Running head METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1METHODS USED IN CYB.docxjeanettehully
Running head: METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1
METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE3
Salina Khadgi
Professor Creider
1st February 1, 2020
Methods used in cyber warfare
Thesis: There are diverse methods that various people or nations, for a set of diverse reasons, can damage computers or information networks.
I. Introduction
A. Types of cyber attacks
i. Espionage
ii. Sabotage
iii. Propaganda
iv. Economic disruption
v. Surprise Cyber Attack
B. Methods used in Cyber Attacks
vi. Denial-of-service (DoS)
vii. Phishing and spear phishing attacks
viii. SQL injection attack
ix. Drive-by attacks
x. Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack
xi. Password attacks
xii. Malware attack
xiii. Eavesdropping attack
C. Motivators for cyber attacks
xiv. Military
xv. Civil
xvi. Private sector
xvii. Non-profit Research
II. Preparedness
III. Cyber counterintelligence
References
Andress, J., Winterfeld, S., Rogers, R., & Northcutt, S. (2011). Cyber warfare: Techniques, tactics and tools for security practitioners. Waltham, MA: Syngress.
It give an in depth description of the techniques that are used in cyber warfare. Also the necessary tools that are required to fight the cybercrimes.
In Chen, T. M., In Jarvis, L., & In Macdonald, S. (2014). Cyberterrorism: Understanding, assessment, and response.
The authors describe the aspect of terrorism and the cybercrimes. Assist in understanding the aspect of cyber warfare and the response that are put in place to deal with the attack.
In Yager, R. R., In Reformat, M., & In Alajlan, N. (2014). Intelligent methods for cyber warfare.
The methods that are used in the fight against the cyber warfare
Tavani, H. T. (2016). Ethics and technology: Controversies, questions, and strategies for ethical computing.
It talks about the common issues, the model and conceptual frameworks as regarding to cyber warfare. The computing aspects and controversies that are about the cyber warfare.
THE EFFECT OF ORGANIZATIONAL FORCES
ON INDIVIDUAL MORALITY:
JUDGMENT, MORAL APPROBATION, AND BEHAVIOR
Thomas M. Jones and Lori Verstegen Ryan
Abstract: To date, our understanding of ethical decision making and
behavior in organizations has been concentrated in the area of moral
judgment, largely because of the hundreds of studies done involv-
ing cognitive moral development. This paper addresses the problem
of our relative lack of understanding in other areas of human moral-
ity by applying a recently developed construct—moral appro-
bation—to illuminate the link between moral judgment and moral
action. This recent work is extended here by exploring the effect that
organizations have on ethical behavior in terms of the moral appro-
bation construct.
Our understanding of ethical decision making and behavior in organizationshas been informed by two largely separate streams of research. Formal
decision making models (e.g., Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and Vi tell, 1986;
Trevino, 1986; Jones, 1991) have dealt with the micro organizational aspects
of such decisi ...
STEPS OF THE ETHICAL STEPS OF THE ETHICAL DECISIONDECISION--.docxwhitneyleman54422
STEPS OF THE ETHICAL STEPS OF THE ETHICAL
DECISIONDECISION--MAKING PROCESSMAKING PROCESS
EESE Faculty Development Workshop
Douglas R. May, Professor and Co-Director
International Center for Ethics in Business
SUMMARY OF THE STEPS OF THE
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS
1.
Gather the facts
2.
Define the ethical issues
3.
Identify the affected parties (stakeholders)
4.
Identify the consequences
5.
Identify the obligations (principles, rights, justice)
6.
Consider your character and integrity
7.
Think creatively about potential actions
8.
Check your gut
9.
Decide on the proper ethical action and be prepared to
deal with opposing arguments.
1 -
GATHER THE FACTS
Don’t jump to conclusions without the facts
Questions to ask: Who, what, where, when, how, and
why.
However, facts may be difficult to find because of the
uncertainty often found around ethical issues
Some facts are not available
Assemble as many facts as possible before proceeding
Clarify what assumptions
you are making!
2 –
DEFINE THE ETHICAL ISSUE(S)
Don’t jump to solutions without first identifying the ethical
issue(s)
in the situation.
Define the ethical basis for the issue you want to focus on.
There may be multiple
ethical issues –
focus on one
major
one at a time.
3 –
IDENTIFY THE AFFECTED PARTIES
Identify all of the stakeholders
Who are the primary
or direct stakeholders?
Who are the secondary
or indirect stakeholders?
Why are they stakeholders for the issue?
Perspective-taking
--
Try to see things through the eyes
of those individuals affected
4 –
IDENTIFY THE CONSEQUENCES
Think about potential positive
and negative
consequences for affected
parties by the decision (Focus on primary stakeholders to simplify
analysis until you become comfortable with the process).
What are the magnitude
of the consequences and the probability
that
the consequences will happen.
Short term vs. Long term consequences –
will decision be valid over
time.
Broader systemic
consequences –
tied to symbolic
and secrecy
Symbolic
consequences –
Each decision sends a message.
Secrecy
consequences –
What are the consequences if the decision
or action becomes public?
Did you consider relevant cognitive barriers/biases?
Consider what your decision
would be based only on consequences
–
then move on and see if it is similar given other considerations.
5 –
IDENTIFY THE RELEVANT PRINCIPLES,
RIGHTS, AND JUSTICE ISSUES
Obligations should be thought of in terms of principles and rights involved
A) What obligations are created because of particular ethical principles
you might use in the situation?
Examples: Do no harm; Do unto others as you would have them do
unto you; Do what you would have anyone in your shoes do in the
given context.
B) What obligations are created becaus.
Running head: ETHICAL THEORY 1
Ethical Theory 6
Ethical Theory
Ronna Coffman
Grand Canyon University: PHI-305
November 25th, 2016
Ethical Theory
Ethics is an integral part of our lives and every society or community around the world has definitive ethics that are established through rules, principles and self-regulations which unearths whether an action, behavior or setting is ethical or not. This treatise will delve into this study which will begin with an analysis on the concept and importance of ethical theory. The study will further assess the importance of meta-ethics for determining moral judgment and culminate with an analysis on how ethical thinking results in practical and moral action and a brief illustration of how it can be applied in our personal lives.
The concept and importance of ethical theory
Ethical theory is a theory that depicts the norms for conduct which provide the difference between acceptable behavior and unacceptable behavior.
Ethical theory may also include the disciples of study which incorporate the standards of conduct such as the law, sociology, philosophy, psychology and theology.
Ethical theory therefore incorporates the procedures; methods and perspective for outlining how to act and for further analyze the issues and problems. A majority of the people acquire the ethical theory from social settings for instance at home, church or at school but the sense of knowing what is right or wrong is mainly acquired during childhood and the development of morals occurs throughout life which includes different stages of growth to maturity.
Ethical theory is important because it promotes the aim of life such as knowledge, truth and avoidance of wrongs. It also promotes falsification and further promotes truth and minimization of wrong doings (Daniel, 2008). Ethical standards also promote the values which are important for the collaboration of the society which include but are not limited to fairness, trust, mutual respect and accountability.
Ethical theory also promotes accountability to the public and to also build the necessary public support. It also leads to the promotion of public and ethical standards for instance a obedience with the law, social conscience, public wellbeing and security, wild life well-being and human civil liberties. Some of the ethical principles that are involved in ethical theory include honesty, objectivity, integrity, openness, carefulness, confidentiality, respect, social responsibility, non-discrimination, legality, competence and the protection of human subjects.
The importance of meta-ethics for determining moral judgments
“Meta-ethics is a branch or part of analytic philosophy which looks into the foundations, status and nature of the properties, words and v ...
Final Project In this two-phased final assignment, students wil.docxAKHIL969626
Final Project:
In this two-phased final assignment, students will select a topic from the Unique Ethical Issues from weeks 3, 5, and 7, research the topic and discuss the ethical dilemma in detail.
Phase 1:
In week 4, students will submit to the Assignment Folder a brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue, the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2:
Required Elements of Final Project:
· Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
· Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
· In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
· Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
Title page;
Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
Write in the third person;
Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Theories from Week 2
TELEOLOGICAL - This describes an ethical theory which judges the rightness of an action in terms of an external goal or purpose. So, according to a teleological theory, consequences always play some part, be it small or large, in the determination of what one should or should not do. Not all teleological theories are consequentialist. John Rawls' theory of justice is teleological, but not consequentialist because it claims that consequences are only part of what must be considered when determining what policy is morally just. (Rawls)
Benefits - 1. There is room in some theories for good intentions, even if the action didn’t active the desired end. 2. Active attempt to connect morality with the “real” world. 3. By allowing for the consideration of consequences, teleological theories can adapt to different circumstances and situations. (Also see “utilitarianism”)
Problems - Depends on the theory. See “utilitarianism” for an example.
CONSEQUENTIALIST - Under a consequentialist theory, the consequences of an action determine its moral value. A key question in consequentialist theory is how to measure the moral worth of the consequences. Consequences can be good, neutral, or evil. Another relevant question is which consequences count (intended or actual). If only actual consequences count, then do all consequences count? Consequences can be distinguished by direct/indirect, individuals/objects affected, influence of complicating factors, etc.
All of these conside ...
Scanned with CamScannerApplication Assignment 2 Part 2 .docxtodd331
Scanned with CamScanner
Application Assignment 2: Part 2 - Developing an Advocacy Campaign
The following application, Part 2, will be due in Week 7.
To prepare:
· Review Chapter 3 of Health policy and politics: A nurse’s guide.
· In the first assignment, you reflected on whether the policy you would like to promote could best be achieved through the development of new legislation, or a change in an existing law or regulation. Refine as necessary using any feedback from your first paper.
· Contemplate how existing laws or regulations may affect how you proceed in advocating for your proposed policy.
· Consider how you could influence legislators or other policymakers to enact the policy you propose.
· Think about the obstacles of the legislative process that may prevent your proposed policy from being implemented as intended.
·
To complete:
Part Two will have approximately 3–4 pages of content plus a title page and references. Part Two will address the following:
· Explain whether your proposed policy could be enacted through a modification of existing law or regulation or the creation of new legislation/regulation.
· Explain how existing laws or regulations could affect your advocacy efforts. Be sure to cite and reference the laws and regulations using primary sources.
· Provide an analysis of the methods you could use to influence legislators or other policymakers to support your policy. In particular, explain how you would use the “three legs” of lobbying in your advocacy efforts.
· Summarize obstacles that could arise in the legislative process and how to overcome these hurdles.
Milstead: 3 Legs of Lobbying
“According to Milstead (2013), Leg One of the Three-Legged Stool consists of lobbying which is the act of influencing – the art of persuading-a government entity. “Legislators often rely on lobbyists’ expertise to help them understand what they are voting for or against.” (Milstead, 2013, p. 53). Local State Representatives should be targeted as a champion for the bill and that’s likely where an average voter can begin for their voice to be heard at the local and state levels.Leg Two of the Three-Legged Stool also includes the grassroots lobbyists. The AmericanNurses Association often spear-heads lobbying efforts in the best interest of the public on healthcare related issues and has a strong history of working with Congress on these important issues. “Grassroots lobbyists are constituents who have the power to elect officials through their vote and have expertise and knowledge about a particular issue (such as nurses in healthcare reform debates)” (Milstead, 2013, p. 54). Nurses can become a member of the American Nurses Association or other associations to ensure nurses have a voice on these important issues”
Reflection
Associate Professor Michael Segon
Director MBA
1
Reflection
Reflection is used as a learning tool to make sense of what we have experienced and how we can optimise our learning from that experience.
.
Running head METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1METHODS USED IN CYB.docxjeanettehully
Running head: METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE1
METHODS USED IN CYBER WARFARE3
Salina Khadgi
Professor Creider
1st February 1, 2020
Methods used in cyber warfare
Thesis: There are diverse methods that various people or nations, for a set of diverse reasons, can damage computers or information networks.
I. Introduction
A. Types of cyber attacks
i. Espionage
ii. Sabotage
iii. Propaganda
iv. Economic disruption
v. Surprise Cyber Attack
B. Methods used in Cyber Attacks
vi. Denial-of-service (DoS)
vii. Phishing and spear phishing attacks
viii. SQL injection attack
ix. Drive-by attacks
x. Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack
xi. Password attacks
xii. Malware attack
xiii. Eavesdropping attack
C. Motivators for cyber attacks
xiv. Military
xv. Civil
xvi. Private sector
xvii. Non-profit Research
II. Preparedness
III. Cyber counterintelligence
References
Andress, J., Winterfeld, S., Rogers, R., & Northcutt, S. (2011). Cyber warfare: Techniques, tactics and tools for security practitioners. Waltham, MA: Syngress.
It give an in depth description of the techniques that are used in cyber warfare. Also the necessary tools that are required to fight the cybercrimes.
In Chen, T. M., In Jarvis, L., & In Macdonald, S. (2014). Cyberterrorism: Understanding, assessment, and response.
The authors describe the aspect of terrorism and the cybercrimes. Assist in understanding the aspect of cyber warfare and the response that are put in place to deal with the attack.
In Yager, R. R., In Reformat, M., & In Alajlan, N. (2014). Intelligent methods for cyber warfare.
The methods that are used in the fight against the cyber warfare
Tavani, H. T. (2016). Ethics and technology: Controversies, questions, and strategies for ethical computing.
It talks about the common issues, the model and conceptual frameworks as regarding to cyber warfare. The computing aspects and controversies that are about the cyber warfare.
THE EFFECT OF ORGANIZATIONAL FORCES
ON INDIVIDUAL MORALITY:
JUDGMENT, MORAL APPROBATION, AND BEHAVIOR
Thomas M. Jones and Lori Verstegen Ryan
Abstract: To date, our understanding of ethical decision making and
behavior in organizations has been concentrated in the area of moral
judgment, largely because of the hundreds of studies done involv-
ing cognitive moral development. This paper addresses the problem
of our relative lack of understanding in other areas of human moral-
ity by applying a recently developed construct—moral appro-
bation—to illuminate the link between moral judgment and moral
action. This recent work is extended here by exploring the effect that
organizations have on ethical behavior in terms of the moral appro-
bation construct.
Our understanding of ethical decision making and behavior in organizationshas been informed by two largely separate streams of research. Formal
decision making models (e.g., Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and Vi tell, 1986;
Trevino, 1986; Jones, 1991) have dealt with the micro organizational aspects
of such decisi ...
STEPS OF THE ETHICAL STEPS OF THE ETHICAL DECISIONDECISION--.docxwhitneyleman54422
STEPS OF THE ETHICAL STEPS OF THE ETHICAL
DECISIONDECISION--MAKING PROCESSMAKING PROCESS
EESE Faculty Development Workshop
Douglas R. May, Professor and Co-Director
International Center for Ethics in Business
SUMMARY OF THE STEPS OF THE
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS
1.
Gather the facts
2.
Define the ethical issues
3.
Identify the affected parties (stakeholders)
4.
Identify the consequences
5.
Identify the obligations (principles, rights, justice)
6.
Consider your character and integrity
7.
Think creatively about potential actions
8.
Check your gut
9.
Decide on the proper ethical action and be prepared to
deal with opposing arguments.
1 -
GATHER THE FACTS
Don’t jump to conclusions without the facts
Questions to ask: Who, what, where, when, how, and
why.
However, facts may be difficult to find because of the
uncertainty often found around ethical issues
Some facts are not available
Assemble as many facts as possible before proceeding
Clarify what assumptions
you are making!
2 –
DEFINE THE ETHICAL ISSUE(S)
Don’t jump to solutions without first identifying the ethical
issue(s)
in the situation.
Define the ethical basis for the issue you want to focus on.
There may be multiple
ethical issues –
focus on one
major
one at a time.
3 –
IDENTIFY THE AFFECTED PARTIES
Identify all of the stakeholders
Who are the primary
or direct stakeholders?
Who are the secondary
or indirect stakeholders?
Why are they stakeholders for the issue?
Perspective-taking
--
Try to see things through the eyes
of those individuals affected
4 –
IDENTIFY THE CONSEQUENCES
Think about potential positive
and negative
consequences for affected
parties by the decision (Focus on primary stakeholders to simplify
analysis until you become comfortable with the process).
What are the magnitude
of the consequences and the probability
that
the consequences will happen.
Short term vs. Long term consequences –
will decision be valid over
time.
Broader systemic
consequences –
tied to symbolic
and secrecy
Symbolic
consequences –
Each decision sends a message.
Secrecy
consequences –
What are the consequences if the decision
or action becomes public?
Did you consider relevant cognitive barriers/biases?
Consider what your decision
would be based only on consequences
–
then move on and see if it is similar given other considerations.
5 –
IDENTIFY THE RELEVANT PRINCIPLES,
RIGHTS, AND JUSTICE ISSUES
Obligations should be thought of in terms of principles and rights involved
A) What obligations are created because of particular ethical principles
you might use in the situation?
Examples: Do no harm; Do unto others as you would have them do
unto you; Do what you would have anyone in your shoes do in the
given context.
B) What obligations are created becaus.
Running head: ETHICAL THEORY 1
Ethical Theory 6
Ethical Theory
Ronna Coffman
Grand Canyon University: PHI-305
November 25th, 2016
Ethical Theory
Ethics is an integral part of our lives and every society or community around the world has definitive ethics that are established through rules, principles and self-regulations which unearths whether an action, behavior or setting is ethical or not. This treatise will delve into this study which will begin with an analysis on the concept and importance of ethical theory. The study will further assess the importance of meta-ethics for determining moral judgment and culminate with an analysis on how ethical thinking results in practical and moral action and a brief illustration of how it can be applied in our personal lives.
The concept and importance of ethical theory
Ethical theory is a theory that depicts the norms for conduct which provide the difference between acceptable behavior and unacceptable behavior.
Ethical theory may also include the disciples of study which incorporate the standards of conduct such as the law, sociology, philosophy, psychology and theology.
Ethical theory therefore incorporates the procedures; methods and perspective for outlining how to act and for further analyze the issues and problems. A majority of the people acquire the ethical theory from social settings for instance at home, church or at school but the sense of knowing what is right or wrong is mainly acquired during childhood and the development of morals occurs throughout life which includes different stages of growth to maturity.
Ethical theory is important because it promotes the aim of life such as knowledge, truth and avoidance of wrongs. It also promotes falsification and further promotes truth and minimization of wrong doings (Daniel, 2008). Ethical standards also promote the values which are important for the collaboration of the society which include but are not limited to fairness, trust, mutual respect and accountability.
Ethical theory also promotes accountability to the public and to also build the necessary public support. It also leads to the promotion of public and ethical standards for instance a obedience with the law, social conscience, public wellbeing and security, wild life well-being and human civil liberties. Some of the ethical principles that are involved in ethical theory include honesty, objectivity, integrity, openness, carefulness, confidentiality, respect, social responsibility, non-discrimination, legality, competence and the protection of human subjects.
The importance of meta-ethics for determining moral judgments
“Meta-ethics is a branch or part of analytic philosophy which looks into the foundations, status and nature of the properties, words and v ...
Final Project In this two-phased final assignment, students wil.docxAKHIL969626
Final Project:
In this two-phased final assignment, students will select a topic from the Unique Ethical Issues from weeks 3, 5, and 7, research the topic and discuss the ethical dilemma in detail.
Phase 1:
In week 4, students will submit to the Assignment Folder a brief one page paper that identifies the unique ethical issue, the ethical dilemma and the traditional theories that will be used to suggest potential resolution of the dilemmas.
Phase 2:
Required Elements of Final Project:
· Using the information from Phase 1, students will thoroughly research the topic and define the ethical concerns in detail.
· Using two of the traditional theories from week 2, suggest potential resolutions to the dilemma(s)
· In the discussion of the resolution, include the impact that ethical relativism and globalization may have upon the suggested dilemma resolution.
· Select the best resolution and explain in detail why.
Required Formatting of Final Project:
This paper should be double-spaced, 12-point font, and six to eight pages in length excluding the title page and reference page;
Title page;
Introductory paragraph and a summary paragraph;
Use headings to demarcate your discussion;
Write in the third person;
Use APA formatting for in-text citations and a reference page. You are expected to paraphrase and not use quotes. Deductions will be taken when quotes are used and found to be unnecessary;
Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Theories from Week 2
TELEOLOGICAL - This describes an ethical theory which judges the rightness of an action in terms of an external goal or purpose. So, according to a teleological theory, consequences always play some part, be it small or large, in the determination of what one should or should not do. Not all teleological theories are consequentialist. John Rawls' theory of justice is teleological, but not consequentialist because it claims that consequences are only part of what must be considered when determining what policy is morally just. (Rawls)
Benefits - 1. There is room in some theories for good intentions, even if the action didn’t active the desired end. 2. Active attempt to connect morality with the “real” world. 3. By allowing for the consideration of consequences, teleological theories can adapt to different circumstances and situations. (Also see “utilitarianism”)
Problems - Depends on the theory. See “utilitarianism” for an example.
CONSEQUENTIALIST - Under a consequentialist theory, the consequences of an action determine its moral value. A key question in consequentialist theory is how to measure the moral worth of the consequences. Consequences can be good, neutral, or evil. Another relevant question is which consequences count (intended or actual). If only actual consequences count, then do all consequences count? Consequences can be distinguished by direct/indirect, individuals/objects affected, influence of complicating factors, etc.
All of these conside ...
Scanned with CamScannerApplication Assignment 2 Part 2 .docxtodd331
Scanned with CamScanner
Application Assignment 2: Part 2 - Developing an Advocacy Campaign
The following application, Part 2, will be due in Week 7.
To prepare:
· Review Chapter 3 of Health policy and politics: A nurse’s guide.
· In the first assignment, you reflected on whether the policy you would like to promote could best be achieved through the development of new legislation, or a change in an existing law or regulation. Refine as necessary using any feedback from your first paper.
· Contemplate how existing laws or regulations may affect how you proceed in advocating for your proposed policy.
· Consider how you could influence legislators or other policymakers to enact the policy you propose.
· Think about the obstacles of the legislative process that may prevent your proposed policy from being implemented as intended.
·
To complete:
Part Two will have approximately 3–4 pages of content plus a title page and references. Part Two will address the following:
· Explain whether your proposed policy could be enacted through a modification of existing law or regulation or the creation of new legislation/regulation.
· Explain how existing laws or regulations could affect your advocacy efforts. Be sure to cite and reference the laws and regulations using primary sources.
· Provide an analysis of the methods you could use to influence legislators or other policymakers to support your policy. In particular, explain how you would use the “three legs” of lobbying in your advocacy efforts.
· Summarize obstacles that could arise in the legislative process and how to overcome these hurdles.
Milstead: 3 Legs of Lobbying
“According to Milstead (2013), Leg One of the Three-Legged Stool consists of lobbying which is the act of influencing – the art of persuading-a government entity. “Legislators often rely on lobbyists’ expertise to help them understand what they are voting for or against.” (Milstead, 2013, p. 53). Local State Representatives should be targeted as a champion for the bill and that’s likely where an average voter can begin for their voice to be heard at the local and state levels.Leg Two of the Three-Legged Stool also includes the grassroots lobbyists. The AmericanNurses Association often spear-heads lobbying efforts in the best interest of the public on healthcare related issues and has a strong history of working with Congress on these important issues. “Grassroots lobbyists are constituents who have the power to elect officials through their vote and have expertise and knowledge about a particular issue (such as nurses in healthcare reform debates)” (Milstead, 2013, p. 54). Nurses can become a member of the American Nurses Association or other associations to ensure nurses have a voice on these important issues”
Reflection
Associate Professor Michael Segon
Director MBA
1
Reflection
Reflection is used as a learning tool to make sense of what we have experienced and how we can optimise our learning from that experience.
.
This presentation is all about the Ethical Frameworks or Moral Framework which helps us to determine how to solve a problem that might occur from our moral judgement and issues.
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreat.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreation (2nd Edition)
David Malloy, Saul Ross, Dwight Zakus
2003, Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Canada
(slightly abridged)
"That’s cheating!" "No, it's not!"
"That’s wrong!" "No, it's perfectly alright!"
"That's bad!" "No, it isn't!"
"That's improper behavior!" "No, it's not!"
"That's a violation of policy!" "No, it isn't!"
"That may not be an actual violation, "If it's not a violation
but it certainly goes against the of the rules, then
spirit of the rules." it is perfectly acceptable."
Comments such as these all reflect a concern for ethics and ethical behavior. Each comment is an expression of a moral judgment about some behavior exhibited. Each comment uttered is the result of an evaluation or assessment made of the behavior in relation to an explicit or implicit standard. These comments are usually uttered based on observations of the behavior exhibited. The assessments originate from the observer's own set of beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is good or bad, or what is permissible or unacceptable.
A critical question emerges from the preceding comments: From where docs the standard come that the person uses to assess behavior and then render judgment? The beginning of an answer to the possible bases for ethical standards will be presented later in this chapter and a more elaborate treatment is reserved for the fourth chapter, "Sources of Ethical Decision··Making."
From this brief digression we return to an examination of the ways we make moral judgments. Frequently there is no critical examination nor probing of the set of beliefs, the actual basis for rendering moral judgment, used by the person making such comments. In part this is due to the paucity of attention paid to the study of ethics, generally, and to sport ethics, particularly, at all levels of schooling. While each individual has a personal sense of morality, without the serious, disciplined study of ethics it is not surprising to discover that most people are unaware of the bases for moral judgment. This text aims to consider ably reduce this lack of knowledge through the information provided below.
ln ordinary, everyday circumstances, human behavior is not pre-analyzed for us. There are, however, some instances when this does occur. For example, there arc times when teachers, parents, administrators, religious officials, writers of articles for newspapers and magazines, or authors of books discuss certain events. Then, through their analyses, they point out the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. These instances are few compared to the many times when we have to analyze the situation by ourselves. Consequently, there is an obvious need to comprehend the realm of ethics and to learn how to conduct moral.
Running head Discussion Week 32Organizati.docxjeanettehully
Running head: Discussion Week 3 2
Organizational Behavior
Melanie Fore
University of the Cumberlands
Introduction
At the very beginning of this course the authors stated the core topics of organizational behavior are motivation, leader behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and processes, attitude development and perception, change processes, conflict and negotiation, and work design. This week’s reading goes into depth of a couple of those topics: perception and motivation.
Chapter Six
Chapter six defines for us what perception is, “a process by which we organize and interpret sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.” There are a few factors that shape our perception, perceiver, target, and context. Our perception of people often come from our first impressions of them, we don’t get to know them. This is because of four shortcuts people take in judging someone. First, is selective perception, this means people judge based on their interest and background. Next, the halo effect, where people judge on a single characteristic. The contrast effects are where individuals compare someone who has a distinctive characteristic to others you know with the same characteristics. And lastly, is stereotyping. We know from previous chapters that stereotyping is based on the group to which someone belongs. When someone makes a decision, it is based on their perception. Generally, in organizational behavior there are three things that determine what kind of decision someone makes. One is the rational model. This is where someone decides, after they know all the information, on the option that has the highest utility. Bounded rationality is another. This means the person making the decision doesn’t know all of the information, but they can construct models that extract the essential features. Finally, there is intuition. This is where someone doesn’t know all the information, but they make their decision based on experience. There are several biases that can take place in decision making, these include overconfidence bias, anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availability bias, and hindsight bias. Along with biases, there are errors as well. These are escalation of commitment, randomness error, and risk aversion. Your decisions influence you as an individual and your organization. One of the most important things to know in any career and something that is taught in almost every class are ethics and that is also covered in the end of chapter six.
Chapter Seven
Chapter 7 and 8 cover the motivation topic of organizational behavior. Our authors define motivation as “the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.” Chapter seven is full of motivation theories. The early theories included, the hierarchy of needs, two-factor theory, and McClelland’s theory of needs. The hierarchy of needs include five needs: physiological, safety-sec ...
The Role of Construction, Intuition, and Justification in.docxgertrudebellgrove
The Role of Construction, Intuition, and Justification in Responding to Ethical Issues at
Work: The Sensemaking-Intuition Model
Author(s): Scott Sonenshein
Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 32, No. 4 (Oct., 2007), pp. 1022-1040
Published by: Academy of Management
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20159354
Accessed: 30-01-2020 08:53 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
Academy of Management is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access
to The Academy of Management Review
This content downloaded from 131.170.21.110 on Thu, 30 Jan 2020 08:53:26 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
? Academy o? Management Review
2007, Vol. 32. No. 4, 1022-1040.
THE ROLE OF CONSTRUCTION, INTUITION,
AND JUSTIFICATION IN RESPONDING TO
ETHICAL ISSUES AT WORK: THE
SENSEMAKING-INTUITION MODEL
SCOTT SONENSHEIN
Rice University
Proponents of a popular view of how individuals respond to ethical issues at work
claim that individuals use deliberate and extensive moral reasoning under conditions
that ignore equivocality and uncertainty. I discuss the limitations of these "rationalist
approaches" and reconsider their empirical support using an alternative explanation
from social psychological and sensemaking perspectives. I then introduce a new
theoretical model composed of issue construction, intuitive judgment, and post hoc
explanation and justification. I discuss the implications for management theory,
methods, and practice.
Several prominent theories claim that individ
uals use deliberate and extensive moral reason
ing to respond to ethical issues, such as weigh
ing evidence and applying abstract moral
principles. These "rationalist approaches" have
flourished, in part, because of their cumulative
research agenda and the absence of well
developed alternative theoretical perspectives
(Randall & Gibson, 1990). Despite their popular
ity and usefulness, it is important to evaluate
these approaches to understand their limita
tions. I question several assumptions of ratio
nalist approaches and answer scholars' calls to
develop alternative theoretical views (OTallon
& Butterfield, 2005). I present a model based on
social psychological and sensemaking perspec
tives?something I call the "sensemaking
intuition model" (SIM).
I argue that individuals engage in sensemak
ing under conditions of equivocality and uncer
tainty (Weick, 1979, 1995). Individuals' expecta
tions and motivations affect this process such
that they vary in how they constr ...
Chapter Two
The Ethical Decision-Making Process
In Chapter 1, we looked at the “good or bad apple” approach as well as the situational
perspective to help explain ethical and unethical decision making. But this is only one part of
the ethical decision-making picture. We also need to understand the ethical decision-making
process as well. Yes, different people act differently under the same circumstances based on
their individual moral character, and yes, the same person will act differently when the
situational context changes in terms of the nature of the issue, the ethical corporate culture,
and the personal situation and pressures that are being faced. But we also need to understand
the decision-making process we go through when we make ethical decisions, and at what stage
of the process each of the individual and situational factors we have already discussed might
influence or moderate decision making. Building on and borrowing from a series of academic
disciplines and theories including moral philosophy, moral psychology, social psychology,
social economics, organizational behavior, criminology, behavioral science, cognitive
neuroscience, and business ethics, a number of descriptive ethical decision-making theoretical
models have fortunately been proposed to help explain the decision-making process of
individuals leading to ethical or unethical behavior or actions.
Unfortunately, however, to date there does not appear to be a fully comprehensive ethical
decision-making model. For example, following a comprehensive review of ethical decision-
making research, some researchers suggest the following: “If the field of descriptive ethics is
to move forward to strengthen our understanding of the ethical decision-making process, it is
imperative that future studies focus more attention on theory development.”1 Similarly,
according to others there remains a deficiency in ethical decision-making theory: “Unlike in the
past, researchers no longer need to justify their rationale for studying ethics; instead, their
attention needs to focus on developing a more comprehensive theoretical platform upon which
empirical work in behavioral ethics can continue.”2 In other words, the current disagreement
among scholars over which theoretical ethical decision-making model (if any) is the most
appropriate, especially when engaging in empirical research, needs to be addressed. In fact,
some continue to refer to the ethical decision-making process as a “black box.”3
After looking at the various approaches and ethical decision-making models, my own version
of a descriptive ethical decision-making model is outlined in this chapter that attempts to
consolidate the various models that have already been proposed while incorporating other
important aspects of the ethical decision-making process that have at times been neglected.4
The goal is to not only build upon previous ethical decision-making models, but also to
address the key divergence between what has been ...
Maun Sadhu
Head & Assistant Professor
Department of English
C.U. Shah Institute of Computer Application
C.U. Shah Institute of Science
maunsadhu@gmail.com
This presentation is all about the Ethical Frameworks or Moral Framework which helps us to determine how to solve a problem that might occur from our moral judgement and issues.
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreat.docxwalterl4
Chapter 3 – Sport Ethics – concepts and cases in sport and recreation (2nd Edition)
David Malloy, Saul Ross, Dwight Zakus
2003, Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Canada
(slightly abridged)
"That’s cheating!" "No, it's not!"
"That’s wrong!" "No, it's perfectly alright!"
"That's bad!" "No, it isn't!"
"That's improper behavior!" "No, it's not!"
"That's a violation of policy!" "No, it isn't!"
"That may not be an actual violation, "If it's not a violation
but it certainly goes against the of the rules, then
spirit of the rules." it is perfectly acceptable."
Comments such as these all reflect a concern for ethics and ethical behavior. Each comment is an expression of a moral judgment about some behavior exhibited. Each comment uttered is the result of an evaluation or assessment made of the behavior in relation to an explicit or implicit standard. These comments are usually uttered based on observations of the behavior exhibited. The assessments originate from the observer's own set of beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is good or bad, or what is permissible or unacceptable.
A critical question emerges from the preceding comments: From where docs the standard come that the person uses to assess behavior and then render judgment? The beginning of an answer to the possible bases for ethical standards will be presented later in this chapter and a more elaborate treatment is reserved for the fourth chapter, "Sources of Ethical Decision··Making."
From this brief digression we return to an examination of the ways we make moral judgments. Frequently there is no critical examination nor probing of the set of beliefs, the actual basis for rendering moral judgment, used by the person making such comments. In part this is due to the paucity of attention paid to the study of ethics, generally, and to sport ethics, particularly, at all levels of schooling. While each individual has a personal sense of morality, without the serious, disciplined study of ethics it is not surprising to discover that most people are unaware of the bases for moral judgment. This text aims to consider ably reduce this lack of knowledge through the information provided below.
ln ordinary, everyday circumstances, human behavior is not pre-analyzed for us. There are, however, some instances when this does occur. For example, there arc times when teachers, parents, administrators, religious officials, writers of articles for newspapers and magazines, or authors of books discuss certain events. Then, through their analyses, they point out the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. These instances are few compared to the many times when we have to analyze the situation by ourselves. Consequently, there is an obvious need to comprehend the realm of ethics and to learn how to conduct moral.
Running head Discussion Week 32Organizati.docxjeanettehully
Running head: Discussion Week 3 2
Organizational Behavior
Melanie Fore
University of the Cumberlands
Introduction
At the very beginning of this course the authors stated the core topics of organizational behavior are motivation, leader behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and processes, attitude development and perception, change processes, conflict and negotiation, and work design. This week’s reading goes into depth of a couple of those topics: perception and motivation.
Chapter Six
Chapter six defines for us what perception is, “a process by which we organize and interpret sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.” There are a few factors that shape our perception, perceiver, target, and context. Our perception of people often come from our first impressions of them, we don’t get to know them. This is because of four shortcuts people take in judging someone. First, is selective perception, this means people judge based on their interest and background. Next, the halo effect, where people judge on a single characteristic. The contrast effects are where individuals compare someone who has a distinctive characteristic to others you know with the same characteristics. And lastly, is stereotyping. We know from previous chapters that stereotyping is based on the group to which someone belongs. When someone makes a decision, it is based on their perception. Generally, in organizational behavior there are three things that determine what kind of decision someone makes. One is the rational model. This is where someone decides, after they know all the information, on the option that has the highest utility. Bounded rationality is another. This means the person making the decision doesn’t know all of the information, but they can construct models that extract the essential features. Finally, there is intuition. This is where someone doesn’t know all the information, but they make their decision based on experience. There are several biases that can take place in decision making, these include overconfidence bias, anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availability bias, and hindsight bias. Along with biases, there are errors as well. These are escalation of commitment, randomness error, and risk aversion. Your decisions influence you as an individual and your organization. One of the most important things to know in any career and something that is taught in almost every class are ethics and that is also covered in the end of chapter six.
Chapter Seven
Chapter 7 and 8 cover the motivation topic of organizational behavior. Our authors define motivation as “the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.” Chapter seven is full of motivation theories. The early theories included, the hierarchy of needs, two-factor theory, and McClelland’s theory of needs. The hierarchy of needs include five needs: physiological, safety-sec ...
The Role of Construction, Intuition, and Justification in.docxgertrudebellgrove
The Role of Construction, Intuition, and Justification in Responding to Ethical Issues at
Work: The Sensemaking-Intuition Model
Author(s): Scott Sonenshein
Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 32, No. 4 (Oct., 2007), pp. 1022-1040
Published by: Academy of Management
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20159354
Accessed: 30-01-2020 08:53 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
Academy of Management is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access
to The Academy of Management Review
This content downloaded from 131.170.21.110 on Thu, 30 Jan 2020 08:53:26 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
? Academy o? Management Review
2007, Vol. 32. No. 4, 1022-1040.
THE ROLE OF CONSTRUCTION, INTUITION,
AND JUSTIFICATION IN RESPONDING TO
ETHICAL ISSUES AT WORK: THE
SENSEMAKING-INTUITION MODEL
SCOTT SONENSHEIN
Rice University
Proponents of a popular view of how individuals respond to ethical issues at work
claim that individuals use deliberate and extensive moral reasoning under conditions
that ignore equivocality and uncertainty. I discuss the limitations of these "rationalist
approaches" and reconsider their empirical support using an alternative explanation
from social psychological and sensemaking perspectives. I then introduce a new
theoretical model composed of issue construction, intuitive judgment, and post hoc
explanation and justification. I discuss the implications for management theory,
methods, and practice.
Several prominent theories claim that individ
uals use deliberate and extensive moral reason
ing to respond to ethical issues, such as weigh
ing evidence and applying abstract moral
principles. These "rationalist approaches" have
flourished, in part, because of their cumulative
research agenda and the absence of well
developed alternative theoretical perspectives
(Randall & Gibson, 1990). Despite their popular
ity and usefulness, it is important to evaluate
these approaches to understand their limita
tions. I question several assumptions of ratio
nalist approaches and answer scholars' calls to
develop alternative theoretical views (OTallon
& Butterfield, 2005). I present a model based on
social psychological and sensemaking perspec
tives?something I call the "sensemaking
intuition model" (SIM).
I argue that individuals engage in sensemak
ing under conditions of equivocality and uncer
tainty (Weick, 1979, 1995). Individuals' expecta
tions and motivations affect this process such
that they vary in how they constr ...
Chapter Two
The Ethical Decision-Making Process
In Chapter 1, we looked at the “good or bad apple” approach as well as the situational
perspective to help explain ethical and unethical decision making. But this is only one part of
the ethical decision-making picture. We also need to understand the ethical decision-making
process as well. Yes, different people act differently under the same circumstances based on
their individual moral character, and yes, the same person will act differently when the
situational context changes in terms of the nature of the issue, the ethical corporate culture,
and the personal situation and pressures that are being faced. But we also need to understand
the decision-making process we go through when we make ethical decisions, and at what stage
of the process each of the individual and situational factors we have already discussed might
influence or moderate decision making. Building on and borrowing from a series of academic
disciplines and theories including moral philosophy, moral psychology, social psychology,
social economics, organizational behavior, criminology, behavioral science, cognitive
neuroscience, and business ethics, a number of descriptive ethical decision-making theoretical
models have fortunately been proposed to help explain the decision-making process of
individuals leading to ethical or unethical behavior or actions.
Unfortunately, however, to date there does not appear to be a fully comprehensive ethical
decision-making model. For example, following a comprehensive review of ethical decision-
making research, some researchers suggest the following: “If the field of descriptive ethics is
to move forward to strengthen our understanding of the ethical decision-making process, it is
imperative that future studies focus more attention on theory development.”1 Similarly,
according to others there remains a deficiency in ethical decision-making theory: “Unlike in the
past, researchers no longer need to justify their rationale for studying ethics; instead, their
attention needs to focus on developing a more comprehensive theoretical platform upon which
empirical work in behavioral ethics can continue.”2 In other words, the current disagreement
among scholars over which theoretical ethical decision-making model (if any) is the most
appropriate, especially when engaging in empirical research, needs to be addressed. In fact,
some continue to refer to the ethical decision-making process as a “black box.”3
After looking at the various approaches and ethical decision-making models, my own version
of a descriptive ethical decision-making model is outlined in this chapter that attempts to
consolidate the various models that have already been proposed while incorporating other
important aspects of the ethical decision-making process that have at times been neglected.4
The goal is to not only build upon previous ethical decision-making models, but also to
address the key divergence between what has been ...
Maun Sadhu
Head & Assistant Professor
Department of English
C.U. Shah Institute of Computer Application
C.U. Shah Institute of Science
maunsadhu@gmail.com
Premium MEAN Stack Development Solutions for Modern BusinessesSynapseIndia
Stay ahead of the curve with our premium MEAN Stack Development Solutions. Our expert developers utilize MongoDB, Express.js, AngularJS, and Node.js to create modern and responsive web applications. Trust us for cutting-edge solutions that drive your business growth and success.
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Affordable Stationery Printing Services in Jaipur | Navpack n PrintNavpack & Print
Looking for professional printing services in Jaipur? Navpack n Print offers high-quality and affordable stationery printing for all your business needs. Stand out with custom stationery designs and fast turnaround times. Contact us today for a quote!
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
Memorandum Of Association Constitution of Company.pptseri bangash
www.seribangash.com
A Memorandum of Association (MOA) is a legal document that outlines the fundamental principles and objectives upon which a company operates. It serves as the company's charter or constitution and defines the scope of its activities. Here's a detailed note on the MOA:
Contents of Memorandum of Association:
Name Clause: This clause states the name of the company, which should end with words like "Limited" or "Ltd." for a public limited company and "Private Limited" or "Pvt. Ltd." for a private limited company.
https://seribangash.com/article-of-association-is-legal-doc-of-company/
Registered Office Clause: It specifies the location where the company's registered office is situated. This office is where all official communications and notices are sent.
Objective Clause: This clause delineates the main objectives for which the company is formed. It's important to define these objectives clearly, as the company cannot undertake activities beyond those mentioned in this clause.
www.seribangash.com
Liability Clause: It outlines the extent of liability of the company's members. In the case of companies limited by shares, the liability of members is limited to the amount unpaid on their shares. For companies limited by guarantee, members' liability is limited to the amount they undertake to contribute if the company is wound up.
https://seribangash.com/promotors-is-person-conceived-formation-company/
Capital Clause: This clause specifies the authorized capital of the company, i.e., the maximum amount of share capital the company is authorized to issue. It also mentions the division of this capital into shares and their respective nominal value.
Association Clause: It simply states that the subscribers wish to form a company and agree to become members of it, in accordance with the terms of the MOA.
Importance of Memorandum of Association:
Legal Requirement: The MOA is a legal requirement for the formation of a company. It must be filed with the Registrar of Companies during the incorporation process.
Constitutional Document: It serves as the company's constitutional document, defining its scope, powers, and limitations.
Protection of Members: It protects the interests of the company's members by clearly defining the objectives and limiting their liability.
External Communication: It provides clarity to external parties, such as investors, creditors, and regulatory authorities, regarding the company's objectives and powers.
https://seribangash.com/difference-public-and-private-company-law/
Binding Authority: The company and its members are bound by the provisions of the MOA. Any action taken beyond its scope may be considered ultra vires (beyond the powers) of the company and therefore void.
Amendment of MOA:
While the MOA lays down the company's fundamental principles, it is not entirely immutable. It can be amended, but only under specific circumstances and in compliance with legal procedures. Amendments typically require shareholder
3.0 Project 2_ Developing My Brand Identity Kit.pptxtanyjahb
A personal brand exploration presentation summarizes an individual's unique qualities and goals, covering strengths, values, passions, and target audience. It helps individuals understand what makes them stand out, their desired image, and how they aim to achieve it.
Business Valuation Principles for EntrepreneursBen Wann
This insightful presentation is designed to equip entrepreneurs with the essential knowledge and tools needed to accurately value their businesses. Understanding business valuation is crucial for making informed decisions, whether you're seeking investment, planning to sell, or simply want to gauge your company's worth.
Personal Brand Statement:
As an Army veteran dedicated to lifelong learning, I bring a disciplined, strategic mindset to my pursuits. I am constantly expanding my knowledge to innovate and lead effectively. My journey is driven by a commitment to excellence, and to make a meaningful impact in the world.
Accpac to QuickBooks Conversion Navigating the Transition with Online Account...PaulBryant58
This article provides a comprehensive guide on how to
effectively manage the convert Accpac to QuickBooks , with a particular focus on utilizing online accounting services to streamline the process.
Session 10_B324_Marketing and Society Block23 (2018)_SPRING 2020 2021.ppt
1. Marketing and Society
(B 324)
Session 10
In Block 2 & Block 3
1
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
2. Acting Ethically (Block 2, section 5, p. 94)
To make a simple distinction between ethics and morals, Lawton
(1998) distinguishes between 'ethics' as a set of principles that
acts as a guide to conduct and 'morals' as how a person lives up
to the demands of what is perceived to be right and wrong
behavior.
Moral behavior (section 5.1, p.94): Rest (1994) proposed
that moral behavior consisted of four components:
1. moral sensitivity
2. moral judgment
3. moral motivation
4. moral character.
2
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
3. Acting Ethically (Continue I)
1. Moral sensitivity: Rest (1994, p. 23) defined moral
sensitivity as 'the awareness of how our actions
affect other people'.
It concerns being sensitive to the possible impact of
different courses of action on all of those involved.
Rest emphasized the importance of empathy and
role-taking skills.
To act morally, we need to consider the potential
consequences of our actions on other people and
appreciate their perspectives. Of course the extent to
which we may be able to predict all the consequences
of actions is a moot point.
3
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
4. Acting Ethically (Continue II)
2. Moral judgment: Moral judgment involves
deciding which action is morally right or
wrong, having considered the range of
possible actions and their likely effects on
people. We have already examined many
frameworks for moral reasoning that have been
developed to guide moral judgment. At the
same time, moral judgment will reflect
experience and 'practical wisdom'.
4
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
5. Acting Ethically (Continue III)
3. Moral motivation: Moral motivation
concerns the relative importance given to
competing values.
Moral action may be compromised if a
person is insufficiently motivated to give
moral values priority over other values.
Rest gave the examples of self-actualization
and protecting one's organization as values
that are sometimes given greater weight than
moral values.
5
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
6. Acting Ethically (Continue IV)
4. Moral character: Rest (1994, p. 24) lists moral character as
involving: 'ego strength, perseverance, backbone, toughness,
strength of conviction and courage'.
Of course, such characteristics are not necessarily ethical; we
might want to add the caveat that they take on an ethical
dimension in the pursuit of ethical ends such as the 'public good'.
Maclagan (1991) suggests that moral development requires
interpersonal skills and self-knowledge, and emphasizes the
importance of the following interpersonal skills: assertiveness,
the ability to control one's emotional reactions and tolerance of
others' views.
As ethical dilemmas may involve conflicts of interests or values
between stakeholders, the ability to negotiate sensitively with
other people is essential. Maclagan also highlights the need for
self-knowledge.
6
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
7. Moral character (continued) – The implications of “Moral Character” in
terms of three response categories to ethical issues in advertising:
Three different stances that tend to be adopted by advertising practitioners when faced
with ethical issues in advertising (Drumwright & Murphy 2004):
Moral myopia - exhibited by advertising practitioners who had
difficulty perceiving ethical issues. These practitioners saw
responsibility for monitoring ethical issues as being external to
themselves. In Rest's terms, they may be seen as lacking moral
sensitivity.
Moral muteness - shown by advertising practitioners who
recognized ethical issues but ignored or avoided confronting them.
These practitioners appeared uneasy but dissociated themselves
from the ethical conflicts that threatened them. They appeared to
have moral sensitivity and moral judgment, but lacked moral
motivation and moral character.
Moral imagination - demonstrated by a minority of advertising
practitioners who recognized and engaged with ethical issues in
advertising. These individuals acknowledged and confronted ethical
issues openly. This minority of practitioners displayed moral
sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation and moral character.
7
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
8. Ethical decision making models (Block 2, section 5.3, p. 100)
•A number of models of ethical decision making in marketing
have been developed. Ferrell and Gresham (1985) proposed a
contingency framework that describes a process of ethical
decision making in marketing (see Figure 5.2). It includes
contingency factors that distinguish between contexts in
which decision making takes place.
•An individual's decision-making process is conceived as
being influenced by the interaction between individual
factors (including knowledge, values, attitudes and
intentions) and organizational factors (including significant
others and opportunity factors).
•The model assumes that individuals may, consciously or
unconsciously, draw on various ethical frameworks, which
inform their knowledge, values, attitudes and intentions,
although these are not explicitly represented in the figure.
8
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
10. Ethical decision making models (continued)
Hunt and. Vitell's general theory of marketing ethics: Hunt & Vitell (1986; 1993)
posited a process through which an individual passes once he or she has detected a
situation that involves an ethical problem. The model was originally published in 1986
and a revised version was published in 1993. The revised model is shown in Figure 5.3
(Note: Students must refer to Block II page 101).
• The boxes on the far left influence the perception of an ethical problem. The next step
is the set of perceived possible options; perceptions of these may differ between
individuals. The options are then subjected to two types of evaluation: deontological
(the rightness or wrongness of the option) and teleological (consideration of the
consequences and stakeholders).
• Deontological evaluation entails evaluating each option against the individual’s set of
norms (in other words personal values or rules of moral behavior). These include
general beliefs (for example, honesty) and issue-specific beliefs (for example, price
discrimination) about what is right or wrong.
• Teleological evaluation involves assessing each option with regard to four
considerations: (i) the perceived consequences of each option for the different
stakeholder groups; (ii) the probability that each consequence will happen to each of
the stakeholder groups; (iii) the acceptability or unacceptability of each consequence;
and (iv) the importance of each stakeholder group. The outcome of these evaluations
is the individual’s ethical judgments, which lead to intentions and then behavior,
consistent with other general theories in consumer behavior.
10
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
11. Hunt and. Vitell's general theory of marketing ethics (continued)
•However, it is possible that intentions might not necessarily
be consistent with ethical judgments, because intentions can
also be influenced by teleological evaluation directly, perhaps
because one of the options is personally beneficial albeit not
the most ethical. This will result in feelings of guilt, owing to
the conflict between ethical judgment and intentions.
Behavior is also influenced by ‘action control’, which is the
individual’s ability to enact an intention. An individual might
be prevented from acting according to intentions by
situational constraints.
•Finally, the consequences of the actual behavior are evaluated
afterwards and fed back into ‘personal characteristics’ and
effect learning. In their later review of studies that had tested
their general theory of marketing ethics, Hunt and Vitell
(2006) concluded that studies provided strong support for
their model.
11
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
12. Jones' Issue-contingent Model (Block 2, section 5, p. 104)
Building on a number of ethical decision-making models, Jones' (1991)
issue-contingent model emphasizes the importance of the
characteristics of the ethical issue in question. Jones identified the
following six characteristics, which he called 'moral intensity'. He
argued that they influence all aspects of ethical decision making and
behavior:
1 Magnitude of consequences - the total harms or benefits experienced
by those affected by the act in question.
2 Social consensus - the level of social agreement about the good or evil
of a proposed act.
3 Probability of effect - a combination of the likelihood that the act in
question will happen and the likelihood of its causing the predicted
harms or benefits.
4 Temporal immediacy - the length of time from the present time to
the start of the consequences of the act in question (the shorter
the length of time, the greater the temporal immediacy).
12
Copyrights Materials, AOU Lebanon
13. Jones' Issue-contingent Model (continued)
5 Proximity - the degree of closeness (social, cultural,
psychological or physical) of the moral agent to
those affected by the act in question.
6 Concentration of effect - an inverse function of the
number of people affected by the act in question or
given magnitude (in other words whether the harm
is borne by a small number of people or diluted
among a larger number of people).
Jones' issue-contingent model emphasizes the
importance of the characteristics of the ethical issue
in question. Refer to page 104.
13
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14. Block III
Learning outcomes:
The aim of this block is to explore what is meant by responsible business
marketing, to look at the rationale and theory underlying it, and to
critically examine some of the key forms in which it manifests itself.
After studying this block, you should be able to:
describe -the concept of responsible marketing and present arguments
for and against it
describe in some detail the concepts and practice of sustainable
marketing and fair trade marketing
identify some aspects or features of responsible marketing practice that
apply across its different forms
think critically about the benefits and pitfalls. of responsible marketing
and apply this to your own experience of, and attitudes towards,
responsible marketing practices.
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15. Some Key Issues In Responsible Marketing
In this section we will start to look in more detail at some
of the substantive issues and challenges that responsible
marketing practice has to deal with. You have already
learned about a number of issues in marketing ethics in
Block II of B324. It is beyond the scope of this block to
look at every responsible marketing issue in detail and so
we have chosen to focus on five that we consider
particularly important: sustainability, fair trade,
consumer protection, the relationship between business
and government, and ethical consumption.
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16. Some Key Issues In Responsible Marketing (Continue I)
Sustainability: Sustainable development is perhaps the most
significant and yet the most difficult problem that marketing - and
human economic activity in general - faces at the beginning of the
third millennium.
Modern production methods and marketing systems have brought
unparalleled material comforts to most people in affluent societies
and to many in the so-called emerging economies, as well as to
some in less-developed economies.
In this sense affluent consumers have never had it so good. But this
level of material wealth has come at a high price as increasingly
the earth's natural resources are seen to be under enormous stress,
the most significant example of which is perhaps global climate
change. An example - an increasing number of people travel more
frequently and for longer distances, using motorcars, aeroplanes
and other forms of motorized transport.
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17. Some Key Issues In Responsible Marketing (Continue II)
What do we mean by sustainability? 'Sustainability' (and related
terms such as 'sustainable development') is a highly contested
concept and is interpreted in quite a number of different ways. Put
in somewhat simplified terms, there are two ways of defining
sustainability.
A) Narrowly speaking, sustainability can be defined in terms of
ecological system maintenance, in the sense of ensuring that our
actions do not impact upon the Earth or the biosphere in such a way
that its long-term viability is threatened. B) More broadly,
sustainability can be seen in terms of balancing economic,
ecological and social goals and consequences (see Elkington,
1998).
Most current definitions of sustainability tend to rely on the widely
cited definition of sustainable development from the Brundtland
Commission (WCED, 1987). This stresses the necessity of meeting
the needs of current generations without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their needs.
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18. Some Key Issues In Responsible Marketing (Continue III)
The goals of sustainability: Let us now consider
in a little more detail what sustainability entails.
As mentioned above, most commentators on
sustainability see it as a three-partite concept
embracing environmental, economic and social
goals which need to be brought into some kind
of harmony. The relationship between the main
goals of sustainability can be depicted as in
Figure 3.1
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20. Figure 3.1 (continued)
•Figure 3.1 lays out diagrammatically the three goals which
it calls eco-efficiency, eco-justice and socio-efficiency.
These goals are sometimes measured in a way that in
accounting terms is called the triple bottom line, since it
involves providing measurable information on three
separate sets of criteria- economic factors, social policies
and environmental practices - not merely on traditional
accounting data.
•In investment terms, the Dow Jones Sustainability Index
and the FTSE 4 Good Europe 50 allow shareholders to
evaluate how effective individual corporations are in
monetary and sustainability terms as, in addition to the
normal financial measures, corporations are measured by
the triple bottom line.
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21. Sustainable marketing: an oxymoron?
For the purposes of this course, sustainability is perhaps
best thought of in terms of a process directed towards
minimizing the damage done by economic and social
activity to the capacity of the planet to sustain economic
and social activity over the long term. Sustainable
marketing practices are those which encourage the use of
resources in such a way as to maximize social welfare and
minimize the wasteful use of such resources on products
of little or no intrinsic value. According to the marketing
concept as presented in many widely used marketing
textbooks, 'achieving organizational goals depends on
determining the needs and wants of target markets and
delivering the desired satisfactions' (Kotler et al., 2001, p.
15).
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22. Fair Trade
Another important challenge for responsible
marketing relates to the fairness with which
benefits from trade and marketing are distributed
between producers, intermediaries and consumers.
The key problem identified in the fair trade
movement is that small producers (such as of foods
or crafts) often do not appear to be receiving a 'fair'
price for their goods, while intermediaries (such as
exporting firms and retailers) are seen to make very
good profits and consumers have the luxury of
paying only moderate prices for these goods.
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23. Fair Trade (Continued)
The problem is thought to be particularly significant in
areas of international trade. For example, it is argued
that small coffee or cocoa farmers in so-called Third
World countries commonly receive very little money for
their produce - not always enough to lift them above the
poverty line - while European coffee importers earn
good profits and European consumers pay very
affordable prices.
The fair trade movement attempts to rectify this
situation by paying fair prices to producers, cutting out
large profits to intermediaries, and charging slightly
higher prices to Western consumers.
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24. Consumer Protection
• One of the most established concerns for marketing ethics and
responsible marketing practice is that of consumer protection. , the 'free
market' view would hold that consumers enter into purchasing
agreements of their own free will and can be trusted to workout for
themselves if a product is safe, fit for purpose or meets their needs, and
make a purchasing decision accordingly.
• The argument is that if consumers want more product safety (or other
benefits) they choose products which provide this safety and pay any
extra cost that is associated with it.
• The problem with this argument was also touched on in Reading 3: that
consumers are at a power and information disadvantage vis-à-vis large
manufacturing firms and retailers. They often lack the means to assess
reliably whether a product or service is fit for its purpose or safe.
Extensive consumer protection legislation has therefore been
introduced in many countries, which puts the onus on companies to
provide safe, reliable and suitable products and gives consumers some
form of redress if they are persuaded to buy products which do not meet
minimum standards.
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25. Business's Relationship With Government
Responsible marketing practice is, to a large extent,
concerned with fair treatment for stakeholders, be they
consumers (e.g. in terms of consumer protection),
producers (e.g, in paying fair prices to small producers),
or the wider community and the environment (in terms of
striving for sustainable marketing practices). One of the
main stakeholders of most businesses is government and
its agencies. In the relationship between business and
government, the idea that a stakeholder relationship is
one where responsibility and dependence go both ways is
particularly clear.
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26. Business's Relationship With Government (continue I)
Because of this, the relationship between government and
business is often complex and contradictory. Governments
have to strive for a societal compromise between people's
self-interest and social interest, and corporations are caught
in a dual position of both challenging government
intervention and being dependent on that very government
action. For example, some corporations contribute
significantly to the funding of government parties. This can
lead to a conflict of interests when government is expected to
also protect the interests of its electorate by regulating
business activity. Corporations are dependent on the
government to ensure the protection of their interests through
favorable legislation, but must also constantly lobby
government to increase the sphere of their autonomy
(Campion, 2006).
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27. The role of government regulation in responsible
marketing
Clearly an enlightened CSR policy is important for a company
in emphasizing its straight-dealing and morally upright
attitude to its customers and wider society. However, in
capitalist economies the imperatives of sales and profit and
the demands of shareholders and financiers frequently have
greater power than those of the wider society and morality,
even if strong arguments can be made that the costs of many
CSR strategies can be justified on the grounds that they will
lead to an enhanced reputation which will in turn strengthen
competitive advantage. This is less the case for producers of
nonbranded goods and business-to-business marketers; and
not all CSR costs can be justified in strictly profit terms.
Government regulation and legislation therefore often step in
to ensure minimum standards of 'good' behavior by
companies.
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28. How Companies Can Influence Government
There are also a number of ways in which companies can
influence government to enact legislation protecting their
interests. One of these is lobbying, whereby firms
commonly employ lobbying companies or corporate
communications consultants to further their cause, or
representatives of business are appointed to government
posts and vice versa. Such influencing tactics are not always
compatible with good social responsibility. For example,
mutual appointments of (ex-)politicians to business posts
and of business people to government posts can clearly lead
to opportunities for exerting undue influence and may' well
lead to potential conflicts of interest. Party/financing by
companies in order to influence agendas is also often seen
as ethically problematic.
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29. Ethical Consumption
The history of ethical consumption can probably be traced
back to the start of the South African apartheid boycott in
1959. As globalization makes the whole world effectively a
single market, there is pressure on governments to de-
regulate, so a counter-force is needed to protect buyers
against too rampant a strain of capitalism. Terms are of
course used very loosely here and 'green' and 'ethical' are
used to cover an equally wide range of issues: animal
welfare (including free range and organic production),
restriction of the use of genetically modified products,
dolphin and whale protection, vegetarianism and veganism,
and prohibition of testing of cosmetics and, more
controversially, of pharmaceuticals, on animals.
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30. Ethical Consumption ( Continue I)
•Screening of suppliers for environmental policies,
the use of timber from managed forests only,
avoidance of PVC and chlorine, the elimination of
ozone-depleting hydrocarbons in refrigerators,
recycling, fair trade, and campaigns against sweat
shop practices have also all been included as part of
'green' or 'ethical' consumption. Research has shown
that ethical subjects can, in consumers‘ eyes, be
grouped into four areas: (1) treatment of employees;
(2) environmental factors; (3) community support;
and (4) product qualities (MORI, 2000).
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31. Sustainability And Green Marketing (Block III Page 30)
The growth of green marketing is claimed to be the result of a combination of
factors, notably:
1 Firms see environmental marketing as an opportunity to differentiate
themselves in the market. Ottman (1993) states that in a study of 16
countries more than 50 per cent of consumers in each country, other than
Singapore, indicated a concern about the environment, even in the early
1990s. There is much evidence to suggest that consumers are becoming
more environmentally aware and as a result some firms see opportunities
for achieving competitive advantage through green marketing.
2 Firms recognize their obligations to be more environmentally
responsible. Some firms like Coca-Cola and Walt Disney employ green
policies without highlighting them. Many more highlight so-called green
policies without thinking of them as much more than 'good' marketing
strategies.
3 Government bodies are forcing firms to become more environmentally
responsible. Many countries have stringent environmental regulations,
forcing firms to adopt more environmentally friendly policies and practices.
.
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32. Sustainability And Green Marketing (Continue I)
4 Competitors' environmental activities pressurize firms to
improve their environmental marketing activities. There is also
an element of 'follow my neighbor' in corporate green policies. If
your competitors are going green in their marketing, you had
better do so too.
5 Cost factors concerned with material usage or waste disposal
lead firms to modify their activities. When attempting to minimize
waste, firms are forced to re-evaluate their production processes.
This often leads to change in a green direction that also reduces
costs. New industries can even develop selling methods of reducing
or even eliminating waste.
• Green or environmental marketing is perhaps the area of
responsible marketing which has been practiced most and about
which most has been written. The literature on green marketing
can tell us quite a lot, not just about green marketing itself, but by
implication about responsible marketing in general.
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33. What Is Green Marketing?
• Green marketing has been proposed as a solution, at least a
partial one, to the environmental issues connected with
conventional marketing. Much of the early theory on green
marketing as well as its practice is really more or less an
extension of conventional marketing theory and practice.
• This idea of green marketing is based on the concept of
ecological modernization, which suggests that it is possible to
achieve an environmentally sustainable economy within the
current market system.
• Green marketers are expected to react flexibly to these
consumer demands, changing products and processes to
achieve the same consumer benefits with less environmental
damage.
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34. Development Of Green Marketing
•The notion of green marketing, described above as.
essentially an extension of conventional marketing,
has undergone some changes and developments since
green marketing first became popular in the closing
decades of the twentieth century. This development
has mostly affected green marketing theory - that is,
thinking about the way in which marketing could be
made more environmentally friendly - but there have
also been some changes in the practice of green
marketing.
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35. A Systemic View Of Marketing
Sustainability
According to Bill Kilbourne, one of the more outspoken
critics of 'conventional' green marketing, the environmental
crisis is caused not by specific behaviors, such as the
production or consumption of particular, non-green
.products, but by a materialist 'dominant social paradigm'
which is reflected in our entire .production and consumption
system. Kilbourne argues that contemporary green
marketing fails to move beyond that paradigm and is
therefore unable to provide a solution to the crisis
(Kilbourne, 1998). On the practical side, green marketing
has been found to be more rhetoric than substance (Peattie,
1999) and some companies have also found that the profits
they expected from green marketing 'have not materialized.
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36. The Future Of Sustainable Marketing
•What, then, is the future of marketing in sustainability
terms? Kilbourne, in Reading 9, argues that
sustainability can only be achieved if the dominant
social paradigm is challenged and overcome. What he
seems to argue is that the way in which the capitalist
system works is the main problem and sustainability is
unlikely to be achieved within that system (although he
doesn't actually quite phrase it like that). We will
conclude this section with excerpts from two articles
which consider the possibilities of achieving sustainable
marketing within the capitalist system.
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37. Fair Trade And Marketing
In this section you will study another aspect of responsible
marketing that has gained in currency over recent years -
fair trade marketing. Sustainable development and fair trade
are not so very different in their aims. The triple goals of
sustainability, as outlined in Section 3.1, include ecological,
social and economic goals. Likewise, the fair trade
movement pays attention to the ecological and economic
sustain ability of producers' businesses, as well as to the
social dimension. However, the green marketing movement
and most of the literature concerned with the 'sustainability'
of marketing focuses on the ecological dimension, whereas
fair trade appears to be mostly focused on the social
dimension.
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38. What Is Fair Trade Marketing?
Fair trade marketing is principally concerned with
making sure that small producers are paid sufficient
money for their products to cover their costs and give
them enough to live on.
Fair trade is a multi-strand movement in which the parts
are all pointing in the same direction, namely to improve
the lot of small, (initially) powerless primary producers
by ensuring that they get a better price for their produce,
usually one that is over the market price. There are
alternative trade organizations and those involved in fair
trade labeling; there are programs to encourage organic
production and ethical sourcing initiatives carried out by
major Western retailers.
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39. The Argument For Fair Trade
Some economists argue that fair trade prices given to
commodity producers, such as small coffee farmers,
distort the market. They argue that the main reason
for low coffee prices is that there is too great a
supply, and that paying above world market prices,
i.e. paying what is considered a 'fair' price by the fair
trade movement, will only encourage the
development of a greater glut in the market and
further depress market prices. However, this
reasoning assumes rough equivalence in power
between the producer and the buyer which frequently
does not exist.
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40. The Argument For Fair Trade (Continue I)
The validity of the argument that products
manufactured under such labor conditions are sold at
a 'fair' market price can be questioned as such
workers often do not operate in what one would
consider free market conditions. Since they are
commonly paid below-subsistence wages, on which
nevertheless their families rely for what little they
have, they cannot' really be said to be participating
'freely' in the market.
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41. Fair Trade Organizations And Networks
FLO has become the standard bearer of the movement and is
trying to harmonize standards for fair trade. These standards
increasingly include environmental factors, thus bringing the
green and fair trade movements closer together. At present,
fair trade producers are concentrated in a limited number of
product areas arid most of them tend to be in some form of
marketing co-operative.
Fair trade marketing tends to be mainly about finding
customers who will pay the required premium price for the
products that the producer can supply. As such it can be only
a niche market as only a small minority of consumers is
prepared to pay a premium in order to support small, mostly
Third World producers. In order to gain a more thorough
overview of the fair trade movement, we will now turn to
Reading 12.
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42. The Effectiveness Of Fair Trade
The FLO labeling scheme aims to give objective
certification for fair trade practices on which consumers
can rely. Suppliers who meet certain fair trade criteria are
allowed to label their products as fair trade and thus attract
customers who are sympathetic to their aims.
The fact that fair-trade-labeled products are now sold
through mainstream retailers and not just niche outlets
means that fair trade may reach a wider range not only of
consumers but also producers, which would seem to
increase its effectiveness. The size of the overall fair trade
market, even taking into account some mainstreaming,
should not be over-estimated: of 6 million tones of coffee
beans produced annually, only 20,000 tones go into fair
trade products.
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43. Mainstreaming Fair Trade Marketing
Fair trade marketing is perhaps the responsible
marketing practice that has most clearly
developed in a niche, with specialist providers of
fair trade products operating from specialist shops.
It is therefore a good example for studying how
responsible marketing practices can be made more
mainstream and how this may affect the way they
work.
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