The document discusses the concepts of deviance and crime. It defines deviance as violating social norms, whether minor norms like etiquette or more serious moral codes. Crime is defined as deviant behavior that breaks codified law. Whether an act is considered deviant depends on social and cultural context. Structural functionalism views deviance as serving a constructive role in affirming social values, while conflict theory sees it as a result of inequality between social groups. The document also discusses theories for integrating explanations of crime, such as control theory which examines how social bonds influence law-abiding behavior.

1. CRIME AND DEVIANCE

2.  What, exactly, is deviance? And what is the relationship between deviance and crime?
According to sociologist William Graham Sumner, deviance is a violation of
established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified
law (1906). Folkways are norms based on everyday cultural customs concerning
practical matters like how to hold a fork, what type of clothes are appropriate for
different situations, or how to greet someone politely. Mores are more serious moral
injunctions or taboos that are broadly recognized in a society, like the incest taboo.
Codified laws are norms that are specified in explicit codes and enforced by
government bodies. A crime is therefore an act of deviance that breaks not only a norm,
but a law. Deviance can be as minor as picking one’s nose in public or as major as
committing murder.

3.  Put it another way, whether or not an act or behaviour is regarded as deviant,
depends greatly on the way people look and label that act or behaviour. In
essence, the deviance is decided on the basis of social setting or the context in
which the deviance happens. Smoking in a public place is an example of
deviance.
 Further, the behaviour that is deemed as ‘deviant’ may change with time, i.e.
with the development of society, its principles and norms are also modified. And
so, what is called ‘deviant behaviour’ previously, may not be considered in
future.

4.  Crime refers to any unlawful act or negligence causing physical or
psychological harm to someone, often forbidden and punishable by the statute.
It is detrimental to the welfare of the public, or to the interest of the state and so,
it is prosecuted by the state. The punishment for committing a crime can be fine
or imprisonment or both.

5. theories
 Structural Functionalism
 Structural Functionalism argues deviant behavior plays a constructive part in
society as it brings together different parts of the population within a society.
That’s because deviance helps to demarcate limitations for acceptable and
unacceptable behavior, which in turn serves to affirm our cultural values and
norms.
 While deviant behavior can throw off social balance, society may adjust social
norms in the process of restoring that balance. In other words, deviant behavior
can then contribute to social stability in the long term because it challenges
norms while promoting social cohesion

6. Conflict Theory
 Conflict Theory views deviant behavior as a consequence of material inequality
between various socio-political groups. Those groups might be drawn along the
lines of gender, religion, race, class, and so on. Each sociopolitical group has a
tendency to perceive its own interests in completion with others. In other words,
the members of various groups tend to perceive rights and other social
privileges as a zero-sum game, where gains for outsiders mean losses for your
own group.
 Groups that find themselves in an unequal social position in society will be
inclined to deviant behavior to change those circumstances, including the
structures which helped create them. As Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. once said, “A
riot is the language of the unheard.” From the perspective of Conflict Theory,
people often act in defiance from social norms to express a grievance

7. Theoretical Integration
 Theoretical integration is also called theoretical synthesis or theoretical
unification. It refers to the process of coming up with a new theory by combining
two or more theories. The specific integration method makes the links explicit
between conceptually, formally, or historically different paradigms.
 Theoretical integration is an essential concept in sociology because it allows for
a better understanding of social life. For example, Karl Marx’s Theory of
Capitalism and Max Weber’s Conceptualizations of Social Action was
integrated to understand social life better.

8.  Theoretical integrations are when theorists take an idea from one theory and put it
into another. The process of integrating different theories requires a good
understanding of each theory’s concepts.
 For instance, the process of integrating Merton’s strain theory with his anomie
theories requires that you understand each theory and then put them together.
 Merton’s strain theory states that when there is too much stress and pressure to
achieve society’s goals, people will either adapt by changing their goals or
by deviant behaviors.
 Merton’s anomie theories state three types of reactions to strain: conformity,
innovation, and retreatism.
 Integrating these two theories would mean that strain causes people to either adapt
by changing their goals and reaching the privileged goals or by resorting to deviant
behavior.
 You can integrate the theories in different ways, such as using the concepts from
one theory and applying it to the other. It is also possible to integrate the theories by
doing a case study that uses both sets of concepts together.

9. Examples of Integrated Theories of
Crime
 Interactional Theory by Krohn
 This theory borrows from the social control theory and the differential
association theory. It focuses on the interaction between people, which leads to
criminal behavior.
 There are two primary components to this theory: internal and external factors.
Internal factors that are considered are personality, family environment, and
peer pressure. External factors that are important to this theory are social
conditions and punishments for criminal acts

10. Control Theory by Cohen and Felson
 Control theory was created as an alternative for the differential association. The
main difference is that control theory does not focus on peer pressure to explain
criminal behavior but instead focuses on routine activities. The control theory is
based on the social disorganization and strain theories.
 Here is an example of how this theory would work: a person goes to the grocery
store daily at night. One night they are robbed at gunpoint, and the next time
they go to the grocery store, they are more careful.
 The control theory states that this person will change their routine and only go
to the grocery store during the day when there are more people around, which
lowers their chances of being attacked again.

11. Control Theory
 Why do people obey the law? Control theory is one point of view that
attempts to answer this question. The theory starts with the premise
that people are essentially interested in satisfying their needs and
desires and do not want to experience negative consequences. They
particularly do not want to have others look poorly on them and risk
losing support and approval from those in their life. Control theory
identifies these bonds we have with others as a main reason most
people do not violate laws.
 Control theory has also been used to explain why most people do not
engage in other deviant behavior. Deviant behavior is acting in a way
that does not fit in with the norms of society. Deviance may or may not
also be criminal behavior, actions that violate the law. For instance,
dancing on the sidewalk by myself may not violate any laws, but the
behavior could be considered deviant, depending on the circumstances

12.  Imagine what would happen if you decided you wanted a new television, but did not want to pay for it.
You steal it, get caught, and are punished for your criminal act. Was it worth it? For most people, the
possibility of obtaining a television is no reason to risk their freedom to live outside of jail or risk the
judgement of people in their life. Being punished with jail time is an example of an external control.
External controls are people and institutions--such as police, family, friends, teachers, the government,
and other authority figures --that will respond if you behave outside of the norm.
 The other type of control is internal control. This includes our values, our conscience, and our desire
to receive approval from other people, particularly those in our close relationships. Internal and
external control impact our willingness to obey laws and adhere to cultural norms, including ones we
don't like. Even if we didn't get caught stealing the television, many people would feel guilty about
taking something they did not buy. An internal control might even cause a person to turn herself into
the police. Turning herself in would relieve a sense of guilt caused by internal controls, even if this
means she would be punished by external controls.

13. White-Collar Crime
 White-collar crime is crime committed as part of one’s occupation. It ranges from
fraudulent repairs by auto repair shops to corruption in the high-finance industry to
unsafe products and workplaces in some of our largest corporations. It also includes
employee theft of objects and cash. Have you ever taken something without permission
from a place where you worked? Whether or not you have, many people steal from
their employees, and the National Retail Federation estimates that employee theft
involves some $20 billion annually (National Retail Federation, 2007). White-collar
crime also includes health-care fraud, which is estimated to cost some $100 billion a
year as, for example, physicians and other health-care providers bill Medicaid for
exams and tests that were never done or were unnecessary (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman,
2010). And it also involves tax evasion: the IRS estimates that tax evasion costs the
government some $300 billion annually, a figure many times greater than the cost of all
robberies and burglaries (Montgomery, 2007).

14. Gender and crime
 Official statistics highlight that globally, males commit far more crimes than women. This
creates a gender gap, which if you read the stretch and challenge, shows is minimising. Below
are some key facts you need to know.
 In England and Wales (2014):
• Men made up 95% of all prisoners for serious offences.
• Men made up 85% of the prison population.
• Men are convicted for about six known indictable offences for every one committed by a
woman.
• Men are more likely to be repeat offenders. Ages 17 to 20 is around 10 times higher than the
women’s rate for convicted individuals.
• Men are more likely to be found guilty of offending e.g:
• Six times more likely for sex offences,
• Fourteen time for robberies,
• Thirteen times for possession of a weapon,

15.  Why do females appear to commit fewer crimes than men?
 Less detectable offences
• Women commit less offences that are categorised than men and so they
appear less in official statistics e.g. shoplifting.
• The amount of women in prison increases for lower classed crimes e.g. theft.
This signifies women tend to steal smaller items.
 Sex-role theory and gender socialisation (Functionalism and New Right)
• Women are socialised based on collaboration rather than competition. This
means that women are usually less aggressive.
• The burdens of housework (dual burden, triple shift) do not provide women
enough time to commit crime.

16.  Control Theory and Rational Choice and opportunity in patriarchal society
• Carlen (1988) and Heidensohn (1996) take a feminist approach and
highlight the gap between male and female.
• Carlen states that women have to ‘deals’ that effect them. (Class deal = material
rewards that’s gained from employment and the gender deal = rewards gained from
fulfilling their roles at home).
• If either deal presents a blocked opportunity then women make a rational choice to
commit crime.

17. • Heidensohn suggests women conform more because:
• Tighter social controls forcing women to conform and not deviate.
• More shame is attributed to women in crime.
• If women commit crime, they are not only deviant, but also unfeminine creating two negative
outcomes.
• Heidensohn also suggests there are two spheres supporting patriarchal ideas.
• The public sphere (most crime takes place here and it is dominated by men, hindering women from
commiting crime).
• The private sphere (women have to act femine at home e.g. cooking and cleaning = little time for
work)

18.  Chivalry thesis
 This concept was created by Pollak stating that women are treated more
leniently by the CJS than men
 (Good) – First female offenders are half as likely to be given a sentence
resulting in imprisonment than male.
 (Good) – Women are less likely to be taken into custody.
 (Good) – Women are more likely to be given alternative forms of sentences
e.g. fines, warning, rather than imprisonment.
 (Good) – Women on average receive shorter prison sentences.

19.  (Bad) – It could be argued that women are given more lenient sentences
because they do, as statistics show, commit lesser crimes.
 (Bad) – When taking a look at CJS evidence, they highlight that women get
more lenient sentences because they have moremitigating factors – factors
that reduce sentences whereas males have more aggravating (factors that
increase sentences).
 (Bad) – Heidensohn’s theory that “If women commit crime, they are not only
deviant, but also unfeminine creating two negative outcomes.” doesn’t really
make any sense since if women were on trial for two offences, their
sentences would be harsher than men’s.
 (Bad) – It is known in rape cases that women have to prove their claim with
substantial evidence before being allowed to take it to court showing they
are not taken seriously.

20.  Why do males commit more crime than women?
 Masculinity thesis
 The Masculinity Thesis attempts to highlight why men commit more crime
and highlights:
• Male crime is inseparable from Connell’s hegemonic masculinity whereby
males act tough, aggressive and competitive. These characteristics are not
so present in women.
• Messerschmidt suggests that when males cannot achieve masculinity they
turn to crime. Women being unable to achieve feminist qualities do not
return to crime….

21.  Social Action theorists
• Labelling theorists believe that women’s crimes go under the radar and they
are not caught. Because women are labelled as being more innocent, they
are not targeted by police and are let off more, this results in them
committing crimes, but not getting caught. Thus the assumption that men
commit more crimes, cannot be proven.
• They agree that men dominate the public sphere where most crime is
committed and so naturally there is more opportunity.
• If men go to prison they are rewarded with being masculine, if women are
sentenced, they are not feminine, thus there is double punishment. Men
therefore have less to risk.
• Men have more independence than women and thus greater opportunity.

22. . Youth and crime
 the older a person gets, the less likely they are to be engaged in criminal acti
vity. Crime committed by young people has traditionally been referred to as j
uvenile delinquency but this term may now be dated because the sort of crim
e that young people engaged in fifty years ago is very different to that
committed by young people today.
 Subcultural explanations of youth crime emerged in the 1950s in the USA whe
n sociologists such as Albert Cohen adapted Merton’s blocked opportunity the
ory to explain why young working-
class people committed juvenile delinquency which was defined as a form of
malicious youth crime focused on such criminal and antisocial acts as gang vio
lence, joyriding, vandalism and graffiti. It was assumed that such delinquenc
y shared common characteristics such as:

23.  It was rarely motivated by material or financial reward compared with the ty
pes of crimes committed by older people. Delinquent acts were seen to be
committed for antisocial reasons – out of spite or malice – as a form of protest
against authority figures such as parents, teachers, police officers etc.
(However, recent evidence as cited earlier suggests this view is now dated
and that crime committed by young people in 2013 is often about the
acquisition of money and/or material goods).
 It had a collective or subcultural character – it is committed as part of a
larger group or gang. Subcultural sociologists such as Cohen defined
‘subculture’ as a miniculture that exists alongside the main or dominant
culture of a society. It is claimed by subcultural theory that members of
delinquent subcultures or gangs have different norms, attitudes, values and
beliefs to the rest of society and these generally tend to be deviant

24. The work of Albert Cohen
 Albert Cohen begins his theory of juvenile delinquency with the observation
that Merton’s ‘material success’ goal is not really relevant to young people
because they have not yet embarked upon the career ladder and
consequently material success is out of their reach. Instead Cohen suggests
that the central cultural goal for young people is the pursuit of status – they
want to feel that other people value or respect them. Cohen goes on to argue
that juvenile delinquency is caused by three interrelated factors which are
underpinned by the desire for status.
 (i) Inadequate socialisation by parents
 (ii) Poor experience of schooling
 Status frustration

25. Organized crime
 A formal organization with a hierarchical power structure, a clear division of
labor, and a network of resources that is focused on illegal activities such as
drug trafficking or prostitution.

26. cyber crime
 Cyber-dependent crime refers to crimes which can only take
place over computer networks – such as Hacking, virus and
Denial of Service attacks. These are relatively new crimes,
as they have only been possible since the emergence of the
internent.
 Cyber-enabled crime refers to pretty much ALL cyber crime
and includes OLD types of crime that have been made easier
with internet – this is MOST cyber-crime and includes
identify theft, fraud, file sharing, counterfeiting and
child pornography.

27. Prisons: is it the answer to crime?
 In short, if controlling crime is what you hope to achieve,
then no it doesn’t because nearly 50% of those sent to
prison are recalled within 1 year of being released
 However, there are more reasons why you might want to lock
people up other than just rehabilitating them and
preventing future offending – there is an argument that
they just deserve to be punished whether they reoffend or
not.
‘Prison the facts, Summer 2019‘, published by the Prison
Reform Trust.

28.  Functionalists would point to the positive functions prison
might perform in society –Prison could act as a deterrent –
thus reinforcing social regulation; and it should also work to
maintain equilibrium and balance in our society – making up
for the failings of other institutions such as the family and
the education system – restoring order through incapacitating
those who break the law.
 Marxists argue that by relying on prison, we ignore the
failings of the system that lead to the conditions of
inequality and poverty which lead to crime. Furthermore, the
imprisonment of selected members of the lower classes
neutralises opposition to the system; the imprisonment of many
members of the underclass also sweeps out of sight the ‘worst
jetsam of Capitalist society’ such that we cannot see it; and
we may also add a fourth benefit, that all of the police,
court and media focus on working class street crime means that
our attention is diverted away from the immorality and greed
of the elite classes