helped develop political consciousness and apply new skills.
Running head MENTAL HEALTH AND WELFARE1MENTAL HEALTH AND WEL.docxtodd581
Running head: MENTAL HEALTH AND WELFARE 1
MENTAL HEALTH AND WELFARE 3
Mental health and welfare
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Introduction
The societal issue selected for the paper above would be drug abuse. Drug abuse has been a social issue affecting the masses over time. Young people tend to focus more on using these harmful drugs as the various surveys shows. Drug abuse is simply the habit of taking in substances that are harmful to the normal functioning of the body. The most commonly abused drugs would be alcohol and marijuana (Jones, Paulozzi, & Mack, 2014). The personal values associated with this societal issue would be self-awareness, self-respect and sobriety. Self-awareness is the state of acknowledging of oneself and taking care of oneself. Self-respect is acting with honor for oneself while sobriety is the state of staying sober for one’s best interest.How upholding these values might contribute to creating a society that supports the mental health and welfare of its members, remembering the broad conceptualization of mental health and human rights
Upholding personal values like self-respect, self-awareness and sobriety plays an important role in building the society (Wronka, 2008). The society is bounded by love and thus, these values create an environment that promotes togetherness as they also create awareness for the dangers of using harmful drugs. Self-awareness informs the society of the various risks that surround people if they don’t take care of themselves. Self-respect supplements self-awareness thereby promoting self-esteem within the society. How to work with individuals from different professions to address the issue
Participating in activities whose aim is to promote self-esteem among people because most of the ones that do drugs are mostly affected by psychological issues. Mobilizing the group members to inform the masses of the various risk factors that are more likely to bring about the issue; environmental, biological and physical factors present.
References
Jones, C. M., Paulozzi, L. J., & Mack, K. A. (2014). Alcohol involvement in opioid pain reliever and benzodiazepine drug abuse-related emergency department visits and drug-related deaths-United States, 2010. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 63(40), 881-885.
Wronka, J. (2008). Preface. Human rights and social justice: Social action and service for the helping and health professions (p. xix). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Running head: THE ROLE OF CHANGE IN AN ORGANIZATION 1
THE ROLE OF CHANGE IN AN ORGANIZATION
The Role of Change in an Organization
Arroxxiccia Thomas
Walden University
The Role of Change in an Organization
Organizational change refers to the steering of an organization towards away from its current state and towards a desirable future state to enhance its effectiveness and efficiency. During the process of initiating change, managers should .
Running head MENTAL HEALTH AND WELFARE1MENTAL HEALTH AND WEL.docxglendar3
Running head: MENTAL HEALTH AND WELFARE 1
MENTAL HEALTH AND WELFARE 3
Mental health and welfare
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Introduction
The societal issue selected for the paper above would be drug abuse. Drug abuse has been a social issue affecting the masses over time. Young people tend to focus more on using these harmful drugs as the various surveys shows. Drug abuse is simply the habit of taking in substances that are harmful to the normal functioning of the body. The most commonly abused drugs would be alcohol and marijuana (Jones, Paulozzi, & Mack, 2014). The personal values associated with this societal issue would be self-awareness, self-respect and sobriety. Self-awareness is the state of acknowledging of oneself and taking care of oneself. Self-respect is acting with honor for oneself while sobriety is the state of staying sober for one’s best interest.How upholding these values might contribute to creating a society that supports the mental health and welfare of its members, remembering the broad conceptualization of mental health and human rights
Upholding personal values like self-respect, self-awareness and sobriety plays an important role in building the society (Wronka, 2008). The society is bounded by love and thus, these values create an environment that promotes togetherness as they also create awareness for the dangers of using harmful drugs. Self-awareness informs the society of the various risks that surround people if they don’t take care of themselves. Self-respect supplements self-awareness thereby promoting self-esteem within the society. How to work with individuals from different professions to address the issue
Participating in activities whose aim is to promote self-esteem among people because most of the ones that do drugs are mostly affected by psychological issues. Mobilizing the group members to inform the masses of the various risk factors that are more likely to bring about the issue; environmental, biological and physical factors present.
References
Jones, C. M., Paulozzi, L. J., & Mack, K. A. (2014). Alcohol involvement in opioid pain reliever and benzodiazepine drug abuse-related emergency department visits and drug-related deaths-United States, 2010. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 63(40), 881-885.
Wronka, J. (2008). Preface. Human rights and social justice: Social action and service for the helping and health professions (p. xix). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Running head: THE ROLE OF CHANGE IN AN ORGANIZATION 1
THE ROLE OF CHANGE IN AN ORGANIZATION
The Role of Change in an Organization
Arroxxiccia Thomas
Walden University
The Role of Change in an Organization
Organizational change refers to the steering of an organization towards away from its current state and towards a desirable future state to enhance its effectiveness and efficiency. During the process of initiating change, managers should .
This document discusses organizational behavior at the group level. It begins by defining groups and teams, and explaining that executive teams are like baseball teams where members work individually and collaboratively in different configurations. It then covers group dynamics theory, including roles that group members take on like task facilitation and relationship building. The document also discusses group process models, including Tuckman's stages of forming, storming, norming, and performing, and how effective management can employ strategies aligned with the developmental stages.
Awareness, Allies, and Action: The Three Pillars of Resilience as a Culturall...Shelly Harrell
Positive psychology interventions aim to increase well-being, happiness, and optimal functioning by utilizing individual strengths. These interventions target emotions, engagement, and finding meaning. Research shows they help reduce distress and facilitate overcoming challenges. Conceptualizing resilience as a dynamic process of positive adaptation during adversity is important. Three processes are proposed to nurture resilience: contemplative processes like meditation to enhance awareness; communal processes like social support to foster connectedness; and empowerment processes to facilitate transformative action and access to resources. Culturally-adapted interventions should focus on activating these core resilience processes through culturally congruent content.
Discussion 1 Maintaining Emotional BalanceIn this week’s DiscusVinaOconner450
Discussion 1: Maintaining Emotional Balance
In this week’s Discussion, we are going to take another step and examine how leaders can sustain and improve emotional balance within an organizational culture. For this Discussion, first reflect back on what you learned in reflection tools (e.g., emotional intelligence, SWOT, and personal leadership plans).
How To Conduct A Personal SWOT Analysis (forbes.com)
How Emotionally Intelligent Are You? (verywellmind.com)
Then, discuss ways organizational leaders can use reflection tools (e.g., emotional intelligence surveys, SWOT analyses, or personal leadership plans) to improve and/or sustain emotional balance within an organizational culture.
To prepare for thisDiscussion Assignment, pay particular attention to the following Learning Resources:
The four C’s of emotions – “see attachments.”
Emotional Incompetence or Gender-Based Stereotyping – “see attachments.”
Emotions At Work: Needless Or Necessary? (forbes.com)
**Discussion Assignment – Post a cohesive Respondto the following listed below:
· Pick one reflection tool (e.g. emotional intelligence, SWOT, personal development plans) and assess how organizational leaders can use it to promote and/or sustain emotional balance within an organizational culture.
· What other reflection tools have you used in your own experiences that promote and/or sustain emotional balance within an organizational culture?
· Be sure to support your ideas by connecting them to the Learning Resources, as well as other credible resources you have read; or what you have observed and experienced.
· 3 or 4 paragraphs
· APA citing
· No plagiarism
293
Emotional Incompetence or
Gender-Based Stereotyping?
Dan S. Chiaburu
Barbara Gray
The Pennsylvania State University
The authors used a critical incident interview provided by a female manager and her
statements (e.g., “I’m very ineffective emotionally”) as a starting point of an alternative
analysis of the term emotional competence. Using reflexive inquiry and deconstruction,
the authors argue that terms such as emotional competence, rather than being a
reflection of something perceivable as a quality of the subject, are socially produced
using language. However, such language is not value free and neutral but—based on
the analysis—gendered and subject to power differentials. The authors elaborate on
how such terms tend to be regarded as naturalized and reified in more conventional
studies and on the implications for organizational members and organizational change.
Keywords: emotion; gender; deconstruction; emotional competence; emotional
intelligence
The linguistic and ideational construction of management competencies is so deeply
entrenched in our vocabularies of organization and management that its meaning is
rarely examined. Similarly, the importance of emotional competence has more recently
been examined and is gaining similar standing as a management truism (cf. Goleman,
Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002) in an attempt to ...
This document provides an overview of leadership approaches and strategies for addressing youth violence. It discusses that youth violence prevention requires a flexible approach that addresses behavioral, environmental, and social factors. Public sector leaders must function as change agents in developing and implementing collaborative strategies. The document reviews theories of charismatic, transformational, and servant leadership and their focus on empowering followers, envisioning change, and prioritizing followers' needs and interests to motivate them. Trust and open communication between leaders and stakeholders are essential for effective collaboration on complex issues like youth violence.
This document provides an overview of social work as a profession. It discusses four key concepts of social work: social change, problem solving, person-in-the-environment, and empowerment. Social work aims to promote social justice, address barriers faced by disadvantaged groups, and empower clients. It involves assessing individuals' situations holistically and addressing problems at various levels from individual to community. Social work is guided by values of respect, self-determination, and confidentiality, while also prioritizing prevention of harm.
This document discusses power and politics in organizations. It defines power as the ability to influence others and get them to do something they otherwise would not. The sources of power include physical power, resource power from controlling valued resources, position power from one's formal role, expert power from special expertise, personal power or charisma, and negative power to disrupt. Unseen methods of influencing others are through manipulating the physical and social environment, magnetism from personal qualities, and organizational politics involving activities to develop power for preferred outcomes. Organizations tend to be more political around scarce resources, ambiguous decisions and goals, complex technology, external changes, and threats to the status quo.
Action research is an iterative process for organizational improvement that involves planning, action, and evaluation. It aims to address problems through a collaborative process between consultants and the client system. Key aspects include gathering data, providing feedback, jointly planning actions, implementing changes, and assessing results to continually refine interventions and drive further improvement. The goal is to equip organizations with tools for ongoing self-analysis and renewal.
The document summarizes key concepts and themes from three course readings. The first reading discusses PIE (Person-In-Environment), a framework developed for social work to consider environmental and social factors impacting clients beyond just medical diagnoses. The second focuses on the strengths perspective in social work and its development in response to pathology models. It emphasizes empowerment and resilience. The third explores empowerment when working with women of color, defining it as increasing personal and political power to improve situations. It discusses techniques like identifying strengths and power analysis.
Sensitivity Training And Emotional IntelligenceSeema Ansari
Sensitivity training aims to increase empathy and understanding between individuals. It works to "unfreeze" old values and behaviors and help develop new ones through group activities and feedback. The goal is to make people more aware of themselves and consider different perspectives. Developing emotional intelligence skills is important, such as perceiving one's own emotions and the emotions of others, and managing interactions. Organizations can benefit from sensitivity training through improved relationships, communication, and willingness to achieve collaborative goals. While models of emotional intelligence continue to be refined, core abilities include emotional perception, use, understanding, and management.
Group dynamics refers to the attitudinal and behavioral characteristics within and between social groups. It concerns how groups form and function, as well as the psychological processes that occur within groups. Key factors that affect group dynamics include communication processes, interaction patterns, interpersonal attraction and cohesion, social integration and influence through norms and roles, the exercise of power and control, and the development of group culture. Understanding group dynamics can provide insights into decision-making, the spread of ideas, and forms of social prejudice.
^ Acadumy of Management Journal2001. Vol. 44. No. 2. 219-237.docxhanneloremccaffery
^ Acadumy of Management Journal
2001. Vol. 44. No. 2. 219-237.
A SOCIAL CAPITAL THEORY OF CAREER SUCCESS
SCOTT E. SEIBERT
MARIA L. KRAIMER
•̂ ' ' ' Cleveland State University
ROBERT C. LIDEN
University of Illinois at Chicago
A model integrating competing theories of social capital with research on career
success was developed and tested in a sample of 448 employees with various occupa-
tions and organizations. Social capital was conceptualized in terms of network struc-
ture and social resources. Results of structural equation modeling showed that net-
work structure was related to social resources and that the effects of social resources
on career success were hilly mediated by three network benelits: access to information,
access to resources, and career sponsorship.
Organizational researchers have begun to de-
velop increasingly comprehensive models of career
success using demographic, human capital, work-
family, motivational, organizational, and industry
variables (e.g., Dreher & Ash, 1990; Judge & Bretz,
1994: Judge, Cable. Boudreau, & Bretz. 1995; Kirch-
meyer, 1998). Although this work has provided
considerable evidence regarding the determinants
of career outcomes, the roles of informal interper-
sonal behaviors have not been fully explored (Judge
& Bretz, 1994; Pfeffer, 1989). Popular advice for
getting ahead in one's career rarely fails to mention
the importance of networking for the achievement
of career goals (e.g., Bolles, 1992; Kanter, 1977).
Indeed, Luthans, Hodgetts, and Rosenkrantz (1988)
found that the most successful managers in their
study spent 70 percent more time engaged in net-
working activities and 10 percent more time en-
gaged in routine communication activities than
their less successful counterparts. Recent advances
in social capital theory (Coleman, 1990) have begun
to provide a finer-grained analysis of the ways in-
dividuals' social networks affect their careers in
organizations (Burt, 1992, 1997; Ibarra, 1995;
Podolny & Baron, 1997; Sparrowe & Popielarz,
1995). This theoretical perspective has the poten-
Data were collected and the manuscript was submitted
and processed while Scott E. Seibert was in the Manage-
ment Department at the University of Notre Dame and
Maria L. Kraimer was a graduate student at the Univer-
sity of Illinois at Chicago. Support for this project was
provided by the Management Department at the Univer-
sity of Notre Dame and the Alumni Office of the Univer-
sity of Notre Dame. The current investigation is part of a
larger study of career success.
tial to considerably enhance scholars' knowledge of
the role of social processes in career success.
The first purpose of the current study was to
integrate the current conceptualizations of social
capital as they pertain to career success. Tbree dif-
ferent theoretical approaches—weak tie theory
(Granovetter, 1973), structural hole theory (Burt,
1992), and social resource theory (Lin, 1990)—
focus on different network properties as r.
This study examined managers and employees at a single organization to understand how gender impacts team outcomes. A survey of 100 managers found that female managers communicated more with employees but were also more influenced by groupthink. A separate survey of 200 employees found that female employees contributed more to team outcomes than male employees. The study aimed to provide insights for researchers, managers, and HR professionals on organizational behavior and team dynamics.
How to Implement a Real Estate CRM SoftwareSalesTown
To implement a CRM for real estate, set clear goals, choose a CRM with key real estate features, and customize it to your needs. Migrate your data, train your team, and use automation to save time. Monitor performance, ensure data security, and use the CRM to enhance marketing. Regularly check its effectiveness to improve your business.
❼❷⓿❺❻❷❽❷❼❽ Dpboss Matka Result Satta Matka Guessing Satta Fix jodi Kalyan Final ank Satta Matka Dpbos Final ank Satta Matta Matka 143 Kalyan Matka Guessing Final Matka Final ank Today Matka 420 Satta Batta Satta 143 Kalyan Chart Main Bazar Chart vip Matka Guessing Dpboss 143 Guessing Kalyan night
How MJ Global Leads the Packaging Industry.pdfMJ Global
MJ Global's success in staying ahead of the curve in the packaging industry is a testament to its dedication to innovation, sustainability, and customer-centricity. By embracing technological advancements, leading in eco-friendly solutions, collaborating with industry leaders, and adapting to evolving consumer preferences, MJ Global continues to set new standards in the packaging sector.
IMPACT Silver is a pure silver zinc producer with over $260 million in revenue since 2008 and a large 100% owned 210km Mexico land package - 2024 catalysts includes new 14% grade zinc Plomosas mine and 20,000m of fully funded exploration drilling.
Brian Fitzsimmons on the Business Strategy and Content Flywheel of Barstool S...Neil Horowitz
On episode 272 of the Digital and Social Media Sports Podcast, Neil chatted with Brian Fitzsimmons, Director of Licensing and Business Development for Barstool Sports.
What follows is a collection of snippets from the podcast. To hear the full interview and more, check out the podcast on all podcast platforms and at www.dsmsports.net
At Techbox Square, in Singapore, we're not just creative web designers and developers, we're the driving force behind your brand identity. Contact us today.
Industrial Tech SW: Category Renewal and CreationChristian Dahlen
Every industrial revolution has created a new set of categories and a new set of players.
Multiple new technologies have emerged, but Samsara and C3.ai are only two companies which have gone public so far.
Manufacturing startups constitute the largest pipeline share of unicorns and IPO candidates in the SF Bay Area, and software startups dominate in Germany.
B2B payments are rapidly changing. Find out the 5 key questions you need to be asking yourself to be sure you are mastering B2B payments today. Learn more at www.BlueSnap.com.
How are Lilac French Bulldogs Beauty Charming the World and Capturing Hearts....Lacey Max
“After being the most listed dog breed in the United States for 31
years in a row, the Labrador Retriever has dropped to second place
in the American Kennel Club's annual survey of the country's most
popular canines. The French Bulldog is the new top dog in the
United States as of 2022. The stylish puppy has ascended the
rankings in rapid time despite having health concerns and limited
color choices.”
HOW TO START UP A COMPANY A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE.pdf46adnanshahzad
How to Start Up a Company: A Step-by-Step Guide Starting a company is an exciting adventure that combines creativity, strategy, and hard work. It can seem overwhelming at first, but with the right guidance, anyone can transform a great idea into a successful business. Let's dive into how to start up a company, from the initial spark of an idea to securing funding and launching your startup.
Introduction
Have you ever dreamed of turning your innovative idea into a thriving business? Starting a company involves numerous steps and decisions, but don't worry—we're here to help. Whether you're exploring how to start a startup company or wondering how to start up a small business, this guide will walk you through the process, step by step.
Event Report - SAP Sapphire 2024 Orlando - lots of innovation and old challengesHolger Mueller
Holger Mueller of Constellation Research shares his key takeaways from SAP's Sapphire confernece, held in Orlando, June 3rd till 5th 2024, in the Orange Convention Center.
Easily Verify Compliance and Security with Binance KYCAny kyc Account
Use our simple KYC verification guide to make sure your Binance account is safe and compliant. Discover the fundamentals, appreciate the significance of KYC, and trade on one of the biggest cryptocurrency exchanges with confidence.
The APCO Geopolitical Radar - Q3 2024 The Global Operating Environment for Bu...APCO
The Radar reflects input from APCO’s teams located around the world. It distils a host of interconnected events and trends into insights to inform operational and strategic decisions. Issues covered in this edition include:
Discover timeless style with the 2022 Vintage Roman Numerals Men's Ring. Crafted from premium stainless steel, this 6mm wide ring embodies elegance and durability. Perfect as a gift, it seamlessly blends classic Roman numeral detailing with modern sophistication, making it an ideal accessory for any occasion.
https://rb.gy/usj1a2
Part 2 Deep Dive: Navigating the 2024 Slowdownjeffkluth1
Introduction
The global retail industry has weathered numerous storms, with the financial crisis of 2008 serving as a poignant reminder of the sector's resilience and adaptability. However, as we navigate the complex landscape of 2024, retailers face a unique set of challenges that demand innovative strategies and a fundamental shift in mindset. This white paper contrasts the impact of the 2008 recession on the retail sector with the current headwinds retailers are grappling with, while offering a comprehensive roadmap for success in this new paradigm.
1. American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 23, No. 5, 1995
Psychological Empowerment: Issues and Illustrations 1
Marc A. Zimmerman 2
Universityof Michigan
Discussed several issues related to psychological empowerment. The thesis of
this paper is that the development of a universal and global measure of
psychological empowerment may not be a feasible or appropriate goal. I begin
by distinguishing between empowerment processes and outcomes. Underlying
assumptions are discussed including the notion that empowerment differs
across people, contexts, and times. A nomological network that includes
intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral components is also presented. Two
examples of psychological empowerment for voluntary service organization
members and members of a mutual help organization are described to help
illustrate differences in the specific variables that may be used to measure
psychological empowerment in different populations and settings.
KEY WORDS: empowerment theory; measurement; psychological empowerment.
Empowerment is a process by which people, organizations, and
communities gain mastery over issues of concern to them (Rappaport,
1987). It is a multilevel construct in which each level of analysis is
interdependent with the others. Psychological empowerment (PE) refers to
empowerment at the individual level of analysis (Zimmerman, 1990a). The
construct integrates perceptions of personal control, a proactive approach
to life, and a critical understanding of the sociopolitical environment.
Zimmerman (in press) suggests that organizational empowerment includes
11 thank Deborah A. Salem for her thoughtful comments on earlier drafts of this paper and
for her persistence in pushing me to strengthen the ideas presented. I also thank Douglas
Perkins, Julian Rappaport, David Altman, and James G. Kelly for their very helpful
comments. They helped me articulate my ideas more carefully and clearly.
2All correspondence should be sent to Marc A. Zimmerman, Department of Health Behavior
and Health Education, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109-2029.
581
0091-0627/95/1000.0581507.50/0 9 1995 Plenum Publishing Corporation
2. 582 Psychological Empowerment
processes and structures that enhance members' skills and provide them
with the mutual support necessary to effect community level change (i.e.,
empowering organization). He also points out that it refers to improved
organizational effectiveness by effectively competing for resources,
networking with other organizations, or expanding its influence (i.e.,
empowered organization). At the community level of analysis,
empowerment refers to individuals working together in an organized
fashion to improve their collective lives and linkages among community
organizations and agencies that help maintain that quality of life
(Zimmerman, in press).
The focus of this paper is on psychological empowerment (PE).3 The
conceptual development of PE further develops empowerment theory by
explicitly defining a fundamental element necessary for understanding the
other levels of analysis. PE may be distinguished from organizational or
community empowerment, but it also influences and is influenced by em-
powerment at other levels of analysis (Zimmerman, in press). The
conceptualization of PE that is presented is rooted firmly in a social action
framework that includes community change, capacity building, and collec-
tivity (Keiffer, 1984; Rappaport, 1981; Zimmerman, in press). Social
change, however, may take many forms and may not necessarily result in
a power struggle.
An emphasis on empowerment at the individual level of analysis
should not be taken to mean that sociopolitical or contextual factors are
overlooked. PE is not simply self-perceptions of competence but includes
active engagement in one's community and an understanding of one's so-
ciopolitical environment. PE also includes learning about controlling agents
and acting to influence those agents (Zimmerman, Israel, Schulz, & Checkoway,
1992). Thus, PE should not be interpreted as individualism, the promotion
of one ideology versus another, or merely an intrapsychic phenomenon.
Rather, PE includes beliefs that goals can be achieved, awareness about
resources and factors that hinder or enhance one's efforts to achieve those
goals, and efforts to fulfill the goals.
The purpose of this paper is to provide an initial attempt at describing
the nomological network (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955) of empowerment at
the individual level of analysis -- psychological empowerment. A nomologi-
cal network is a theoretical framework that specifies relationships among
3The term psychological empowerment is used to refer to empowerment at the individual level
of analysis because it is intended to reflect a broader interpretation of the construct than
simply intrapersonal characteristics (the term psychology refers to the study of both mind
and behavior). Conversely, the term individual ernpowerrnent may be interpreted more
narrowly as a construct that includes only what goes on in the mind. See Zimmerman (1990a)
for an elaboration of this issue.
3. Zimmerman 583
variables in such a way as to help both differentiate and define the con-
struct of concern, and that enables the formulation of a measurement
model. The measurement of psychological empowerment may be especially
difficult because (a) PE manifests itself in different perceptions, skills, and
behaviors across people; (b) different beliefs, competencies, and actions
may be required to master various settings; and (c) PE may fluctuate over
time. Each of these qualities suggests that PE may be an open-ended con-
struct that is not easily reduced to a universal set of operational rules and
definitions. Thus, the development of context and population-specific meas-
ures of PE is challenging, but relevant measures can help us further develop
empowerment theory, study how it changes over time, learn more about
how settings may be empowering or disempowering, and evaluate interven-
tions designed to enhance individuals' control over their lives. Nevertheless,
we may have to accept the fact that the measures we develop for one study
may not be appropriate for another.
EMPOWERING PROCESSES VERSUS
EMPOWERED OUTCOMES
It is useful to distinguish between empowering processes and empow-
ered outcomes because the former refers to how people, organizations, and
communities become empowered, whereas the latter refers to the conse-
quences of those processes.
EmpoweringProcesses
Empowering processes are those where people create or are given
opportunities to control their own destiny and influence the decisions that
affect their lives. They are a series of experiences in which individuals learn
to see a closer correspondence between their goals and a sense of how to
achieve them, gain greater access to and control over resources, and where
people, organizations, and communities gain mastery over their lives
(Cornell Empowerment Group, 1989; Mechanic, 1991; Zimmerman,
1990a). Efforts to gain control, access to resources, and a critical
understanding of one's sociopolitical context are fundamental aspects of
empowering processes. Maton and Salem (1995) describe three examples
of empowering settings that provide opportunities for shared leadership,
development of a group identity, skill development and participation in
important organizational tasks.
4. 584 Psychological Empowerment
When professionals are working to enhance empowered outcomes
of others, an empowering process means (a) involving community mem-
bers in the development, implementation, and evaluation of
interventions; (b) developing an "eco-identity (Kelly, 1971, p. 899)
whereby professionals become members of the community to some ex-
tent; (c) working with community members as coequal partners; and (d)
creating opportunities for community members to develop skills so that
they do not have to be dependent on professionals. Empowering proc-
esses might include opportunities to develop and practice skills, to learn
about resource development and management, to work with others on
a common goal, to expand one's social support network, and to develop
leadership skills. It is essential to point out, however, that empowering
processes may occur at all levels of analysis. Empowering individuals
might include mentors who help adolescents learn about adult roles.
Empowering organizations might include mutual help groups that help
members learn organizational and leadership skills. Empowering com-
munities might include organizational coalitions that enable citizens to
have a voice in local policy decisions.
Others have written about participatory processes that are essentially
empowering. Kelly (1988), for example, described several steps to help
community members assume an active role in programs affecting their lives
including involvement in defining the problem, developing a relevant pro-
gram, implementing the program, and evaluating its process and outcomes.
He termed this a participative ownership process.
Participatory action research (PAR) is another approach that
exemplifies empowering processes (Brown, 1993; Chesler, 1991; Elden &
Chisolm, 1993; Hall, 1992; Rappaport, 1990; Whyte, 1991; Yeich & Levine,
1992). In this approach, community participants become coequals in
program development and evaluation. PAR provides an opportunity for
community members tO work together to solve problems, develop skills,
become critically aware of their sociopolitical environment, and create
mutual support systems. One goal of PAR is to help communities develop
the knowledge they need to improve their quality of life and influence
relevant policy. In some instances, a consciousness-raising experience may
need to take place before participants can begin to be empowered. PAR
is also a vehicle to create social change while helping to build competent
communities (Cottrell, 1983; Iscoe, 1974) and, thereby, enhance community
empowerment. Participatory action research is not only an example of an
empowering process, it also provides a mechanism for developing outcome
measures that are relevant and appropriate for a given context and
population.
5. Zimmerman 585
Empowering processes may result in both empowered outcomes and
other desired health outcomes. Zimmerman, Ramirez, Suarez, de la Rosa,
and Castro (1994), for example, found that an empowering intervention de-
signed to provide Mexican homosexual men with ownership and control over
the development, implementation, and evaluation of an AIDS prevention
program resulted in safer sexual practices among participants, as compared
to individuals who did not participate in the program. They did not, however,
assess empowered outcomes. This project illustrates how empowered out-
comes may not be the only consequence of empowering interventions.
EmpoweredOutcomes
Empowered outcomes refer to specific measurement operations
(whether they are quantitative or qualitative in nature) that may be used
to study the effects of interventions designed to empower participants, in-
vestigate empowering processes and mechanisms, and generate a body of
empirical literature that will help develop empowerment theory. Empow-
ered outcomes are one consequence of empowering processes.
The primary issue for empowered outcomes is the development of lo-
cally relevant measures. How do we know an empowered outcome when
we see it? First, a conceptual definition of empowerment that is consistent
with the empirical literature helps delineate the boundaries of the construct.
The conceptualizations differ across levels of analysis, but the themes of
mastery and control, resource mobilization, and sociopolitical context and
participation would be expected to be part of the definition in some form
at each level, because research on empowerment has consistently found
these variables to be central to the construct. The context and population-
specific characteristic of PE means that a nomological network must be
broad enough to encompass diversity, yet specific enough to inform assess-
ment of the construct for a particular population and setting. The remainder
of this paper elaborates upon a conceptual framework for empowered out-
comes at the individual level of analysis (i.e., psychological empowerment).
UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS
Three underlying assumptions of PE are presented to help set the
framework for a more specific discussion of the nomological network of
PE. The first assumption is that PE takes different forms for different
people (Rappaport, 1984; Zimmerman, 1990a). Populations may be
differentiated in various ways (e.g., age, socioeconomic status, sex) and the
6. 586 Psychological Empowerment
distinguishing characteristics one chooses may influence the meaning of PE
for one's research. We should not, for example, expect a pregnant teenager
to require the same perceptions, skills, or actions for increasing her sense
of empowerment as an unemployed factory worker. The pregnant teen may
need to develop the confidence, support, and behavioral strategies to be a
good parent, while also completing school, whereas the unemployed worker
may need to develop the motivation for retraining, acquire new skills, and
find opportunities to practice those skills.
Second, empowerment takes different forms in different contexts. An
organization with a hierarchical structure may require different skills,
knowledge, and actions for workers to develop control and influence in
that setting than the skills, knowledge or action required in an organization
that has a more participatory structure. Empowered individuals in an
authoritarian organization may need to use collective action or learn how
to circumvent official channels of communication, while competency in
group problem-solving and decision-making skills may be more relevant for
individuals in a more participatory organization. Conversely, a vertical
structure in a mutual help organization may more likely be developed by
the membership through a participatory process, as a way to provide lead-
ership opportunities for individuals who are typically left out of such roles
in other aspects of their lives. The leadership in this type of organization
may be more concerned with performing administrative chores than with
maintaining a chain of command and accountability.
This contextual determinism also suggests that PE may vary across dif-
ferent life domains (e.g., work, family, recreation). A high level of empow-
erment might be expected among individuals who can generalize skills across
life domains, but some individuals may also experience PE in one life domain
even if they have been less successful in transferring skills to other life do-
mains. An assembly line worker, for example, may feel alienated at work,
but feel quite empowered as the deaconess of her church.
The third assumption is that PE is a dynamic variable that may fluc-
tuate over time. PE is not a static trait; rather, it changes over time. This
suggests that every individual has the potential to experience empowering
and disempowering processes, and to develop a sense of empowerment at
one time and disempowerment at another. It also suggests that people may
become more empowered over time. Some people may develop a sense of
empowerment through direct efforts to exert control; others may do so be-
cause they have access to resources for exerting control over their
environment. The changing nature of PE also suggests that some individu-
als may be more or less empowered than other individuals. Similarly, when
the context of empowerment changes over time, so too may the indicators
of empowered outcomes in that context.
7. Zimmerman 587
These characteristics of PE make it unlikely that a universal meas-
ure of empowerment would fit all (or most) persons, or that a global
measure would fit all (or most) contexts. A universal and global measure
of PE may not be appropriate, because it is theoretically inconsistent
with the construct given the specific demands and characteristics of dif-
ferent settings and life situations. A universal global measure may also
confuse our understanding of PE because the construct may be inap-
propriately conceptualized as a static personality trait instead of a more
dynamic contextually driven construct. This translates into a most im-
portant conclusion for empowerment theory: The development of a
universal and global measure of empowerment is not an appropriate goal
because it may not mean the same thing for every person, organization, or
community everywhere.
NOMOLOGICAL NETWORK FOR
PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT
Cronbach and Meehl (1955) described a process for construct vali-
dation that is theoretically driven and empirically tested. They suggest
that a construct is, by definition, open-ended and requires the specifi-
cation of interrelationships among observable phenomena that represent
abstract concepts. They referred to this interlocking system of relation-
ships as a nomological network that can be tested empirically once
concrete operations for the constructs in the network are specified. The
open-ended nature of many psychological constructs (e.g., mental com-
petency to stand trial; Roesch & Golding, 1980), however, implies that
the facts and rules used to represent a construct may change over time
and depend upon the context in which it is measured. Roesch and Golding
(1980) suggested that "to infer competency is to engage in a complex
process of judgement that is situationally dependent upon the facts of
the instant case, but is not completely reducible to a set of rules about
those facts" (p. 13). Thus, open-ended constructs may include observa-
tional terms and rules, but may not be fully captured by any one specific
operationalization because they take on different forms in different
population, contexts, and times. PE may, therefore, be considered an
open-ended construct, because it too depends upon context, population,
and developmental period. A necessary first step in the process of iden-
tifying observable measures relevant to PE, or any open-ended construct,
is to describe a general framework to represent some fundamental as-
pects of its nomological network.
8. 588 Psychological Empowerment
9 Domal0"lspecific
perceivedcobol
9 Domalrl specNSc
se~-efficocy
Q tv~:~lvotk~c~A/ol
9 Po;colvod ~tgnr
9 C;Nlealowomneu O ~r~m~nlty
9 tJf'~:k~rst~
causal agents 9 _Or_~_~_
pan~uul
9 s~naeve~0me~
O ~ behavloal
9 Sldl tronsfe~ ac~ou
Ire domalns
qPResourcemobi~otlon
Fig. 1, Nomological network for psychological empowerment.
Several investigators have found associations among perceived control
variables, skill development, and measures of participation and community
involvement (Balcazar, Seekins, Fawcett, & Hopkins, 1990; Carr, Dixon, &
Ogles, 1976; Chavis & Wandersman, 1990; Denney, 1979; Florin &
Wandersman, 1984; Kieffer, 1984; Stone & Levine, 1985; Zimmerman &
Rappaport, 1988; Zimmerman, et al., 1992). These constructs are all
consistent with empowerment theory. As this research evidence suggests,
PE is expected to include a sense of and motivation to control; decision-
making and problem-solving skills and a critical awareness of one's
sociopolitical environment; and participatory behaviors. Figure 1 presents
these qualities of PE as intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral
components.
Intrapersonal Component. The intrapersonal component refers to how
people think about themselves and includes domain-specific perceived control
and self-efficacy, motivation to control, perceived competence, and mastery.
Domain-specific perceived control refers to beliefs about one's ability to exert
influence in different life spheres such as in family, work, or sociopolitical con-
texts (Paulhus, 1983). As Figure 1 indicates, the intrapersonal component of
9. Zimmerman 589
PE includes perceived control, competence, and efficacy. The intrapersonal
component includes perceptions because they are a basic element that provides
people with the initiative to engage in behaviors to influence desired outcomes
(Strecher, DeVellis, Becker, & Rosenstock, 1986). It is unlikely that individuals
who do not believe that they have the capability to achieve goals would either
learn about what it takes to achieve those goals, or do what it takes to ac-
complish them. Intrapersonal variables that are not presented in Figure 1, but
are expected to correlate negatively with PE, include perceptions of social iso-
lation, powerlessness, and normlessness (Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988;
Zimmerman, 1990b), and helplessness (Rappaport, 1984).
Interactional Component. The interactional component of PE refers to
the understanding people have about their community and related sociopoli-
tical issues. This aspect of PE suggests that people are aware of behavioral
options or choices to act as they believe appropriate to achieve goals they set
for themselves (Zimmerman, 1990a). Individuals must learn about their op-
tions in a given context in order to be able to exert control in their environ-
ment. This suggests that they need to understand the norms and values of a
particular context. Relevant norms and values might include cooperative de-
cision making, commitment to collective (versus personal) interests, or mutual
assistance. Individuals may also need to develop a critical awareness of their
environment, including an understanding of causal agents in order to effec-
tively interact in the settings that are important to them. Critical awareness
refers to one's understanding of the resources needed to achieve a desired
goal, knowledge of how to acquire those resources, and skills for managing
resources once they are obtained (Kieffer, 1984; Freire, 1973). This ability to
mobilize resources is an essential aspect of the interactional component of PE
because it suggests environmental mastery. Understanding causal agents refers
to an appreciation of the factors that may influence those people (e.g., mayor,
landlord), objects (e.g., toxic chemical, organizational structure), or events (e.g.,
natural disaster, public hearing) seen to either inhibit or enhance one's efforts
to exert control in the sociopolitical environment (Sue & Zane, 1980). The
interactional component of empowerment also includes decision-making prob-
lem-solving, and leadership skills. These skills may be developed in settings
where participants have opportunities to become involved in decision making,
or inhibited in settings where participation is not an option. It is these skills
that help individuals become independent, enable them to control events in
their lives, and lead them to become their own best advocates. Thus, the in-
teractional component provides the bridge between perceived control and tak-
ing action to exert control. Although the interactional component includes
both cognitive understanding and learning about one's environment, these may
be considered preparatory to participation because they are indirectly linked
to the behaviors needed to influence outcomes.
10. 590 Psychological Empowerment
Behavioral Component. The behavioral component of PE refers to ac-
tions taken to directly influence outcomes. Empowerment behaviors for
patients just released from a psychiatric institution, for example, might in-
clude getting involved with a mutual help group, seeking employment, and
living independently. Empowerment behaviors for a young adolescent be-
ginning high school might be playing on an athletic team, working on a
student newspaper, or joining a student association (e.g., forensic team,
drama club). The behavioral component may also include behaviors to
manage stress or adapt to change.
These three components of PE merge to form a picture of a person
who believes that he or she has the capability to influence a given context
(intrapersonal component) understands how the system works in that
context (interactional component), and engages in behaviors to exert
control in the context (behavioral component). One implication of this
nomological network is that if only information about intrapersonal
characteristics is collected then a complete picture of PE cannot be made.
All three components must be measured to fully capture PE. They must
also include measures that are appropriate for the population and context
under study.
Further development of empowerment theory needs to examine how
the intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral components interact to
form PE. How do these three components relate to one another? Are some
components of PE contingent upon others? It is noteworthy that the no-
mological network presented refers to the individual level of analysis and,
therefore, reflects individual level variables. Organizational or community
empowerment outcomes would necessarily require organizational or com-
munity level variables (see Zimmerman, in press).
DISTINCTIONS FROM OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
Distinguishing PE from other psychological constructs may help to
more clearly delineate its nomological network. Self-efficacy, self-esteem,
competence and mental health, and power are particularly relevant
concepts because they may appear to be similar constructs. Other
constructs may also be comparable, but only these are briefly discussed
below. The nomological network of PE includes self-efficacy, but
perceptions about ability to influence outcomes is only one part of the
intrapersonal component of PE. Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988) found
that the combined variance of 11 different measures of perceived control
formed a single dimension (i.e., canonical variate) that distinguished
individuals with varying levels of involvement in community organizations
11. Zimmerman 591
and activities. The I1 perceived control measures included general
self-efficacy, political efficacy, locus of control, and motivation to control.
The single dimension formed by the perceived control measures could be
considered to represent the intrapersonal component of PE in this
population, because it correlated as hypothesized with measures of the
behavioral component. This study suggests that self-efficacy was only one
part of the intrapersonal component. Zimmerman et al. (1992) also found
that self-efficacy variables were only one part of the intrapersonal
component of empowerment among 911 randomly selected suburban and
urban adults.
Self-esteem refers to individuals' personal judgement of their own
worth (Coopersmith, 1967), but does not necessarily include perceptions
about one's perceived control, participatory behavior, critical awareness,
or specific skills necessary to exert control in a particular setting. Self-
esteem is typically considered a personality trait, although it may result
from an evaluation of one's environment and may also be domain specific
(Harter, 1990). It is, however, largely an intrapersonal construct because
it primarily refers to individual perceptions of oneself. Self-esteem is ex-
pected to be related positively to PE, but individuals with low self-esteem
may demonstrate some characteristics of a psychologically empowered
person. Persons with low self-esteem, for example, may report involve-
ment in community activities or organizations and indicate a critical
awareness of their community. They may have an illusion of incompe-
tence (Langer, 1979) even though they have many other characteristics
associated with PE.
Another concept that is related to PE, but may be distinguished from
it, is the construct of competence. Competence does not typically include
sociopolitical factors; so issues such as political awareness, causal agents,
and social change are not specifically connected to the construct. Similarly,
competence usually does not include organized action or working with oth-
ers to influence social change. Thus, although competence may also include
intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral components, the content of
each of these aspects of the construct would be quite different than they
would be for PE. Competence also tends to be connected to reactions to
environmental events (e.g., coping with adversity), whereas PE tends to be
linked to proactive behavior. Nevertheless, perceived competence may be
one aspect of the intrapersonal component of PE for some populations
and contexts.
Similarly, mental health is related to but distinct from PE. The concept
of mental health can be conceptualized as either the absence of mental ill-
ness or the presence of healthy behavior and cognition. PE grows out of
the latter approach to mental health, however, it is possible for a mentally
12. 592 Psychological Empowerment
distressed individual to be somewhat empowered. Individuals experiencing
a severe mental illness may be empowered if they try to gain control in
their lives by becoming involved in a mutual help group, developing effective
coping skills, or achieving a critical understanding of how the medical es-
tablishment functions to treat their illness. Rappaport, Reischl, and Zimmerman
(1991) described four case examples of how former psychiatric patients may de-
velop different levels of PE. One case described how being helped by others
suffering from similar problems resulted in some level of empowerment. A
second case described how the process of helping others was empowering
for the helpers. The third and fourth cases provided examples of members
of the organization taking small and large leadership roles in the organiza-
tion. Fairweather's lodge program provides another example of how people
with serious mental illness, living and working in cooperative groups in the
community, may have become empowered (Fairweather, Sanders, & Tornatzky,
1969). They developed a member-controlled, self-sustaining living and working
community.
PE also different from but related to power. Power suggests authority,
whereas PE is a feeling of control, a critical awareness of one's environ-
ment, and an active engagement in it. One can be psychologically
empowered without having the ultimate authority or power to realize one's
objectives. Individuals do not require the possession of authoritative power
in order to take action to exert control over those who do have such power.
Several instances of people with low social status and no official authority
struggling to influence social policy and succeeding have been reported
(Checkoway & Doyle, 1980; Fish, 1973; O'Sullivan, Waugh, & Espeland,
1984; Piven & Cloward, 1977). In each instance, politically disenfranchised
groups successfully exerted control over people in positions of governmen-
tally mandated power. They did not actually gain any authoritative power
(except in the case of Checkoway & Doyle, 1980), but they probably did
become somewhat empowered because they may have gained confidence
in their ability to influence outcomes, learned about causal agents and re-
sources needed to effect change, and worked together to implement social
change.
Gruber and Trickett (1987) raised an interesting paradox about the
relationship between power and empowerment. They described an example
where students and parents were given an opportunity to participate in the
decision-making process of an alternative public school. They found that
although the parents and students developed some amount of PE, the
school authorities maintained their grasp on the final power to make
changes in school policy. Thus, the individuals felt empowered, but they
did not obtain real power to exert control in this context. It could be argued
that because the parents and students did not have actual control they were
13. Zimmerman 593
not really empowered. This, however, might be an erroneous conclusion
for several reasons. First, the experience of working to influence school
policy may have helped them develop the confidence that they could in-
fluence school policy. The intrapersonal component of empowerment may
have been enhanced. Second, the parents and students may have learned
about the resources, constraints, and inner workings of the school system.
This suggests some amount of empowerment as it relates to the interac-
tional component. Third, the parents and students may have organized
others to monitor the actions of school officials or to elect a slate of can-
didates for the school board (behavioral component).
Actual power or control is not necessary for empowerment because
in some contexts and for some populations real control or power may not
be the desired goal. Rather, goals such as being more informed, more
skilled, more healthy, or more involved in decision making may be the de-
sired outcome. Thus, actual power or control in a particular domain may
be a sufficient condition for PE, but not a necessary one.
SETTING SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT
The operationalization of PE for members of a voluntary service or-
ganization and mutual help group are presented to illustrate how the
nomological network of PE may be applied.4 Voluntary organizations are
used as examples because several researchers have identified such settings
as vital to the development of PE (Prestby, Wandersman, Florin, Rich, &
Chavis, 1990; Rappaport, 1981; Rich, Edelstein, Hallman, & Wandersman,
1995; Zimmerman et al., 1992; Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988). Two simi-
lar types of organizations are chosen to help illustrate the relevance of
context for defining PE even in comparable settings. The organizations,
though similar, may differ in significant ways. They may have different
goals, benefits, and functions for members. In addition, members may have
different motivations for choosing to participate in each type of organiza-
tion. Thus, PE for members of a voluntary service organization may be
quite different than PE for members of a mutual help organization.
4A voluntaryserviceorganizationis one which the primarygoal is to provide somebenefits
to the community.Servicesprovidedmight includefund raisingfor Little League Baseball,
neighborhood crime watch, volunteer help in a local hospice, or provision of unique
opportunities for community members to have access to media outlets. Organizational
examples include neighborhood associations,Kiwanis Club, and communityradio stations.
These types of organizationsare distinguishedfrom organizationswhose primary goal is to
provide benefits to individualmemberssuch as mutual help groups or hobby clubs.
14. 594 Psychological Empowerment
Voluntary Service Organization Members
The specific measures associated with each component of the no-
mological network of PE for members of voluntary community service or-
ganizations parallels the more general indicators depicted in Figure 1. PE
in voluntary service organizations might include sociopolitical control, lead-
ership in the organization, and an understanding of the resources needed
to manage a fund-raising campaign. Sociopolitical concerns may be most
relevant for the intrapersonal component for this population because the
context includes community settings that may be involved in resource de-
velopment (e.g., fund raising), policy issues, or service provision. The in-
trapersonal component might include three aspects of perceived control:
sociopolitical control; perceived competence in the sociopolitical domain;
and desire to exert control in the public arena (i.e., motivation).
The interactional component might include a critical understanding of
the sociopolitical environment and the cultivation of personal and collective
resources for political action (Kieffer, 1984), as well as development of skills
and knowledge (Prestby et al., 1990). Members of voluntary organizations
may develop decision-making skills, learn how to critically assess resources,
and learn about the factors that influence causal agents when they work on
a fund-raising project, design a new service project, or help maintain the
organization. Leadership skills may include organizing others to achieve a
common goal and speaking in front of large groups.
The behavioral component of PE for voluntary service organization
members might include participation in community activities and level of
involvement in voluntary organizations (Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988).
Community activities expected to be related to PE in this context might
include voting, writing letters to an editor or elected official, helping to
organize neighborhood health fairs, or taking part in neighborhood crime
watch activities. Level of involvement in a voluntary organization might re-
fer to attendance at organizational meetings, leadership positions held,
length of time involved, and average number of hours volunteered on a
monthly basis.
The resulting multidimensional measure might include a paper-and-
pencil scale found in the research literature to assess the intrapersonal
component. Zimmerman and Zahniser (1991) reported the development
of a sociopolitical control scale that might be especially useful for meas-
uring this component of PE for members of a voluntary organization. The
scale, developed from 10 of the measures used by Zimmerman and
Rappaport (1988), includes leadership confidence and policy control
subscales, and has adequate psychometric properties in three samples from
different voluntary organizations.
15. Zimmerman 595
The measure for the interactional component could include items
questioning respondents about where or how to obtain resources needed to
achieve different goals (e.g., increase membership, raise funds). A score on
this measure could be developed that weights effective response options.
Data from organizational records could be used to measure the behavioral
component by examining attendance at meetings and length of time involved
in the organization. Self-report items regarding one's leadership roles, num-
ber of hours volunteered each month, and the length of time one has been
involved in the organization could also be collected for measuring the be-
havioral component (Perkins, Florin, Rich, Wandersman, & Chavis 1990;
Zimmerman et aL, 1992; Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988).
A total scale score could be developed by standardizing and summing
across the measures for each component. Separate analyses for each com-
ponent could be conducted to explore the relative effect an empowering
intervention may have on each one. Multivariate analyses could be used
to explore the common and unique variance of each component. Total
scores could be used to evaluate the effects of empowering interventions
or to explore a mediating model where empowering processes lead to em-
powered outcomes, which in turn, lead to health behavior.
Of course, a qualitative measurement approach may also be used that
follows the same theoretical framework for defining what type of informa-
tion to collect. This approach might include in-depth case studies,
observations, open-ended interviews, or opportunities for individuals to tell
their own story. Kieffer (1984) provided an example of a qualitative ap-
proach for assessing PE.
Mutual Help Group Members
Members of a mutual help organization, whose primary goal is to
provide members with a supportive social network, would be expected to
have different variables representing the three components of PE than
those used for members of a voluntary service organization. Members of
mutual help organizations are often trying to cope with a particular issue
(e.g., chronic illness, bereavement, drug use) and may become involved with
the organization in an effort to gain personal control.
Potential variables for the intrapersonal, interactional, and behavioral
components of PE in a mutual help organization for individuals with
chronic mental illness, differ from those used for members of voluntary
service organizations. The intrapersonal component for mutual help group
members, for example, may not include sociopolitical control; rather it may
include personal control, interpersonal control, and perceived competence
16. 596 Psychological Empowerment
for coping. Problem-solving and coping skills may constitute the interac-
tional component of PE for members of a mutual help group, rather than
management of organizational resources and understanding of causal
agents. Behaviors related to PE for mutual help group members may in-
clude taking on leadership roles, reaching out to other members of the
group (i.e., 12-step work), and getting involved in other group or commu-
nity activities.
The nomological network for these two populations illustrate the im-
portance of considering context for measuring PE, but taken together they
also illustrate the developmental nature of the construct. A developmental
progression for mutual help members may be to first gain the courage to
participate in the group and then begin slowly to develop personal control
and skills. As individuals become more involved in the group and cope ef-
fectively, they may develop skills that will allow them to become leaders in
the organization. As we explore how the three components of PE interact,
influence, and build upon one another, we may also begin to understand
developmental processes of PE for various populations and contexts.
CONCLUSION
One of the most important messages of this paper is that psychologi-
cal empowerment is more than simply an intrapersonal construct, and
requires assessment of behavioral and interactional factors to thoroughly
measure this open-ended construct. A universal and global measure of PE
may not be desirable because it is theoretically inconsistent with the con-
struct given the specific demands and characteristics of different settings
and life situations. A universal and global measure may also confuse our
understanding of empowerment because the construct may be inappropri-
ately conceptualized as a static personality trait instead of a more dynamic
contextually driven construct. The measurement of PE in a specific setting
for a particular sample of individuals is possible, but it must be connected
to the experience of the research participants as they state it, and contex-
tually grounded in their life experiences. This approach necessarily limits
one's generalizability to other persons or contexts, but we may have to ac-
cept this trade-off in order to adequately and appropriately measure PE.
McGrath (1982) pointed out that all research endeavors must inevitably
make trade-offs between the competing demands of external and internal
validity. Research on empowerment theory is not unique in this regard and,
as McGrath suggested, the development of any theory requires program-
matic research that builds a body of knowledge. The ideas presented in
this paper are intended to help point us in that direction.
17. Zimmerman 597
REFERENCES
Balcazar, F. E., Seekins, T., Fawcett, S. B., & Hopkins, B. L., (1990). Empowering people
with physical disabilities through advocacy skills training.American Journal of Community
Psychology, 18, 281-296.
Brown, L. D. (1993). Social change through collective reflection with Asian nongovernmental
development organizations. Human Relations, 46, 249-273.
Carr, T. H., Dixon, M. C., & Ogles, R. M. (1976). Perceptions of community life which
distinguish between participants and nonparticipants in a neighborhood self-help
organization. American Journal of Community Psychology, 4, 357-366.
Chavis, D. M., & Wandersman, A. (1990). Sense of community in the urban environment: A
catalyst for participation and community development. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 18, 55-81.
Checkoway, B., & Doyle, M. (1980). Communityorganizing lessons for health care consumers.
Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law, 5, 213-226.
Chesler, M. A. (1991). Participatory action research with self-help groups: An alternative
paradigm for inquiry and action. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 757-768.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman.
Cornell Empowerment Group. ~,1989)iEmpowerment and family support. Networking Bulletin,
1, 1-23. "..
Cottrell, L. S., Jr. (1983). The competent community. In R. Warren & L. Lyon (Eds.), New
perspectives on the American community (pp. 398-432). Homewood, IL: Dorsey.
Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological
Bulletin, 52, 281-302.
Denney, W. M. (1979). Participant citizenship in a marginal group: Union membership of
California farm workers. American Journal of Political Science, 23, 330-337.
Elden, M., & Chisolm, R. F. (Eds.). (1993). Emerging varieties of action research: Introduction
to the special issue. Human Relations, 46, 121-142.
Fairweather, G. W., Sanders, D. H., & Tornatzky, L. G. (1969). Community lifefor the mentally
ill: An alternative to alternate care. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
Fish, J. (1973). Black power~white control."The struggleof the Woodlawn Organization in Chicago.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Florin, P., & Wandersman, A. (1984). Cognitive social learning and participation in community
development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 689-708.
Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York: Seabury.
Gruber, J., & Trickett, E. J. (1987). Can we empower others? The paradox of empowerment
in the governing of an alternative public school. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 15, 353-371.
Hall, R. H. (Ed.). (1992). Participatory research, Part I.American Sociologist, 23 (Whole issue).
Harter, S. (1990). Causes, correlates, and the functional role of global self-worth: A life-span
perspective. In R. J. Sternberg & J. Kolligan, Jr. (Eds.), Competence considered
(pp. 67-97). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Iscoe, I. (1974). Community Psychology and the competent community.American Psychologist,
29, 607-613.
Kelly, J. G. (1971). Qualities for the community psychologist. American Psychologist, 26,
897-903.
Kelly, J. G. (1988). A guide to conducting prevention research in the community: First steps.
Prevention in Human Services, 6, 1-174.
Kieffer, C. H. (1984). Citizen empowerment: A developmental perspective. Prevention in
Human Services, 3, 9-36.
Langer, E. J. (1979). The illusionof incompetence. In L. V. Perlmutter & R. A. Monty (Eds.),
Choice and perceived control (pp. 301-313). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Maton, K. E., & Salem, D. A. (1995). Organizational characteristics of empowering community
settings: A multiple case study approach. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23,
18. 598 Psychological Empowerment
McGrath, J. E. (1982). Dilemmatics: The study of research choices and dilemmas. In J. E.
McGrath, J. Martin, & R. A. Kulka (Eds.). Judgment calls in research (pp. 69-102). Beverly
Hills: Sage.
Mechanic, D. (1991, February). Adolescents at risk."New directions. Paper presented at the
annual Conference on Health Policy, Cornell University Medical College.
O'Sullivan, M. J., Waugh, N., & Espeland, W. (1984). The Fort McDowell Yavapai: From
pawns to powerbrokers. Prevention in Human Services, 3, 73-97.
Paulhus, D. (1983). Sphere-specific measures of perceived control. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 44, 1253-1265.
Perkins, D. D., Florin, P., Rich, R. C., Wandersman, A., & Chavis, D. M. (1990). Participation
and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community
context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83-116.
Piven, F. F., & Cloward, R. A. (1977). Poor people's movements." Why they succeed, how they
fail. New YorK Vintage.
Prestby, J. E., Wandersman, A., Florin, P., Rich, R., & Chavis, D. M. (1990). Benefits, costs,
incentive management, and participation in voluntary organizations: A means to
understanding and promoting empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology,
18, 117-149.
Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A social policy of empowerment over prevention.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 1-25.
Rappaport, J. (1984). Studies in empowerment: Introduction to the issue. Prevention in Human
Services, 3, 1-7.
Rappaport, J. (1987). Terms of empowerment/exemplars of prevention: Toward a theory for
community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 121-148.
Rappaport, J. (1990). Research methods and the empowerment social agenda. In P. Tolan,
C. Keys, F. Chertok, & L. Jason (Eds.), Researching community psychology: Integrating
theories and methodologies (pp. 51-63). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Rappaport, J., Reischl, T. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (1991). Mutual help mechanisms in the
empowerment of former mental patients. In D. Saleebey (Ed.), The strengths perspective
in social work practice: Power in the people. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Rich, R. C., Edelstein, M., Hallman, W. K., & Wandersman, A. H. (1995). Citizen
participation and empowerment: The case of local environmental hazards. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 657-676.
Roesch, R., & Golding, S. L. (1980). Competency to stand trial. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Stone, R. A., & Levine, A. G. (1985). Reactions to collective stress: Correlates of active citizen
participation. Prevention in Human Services, 4, 153-177.
Strecher, V. T., DeVellis, B. M., Becker, M. H., & Rosenstock, I. M. (1986). The role of
self-efficacy in achieving health behavior change. Health Education Quarterly, 13, 73-92.
Sue, S., & Zane, N. (1980). Learned helplessness theory and community psychology. In M.
S. Gibbs, J. R. Lachenmeyer, & J. Sigal (Eds.), Community Psychology: Theoretical and
empirical approaches (pp. 121-143), New York: Gardner.
Whyte, W. F. (1991). Participatory action research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Yeich, S., & Levine, R. (1992). Participatory research's contribution to a conceptualization
of empowerment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1894-1908.
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990a). Taking aim on empowerment research: On the distinction
between psychological and individual conceptions. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 18, 169-177.
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990b). Toward a theory of learned hopefulness: A structural model
analysis of participation and empowerment. Journal of Research in Personality, 24, 71-86.
Zimmerman, M. A. (in press). Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and
community levels of analysis. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.), The handbook of
community psychology. New York: Plenum Press.
Zimmerman, M. A., Israel, B. A., Schulz, A., & Checkoway, B. (1992). Further explorations
in empowerment theory: An empirical analysis of psychological empowerment. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 707-727.
19. Zimmerman 599
Zimmerman, M. A., Ramirez, J., Suarez, E., de la Rosa, G., & Castro, M. A. (1994).
Empowering processes: An example from an HIV/AIDS prevention project for Mexican
homosexual men. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Public Health
Association, Washington, DC.
Zimmerman, M. A., & Rappaport, J. (1988). Citizen participation, perceived control, and
psychological empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 725-750.
Zimmerman, M. A., & Zahniser, J. H. (1991). Refinements of sphere-specific measures of
perceived control: Development of a socio-political control scale. Journal of Community
Psychology, 19, 189-204.