This article discusses an evolutionary perspective on sex-typed toy preferences in children. It suggests that prenatal androgen exposure influences the development of sex-dimorphic visual processing pathways in the brain, giving rise to innate biases for certain object features associated with traditional masculine and feminine toys. Studies show that girls exposed to high prenatal androgen levels exhibit masculinized toy preferences. Neonatal visual preferences and nonhuman primate research also support the hypothesis that prenatal hormones shape visual system development in a sex-dimorphic manner to influence later toy preferences.
Psychological explanations of gender development: Cognitive development theory, inc. Kohlberg and Gender schema theory.
Biological influences on gender, including hormones, evolutionary, and biosocial approach to gender dysphoria
Social influences on gender, including parents, peers, and cultural influences on gender role
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain.docxbartholomeocoombs
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain Function
Jennifer S. Mascaro
Emory University
Kelly E. Rentscher
University of Arizona
Patrick D. Hackett
Emory University
Matthias R. Mehl
University of Arizona
James K. Rilling
Emory University
Multiple lines of research indicate that fathers often treat boys and girls differently in ways that impact
child outcomes. The complex picture that has emerged, however, is obscured by methodological
challenges inherent to the study of parental caregiving, and no studies to date have examined the
possibility that gender differences in observed real-world paternal behavior are related to differential
paternal brain responses to male and female children. Here we compare fathers of daughters and fathers
of sons in terms of naturalistically observed everyday caregiving behavior and neural responses to child
picture stimuli. Compared with fathers of sons, fathers of daughters were more attentively engaged with
their daughters, sang more to their daughters, used more analytical language and language related to
sadness and the body with their daughters, and had a stronger neural response to their daughter’s happy
facial expressions in areas of the brain important for reward and emotion regulation (medial and lateral
orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]). In contrast, fathers of sons engaged in more rough and tumble play (RTP),
used more achievement language with their sons, and had a stronger neural response to their son’s neutral
facial expressions in the medial OFC (mOFC). Whereas the mOFC response to happy faces was
negatively related to RTP, the mOFC response to neutral faces was positively related to RTP, specifically
for fathers of boys. These results indicate that real-world paternal behavior and brain function differ as
a function of child gender.
Keywords: experience sampling, fathers, fMRI, gender socialization, play
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bne0000199.supp
A number of studies argue that parents treat girls and boys
differently, and learning theory proposes that parents model and
reinforce gender stereotypes in their children (Bandura & Walters,
1977; Bussey & Bandura, 1999). For example, some research
indicates that mothers talk more (Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders,
1998; MacDonald & Parke, 1984) and are more restrictive of
physical risk-taking with daughters (Morrongiello & Hogg, 2004)
than with sons. Other research indicates that western fathers and
mothers are more elaborative in autobiographical storytelling with
girls than boys (Fivush, 2011). Moreover, parents often encourage
gender-stereotyped play behavior and household chores and dis-
courage gender-atypical behavior (Lytton & Romney, 1991), and
both mothers and fathers are more likely to engage in rough and
tumble (RTP) play with boys than with girls (McIntyre & Ed-
wards, 2009; Paquette & Dumont, 2013; Pellegrini & Smith,
1998). Related lines of research also point to differences in paren-
tal behavio.
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology1»M. Vd 47, No 6. .docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Brent Sha-
phren, Deborah Skriba, Erin Dignam, and Pamela Minet
for serving as models. We are indebted to Marilyn
Waterman for filming and editing the videotape modeling
sequence, to Eileen Lynch and Sara Buxton, who acted
as experimenters, and to Nancy Adams, who assisted in
collecting the data. Finally, we also thank the staff and
children from Bing Nursery School, Stanford University.
Requests for reprints should be sent to either Kay
Bussey, School of Behavioral Sciences, Macquarie Uni-
versity, North Ryde, Australia, 2113, or to Albert Bandura,
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Building
420 Jordan Hall, Stanford, ...
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology1»M. Vd 47, No 6. .docxdonnajames55
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Brent Sha-
phren, Deborah Skriba, Erin Dignam, and Pamela Minet
for serving as models. We are indebted to Marilyn
Waterman for filming and editing the videotape modeling
sequence, to Eileen Lynch and Sara Buxton, who acted
as experimenters, and to Nancy Adams, who assisted in
collecting the data. Finally, we also thank the staff and
children from Bing Nursery School, Stanford University.
Requests for reprints should be sent to either Kay
Bussey, School of Behavioral Sciences, Macquarie Uni-
versity, North Ryde, Australia, 2113, or to Albert Bandura,
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Building
420 Jordan Hall, Stanford,.
Psychological explanations of gender development: Cognitive development theory, inc. Kohlberg and Gender schema theory.
Biological influences on gender, including hormones, evolutionary, and biosocial approach to gender dysphoria
Social influences on gender, including parents, peers, and cultural influences on gender role
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain.docxbartholomeocoombs
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain Function
Jennifer S. Mascaro
Emory University
Kelly E. Rentscher
University of Arizona
Patrick D. Hackett
Emory University
Matthias R. Mehl
University of Arizona
James K. Rilling
Emory University
Multiple lines of research indicate that fathers often treat boys and girls differently in ways that impact
child outcomes. The complex picture that has emerged, however, is obscured by methodological
challenges inherent to the study of parental caregiving, and no studies to date have examined the
possibility that gender differences in observed real-world paternal behavior are related to differential
paternal brain responses to male and female children. Here we compare fathers of daughters and fathers
of sons in terms of naturalistically observed everyday caregiving behavior and neural responses to child
picture stimuli. Compared with fathers of sons, fathers of daughters were more attentively engaged with
their daughters, sang more to their daughters, used more analytical language and language related to
sadness and the body with their daughters, and had a stronger neural response to their daughter’s happy
facial expressions in areas of the brain important for reward and emotion regulation (medial and lateral
orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]). In contrast, fathers of sons engaged in more rough and tumble play (RTP),
used more achievement language with their sons, and had a stronger neural response to their son’s neutral
facial expressions in the medial OFC (mOFC). Whereas the mOFC response to happy faces was
negatively related to RTP, the mOFC response to neutral faces was positively related to RTP, specifically
for fathers of boys. These results indicate that real-world paternal behavior and brain function differ as
a function of child gender.
Keywords: experience sampling, fathers, fMRI, gender socialization, play
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bne0000199.supp
A number of studies argue that parents treat girls and boys
differently, and learning theory proposes that parents model and
reinforce gender stereotypes in their children (Bandura & Walters,
1977; Bussey & Bandura, 1999). For example, some research
indicates that mothers talk more (Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders,
1998; MacDonald & Parke, 1984) and are more restrictive of
physical risk-taking with daughters (Morrongiello & Hogg, 2004)
than with sons. Other research indicates that western fathers and
mothers are more elaborative in autobiographical storytelling with
girls than boys (Fivush, 2011). Moreover, parents often encourage
gender-stereotyped play behavior and household chores and dis-
courage gender-atypical behavior (Lytton & Romney, 1991), and
both mothers and fathers are more likely to engage in rough and
tumble (RTP) play with boys than with girls (McIntyre & Ed-
wards, 2009; Paquette & Dumont, 2013; Pellegrini & Smith,
1998). Related lines of research also point to differences in paren-
tal behavio.
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology1»M. Vd 47, No 6. .docxcroysierkathey
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Brent Sha-
phren, Deborah Skriba, Erin Dignam, and Pamela Minet
for serving as models. We are indebted to Marilyn
Waterman for filming and editing the videotape modeling
sequence, to Eileen Lynch and Sara Buxton, who acted
as experimenters, and to Nancy Adams, who assisted in
collecting the data. Finally, we also thank the staff and
children from Bing Nursery School, Stanford University.
Requests for reprints should be sent to either Kay
Bussey, School of Behavioral Sciences, Macquarie Uni-
versity, North Ryde, Australia, 2113, or to Albert Bandura,
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Building
420 Jordan Hall, Stanford, ...
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology1»M. Vd 47, No 6. .docxdonnajames55
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Brent Sha-
phren, Deborah Skriba, Erin Dignam, and Pamela Minet
for serving as models. We are indebted to Marilyn
Waterman for filming and editing the videotape modeling
sequence, to Eileen Lynch and Sara Buxton, who acted
as experimenters, and to Nancy Adams, who assisted in
collecting the data. Finally, we also thank the staff and
children from Bing Nursery School, Stanford University.
Requests for reprints should be sent to either Kay
Bussey, School of Behavioral Sciences, Macquarie Uni-
versity, North Ryde, Australia, 2113, or to Albert Bandura,
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Building
420 Jordan Hall, Stanford,.
ORIGINAL ARTICLEGender Labels on Gender-Neutral Colors Do.docxhoney690131
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Gender Labels on Gender-Neutral Colors: Do they Affect Children’s
Color Preferences and Play Performance?
Sui Ping Yeung1 & Wang Ivy Wong1
Published online: 4 January 2018
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2017
Abstract
Gender-typed color preferences are widely documented, and there has been increasing concern that they affect children’s play
preferences. However, it is unclear whether such color preferences exist across cultures, how they have emerged, and how gender
color-coding affects performance. Chinese preschoolers (n = 126) aged 59 to 94 months were tested. First, we assessed their
gender-typed color preferences using forced-choice tasks with color cards and pictures of neutral toys in gender-typed colors.
Second, we tested if gender labels could affect color preferences by labeling two gender-neutral colors as gender-typed and
assessed children’s liking for them using a rating task and a forced-choice task with pictures of neutral toys in the labeled colors.
Third, we assigned children a tangram puzzle (i.e., a puzzle using geometric pieces) painted either in the gender-appropriate or
gender-inappropriate color and measured the number of pieces they completed and their speed. Results showed that Chinese
children exhibited the same gender-typed color preferences as Western children did. Moreover, applying gender labels amplified
a gender difference in color preferences, thus providing direct and strong evidence for the social-cognitive pathway underlying
gender-typed preferences. Finally, color-coding as gender-appropriate or -inappropriate had no impact on performance but the
gender labels improved boys’ performance. These results add to knowledge on how gender-related information affects children’s
responses to the social world and suggest that the current gender color divide should be reconsidered.
Keywords Gender labels . Gender color-coding . Color preferences . Play performance . Gender differences
BGender Revolution,^ a special issue of National
Geographic Magazine in January 2017, has caught world-
wide attention (Goldberg 2017). A striking image is the
photo of a transgender nine-year-old girl dressed in pink
from head to toe on the cover. Other images show girls
and boys surrounded by exclusively pink or blue posses-
sions (Zuckerman 2017). It is easy to observe, for in-
stance in shops and advertisements, that pink is common-
ly used in a wide range of products targeting girls and
blue in products targeting boys. Pink and blue have be-
come gender-typed as symbols of femaleness and male-
ness, respectively, and appear to be the most gender-typed
among different colors in the recent decades (Chiu et al.
2006; Del Giudice 2012). The colors themselves can thus
serve as visual gender labels (Wong and Hines 2015a).
The prevalence of gender labels and of gender color-
coding (i.e., the use of gender-typed colors in differentiat-
ing objects by gender) may affect how children .
ORIGINAL ARTICLEGender Labels on Gender-Neutral Colors Do.docxvannagoforth
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Gender Labels on Gender-Neutral Colors: Do they Affect Children’s
Color Preferences and Play Performance?
Sui Ping Yeung1 & Wang Ivy Wong1
Published online: 4 January 2018
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2017
Abstract
Gender-typed color preferences are widely documented, and there has been increasing concern that they affect children’s play
preferences. However, it is unclear whether such color preferences exist across cultures, how they have emerged, and how gender
color-coding affects performance. Chinese preschoolers (n = 126) aged 59 to 94 months were tested. First, we assessed their
gender-typed color preferences using forced-choice tasks with color cards and pictures of neutral toys in gender-typed colors.
Second, we tested if gender labels could affect color preferences by labeling two gender-neutral colors as gender-typed and
assessed children’s liking for them using a rating task and a forced-choice task with pictures of neutral toys in the labeled colors.
Third, we assigned children a tangram puzzle (i.e., a puzzle using geometric pieces) painted either in the gender-appropriate or
gender-inappropriate color and measured the number of pieces they completed and their speed. Results showed that Chinese
children exhibited the same gender-typed color preferences as Western children did. Moreover, applying gender labels amplified
a gender difference in color preferences, thus providing direct and strong evidence for the social-cognitive pathway underlying
gender-typed preferences. Finally, color-coding as gender-appropriate or -inappropriate had no impact on performance but the
gender labels improved boys’ performance. These results add to knowledge on how gender-related information affects children’s
responses to the social world and suggest that the current gender color divide should be reconsidered.
Keywords Gender labels . Gender color-coding . Color preferences . Play performance . Gender differences
BGender Revolution,^ a special issue of National
Geographic Magazine in January 2017, has caught world-
wide attention (Goldberg 2017). A striking image is the
photo of a transgender nine-year-old girl dressed in pink
from head to toe on the cover. Other images show girls
and boys surrounded by exclusively pink or blue posses-
sions (Zuckerman 2017). It is easy to observe, for in-
stance in shops and advertisements, that pink is common-
ly used in a wide range of products targeting girls and
blue in products targeting boys. Pink and blue have be-
come gender-typed as symbols of femaleness and male-
ness, respectively, and appear to be the most gender-typed
among different colors in the recent decades (Chiu et al.
2006; Del Giudice 2012). The colors themselves can thus
serve as visual gender labels (Wong and Hines 2015a).
The prevalence of gender labels and of gender color-
coding (i.e., the use of gender-typed colors in differentiat-
ing objects by gender) may affect how children ...
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docxkarisariddell
1: You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your gene. Identify all candidate sgRNAs which can knockout all isoforms of your gene. Paste the excel spreadsheet with a list below.
2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren.
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docxjeremylockett77
1: You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your gene. Identify all candidate sgRNAs which can knockout all isoforms of your gene. Paste the excel spreadsheet with a list below.
2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren ...
Data Collection and the Topic of Your InterestData collection pr.docxsimonithomas47935
Data Collection and the Topic of Your Interest
Data collection procedures must walk the reader through the process of collecting research data, starting with permission information and concluding with procedures to maintain confidentiality of information and participants. This is a standard section of chapter 3 in dissertation research studies.
In this assignment, you will gain an understanding of how to implement data collection procedures for a dissertation.
Tasks:
In about 750 words, prepare a report, including the following:
· A detailed description of data collection procedures you intend to implement for the chosen topic of your interest and qualitative methodology (case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative approaches).
· A rationale related to ethical issues that have been covered in this module (for example, confidentiality, anonymity, and respect for persons).
· An informed consent document related to the topic of your interest and methodology will accompany the data collection procedures and will be referenced as Appendix A.
Note that your submission should follow AUO academic writing guidelines and APA rules for academic writing and referencing.
Submission Details:
In early infancy emotional expressions are automatic and not
yet subject to voluntary control. As children develop and
mature, they begin to regulate emotional displays in order to
meet personal goals and to meet the demands and expectations
of their culture. Culturally prescribed social conventions
dictate how, where, when, and to whom specific emotions are
expressed. These norms, otherwise known as display rules, are
learned culture-specific rules that convey what is socially
appropriate or desirable in certain social contexts and underlie
the management and regulation of emotional expression
(Ekman & Friesen, 1975).
The use of display rules in young North American children
has been investigated largely through the administration of a
procedure known as the disappointment gift paradigm (Cole,
1986; Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994; Saarni, 1984,
1992). In this procedure, children are presented with an unde-
sirable gift in the presence of an audience figure, and their
emotional responses are recorded. This paradigm takes advan-
tage of the commonly understood North American practice of
smiling upon receiving a gift even though covertly one may not
like the gift (Goffman, 1967).
Existing research with North American children has gener-
ally focused on examining the role of age and gender in
children’s emotional reactions to a disappointing gift situation.
In addition to age and gender, culture is likely another source
of variation in children’s emotionally expressive behaviors. Yet
the role of cultural beliefs and norms in guiding expressive
behaviors has been largely overlooked in investigations of
children’s emotional development (Parke, 1994; Rubin, 1998;
Saarni, 1998, 1999). In the present study, the role of age,
gender, and cultur.
An evolutionary perspective of sex typed toy preferences
1. An Evolutionary Perspective of Sex-Typed Toy Preferences: Pink, Blue, and the Brain
Journal article by Gerianne M. Alexander; Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 32, 2003
An evolutionary perspective of sex-typed toy preferences: pink, blue,
and the brain.
by Gerianne M. Alexander
Large sex differences in toy preferences exist throughout much of childhood (for
discussion, see Ruble & Martin, 1998) and appear to further sex differences in cognitive
and social development. Playthings, selected to amuse or engage the interest of a child,
also afford opportunities for object manipulation or exploration that appear to enhance
sex-dimorphic spatial abilities (Liss, 1981). Most children prefer playmates of the same
sex and with compatible play styles (e.g., Alexander & Hines, 1994), and these
preferences result in same-sex groupings that promote sex-dimorphic social interaction
patterns (Maccoby, 1990, 1998). In these ways, sex-dimorphic toy preferences in
childhood are early underpinnings of gender role in adulthood.
This paper describes research on sex differences in human behavior and perceptual
processing suggesting that evolved visual processing biases contribute to contemporary
sex-dimorphic toy preferences. This new suggestion is consistent with the general
hypothesis that contemporary sex-dimorphic play styles may have adaptive significance
for males and females. For example, selection pressures for male bonds that facilitated
successful group hunting and protection of resources are thought to have evolved male
preferences for male playmates (Benenson, Morganstein, & Roy, 1998). Research
reviewed in this paper suggests that the early social roles of males and females may also
have evolved preferences for object features and functions that influence children's toy
preferences and perpetuate behavioral sex differences with adaptive significance. As
summarized below, the proposed transactional relations among biological factors, social
roles of males and females, and toy preferences are supported by studies on the prox
imate social and biological determinants of toy preferences and research on the
evolutions of sex-dimorphic spatial abilities and color vision.
PROXIMATE SOCIAL AND BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON CHILDREN'S TOY
PREFERENCES
Children's toy preferences are often explained in terms of gender socialization. A gender
label clearly initiates a process of social learning that includes modeling and
2. reinforcement of sex-typical toy preferences (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Consistent
with the stereotypical social roles of men and women, male infants are provided more
frequently with toy vehicles or toy tools, whereas female infants are provided more
frequently with dolls (Pomerleau, Bolduc, Malcuit, & Cossette, 1990). In later
development, boys and girls prefer different toys (Connor & Serbin, 1977; Liss, 1981)
and these toy preferences are consistent with the general cultural view of gender
appropriate toys. The apparent internalization of social norms for gender appropriate
toys is thought to occur with the formation of a gender identity--the hypothesized core
of gender schemas or mental representations that include socially defined gender
appropriate behavior (Maccoby, 1988; Martin, 1989, 1999; Martin & Halverson, 1981;
Martin & Little, 1 990). From this perspective, once a child accepts membership in a
gender group, he or she comes to value and adopt the social role associated with their
gender label, and this gender role includes preferences for toys such as dolls or vehicles.
A gender label is initiated by the dichotomous categorization of the external genitalia,
whose male or female appearance is one outcome of a cascade of prenatal hormonal
processes that also influences the sex-dimorphic development of the brain, at least in
nonhuman mammals (Kelly, Ostrowski, & Wilson, 1999; MacLusky, Bowlby, Brown,
Peterson, & Hochberg, 1997). Increasingly, studies on human and nonhuman animal
species indicate that another outcome of this biological process of sexual differentiation
is sex-dimorphic behaviors. Experimental manipulation of gonadal hormones (e.g., by
physical or chemical castration or by injecting exogenous androgens) during nonhuman
development shows unequivocally that hormone dependent masculinization of the brain
increases the frequency of subsequent rough and tumble play (Meaney, 1988; Meaney
& McEwen, 1986) and also masculinizes sexual and aggressive behavior (Breedlove,
Cooke, & Jordan, 1999; Cooke, Hegstrom, Villeneuve, &Breedlove, 1998). Studies on
atypical reproductive development during prenatal life in humans suggest that sex
differences in prenatal androgen levels may initiate similar behavioral sex-dimorphisms
in our postnatal life (Collaer & Hines, 1995; Wilson, 1999)--tendencies that in typical
development appear amplified by gender socialization (e.g., Campbell & Eaton, 1999).
Girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, for example, are exposed to high levels of
adrenal androgens prenatally (i.e., more male-typical; e.g., Carson et al., 1982). Some
research indicates that postnatally they show greater aggression (Berenbaum & Resnick,
1997), enhanced (i.e., masculine) visuospatial abilities (Hampson, Rovet, & Altmann,
1998; Resnick, Berenbaum, Gottesman, & Bouchard, 1986), more masculine
3. occupational preferences (Berenbaum, 1999), and an increased rate of bisexual or
homosexual sexual orientation in fantasy and/or behavior (Zucker et al., 1996).
Preferences for toys typically preferred by boys are also increased in androgenized girls
(Berenbaum & Hines, 1992; Hines & Kaufman, 1994). Increased preferences for
"masculine" toys may indicate an atypical gender socialization of androgenized girls
(Fausto-Sterling, 1992). They also suggest that biological factors (i.e., prenatal levels of
androgens) may influence sex-dimorphic toy preferences (Berenbaum & Hines, 1992;
Hines & Kaufman, 1994). In view of animal research indicating prenatal androgens
promote rough and active play (e.g., Meaney, 1988), one previous suggestion is that
higher levels of prenatal androgens in girls may increase preferences for "masculine"
toys because such objects afford greater opportunities for engaging in male-typical play
(e.g., Hines & Kaufman, 1994). Biological influences on toy preferences are also
consistent with other research showing that visual preferences in infants for gender-
linked toys exist earlier in development than predicted by cognitive--social theories of
gend er role behavior (Campbell, Shirley, & Heywood, 2000; O'Brien & Huston, 1985;
Serbin, Poulin-Dubois, Colburne, Sen, & Eichstedt, 2001). Moreover, as visual
preferences for gender-linked toys precede an ability to engage in gender-linked play-
styles, sex differences in the salience or rewarding properties of distinct object features
associated with "masculine" or "feminine" toys appear to exist (Campbell et al., 2000).
An innate preference for distinct object features would also explain why vervet
monkeys (Cerecopithecus aethiops sabaeus) show sex differences in toy preferences
similar to those documented previously in children (Alexander & Hines, 2002). In that
study, the proportion of contact time with toys typically preferred by boys (a car and a
ball) was greater in male vervets compared to female vervets, whereas the proportion of
contact time with toys typically preferred by girls (a doll and a pot) was greater in
female vervets compared to male vervets. Sex-dimorphic object preferences in infants
and in nonhuman primates suggest that the conceptual category of "masculine" or
"feminine" is directed by aperceptual category of female-preferred and male-preferred
objects. If so, then "masculinized" toy preferences in androgenized girls (e.g., Hines &
Kaufman, 1994) may occur, in part' because prenatal androgen levels influence the
structure and function of the brain systems that subserve the recognition of these object
c ategories.
VISUAL PROCESSING BIASES APPEAR TO INFLUENCE SEX-DIMORPHIC
TOY PREFERENCES
4. Different perceptual features appear to categorize male-preferred and female-preferred
objects. Male-preferred toys such as vehicles have been described as objects with an
ability to be used actively (O'Brien & Huston, 1985), to be observed moving in space,
or to promote a movement characterized by propulsion (Benenson, Liroff, Pascal, &
Cioppa, 1997). In free drawings, boys are more likely to depict these objects in global
spatial arrangements (e.g., bird's eye view; Minamoto, 1985). Female-preferred toys
have been described previously as objects, like dolls, that afford opportunities for
nurturance (Campbell et al., 2000; Eisenberg, Murray, & Hite, 1982; Miller, 1987). In
free drawings, girls tend to depict people or smaller natural details (i.e., flowers) in row
arrangements. Compared to boys, girls are also more likely to use a greater number of
colors and to prefer warmer colors (i.e., pink and red) to cooler colors (i.e., blue and
green; Minamoto, 1985). In toy choices and free drawings, then, boys appear to assign
greater attention or interest to object movement and location, whereas girls appear to
assign greater attention or interest to form and color.
There is a correspondence between the perceptual features that appear to characterize
male-preferred and female-preferred objects (and children's representations of such
objects) and the well-established processing efficiencies of the two visual pathways. In
humans and nonhuman primates, anatomical, physiological, and behavioral evidence
indicates two anatomically and functionally distinct pathways or processing streams
originate in the magnocellular (M) and parvocellular (P) retinal ganglion cells and
project to the frontal cortex (Kastner & Ungerleider, 2000; Ungerleider & Mishkin,
1982). Compared to the P-cell pathway, the M-cell pathway is phylogenetically older
(Livingstone & Hubel, 1987) and both anatomical (e.g., Burkhalter, Bernardo, &
Charles, 1993) and behavioral evidence (e.g., Kovacs, 2000) suggests that the M-cell
processing stream develops in advance of the P-cell processing stream. Object
recognition, the identification of visual patterns and red--green but not blue--yellow
colors (e.g., Hendry & Reid, 2000) are processed through the P-cell pathway (the
"what" pathway) that proceeds ventrally from the parvocellular subdivision of the
lateral geniculate nucleus to the inferior temporal region of the brain. Spatial location,
object movement, and a global analysis of visual scenes are processed through the M-
cell pathway (the "where" pathway) that proceeds dorsally from the magnocellular
subdivision of the lateral geniculate nucleus to the posterior parietal cortex (Kastner &
Ungerleider, 2000; Livingstone & Hubel, 1988; Ungerleider & Mishkin, 1982). The
anatomical and functional separation of the two subcortical pathways is well established
5. (e.g., Livingstone & Hubel, 1988; Merigan & Maunsell, 1993). The development and
degree of the functional separation of the two pathways at the cortical level, however, is
a subject of current investigation and debate (e.g., Born, 2001; Dobkins & Anderson,
2002; Merigan & Maunsell, 1993).
The apparent correspondence between the characteristics of "masculine" and "feminine"
toys and the information provided by the two visual processing pathways implicates
visual processing pathways in the recognition and development of gender-linked toy
preferences. If so, then findings that girls exposed prenatally to high levels of androgens
show masculinized toy preferences (e.g., Hines & Kaufman, 1994) suggest that
androgens may promote the sex-dimorphic development of the visual processing
pathways, a possibility supported by recent research of the retina. The retina (the origin
of the magnocellular and parvocellular ganglion cells) in the rat is a sex-dimorphic
structure, such that retinal thickness in males compared to females increases in the
perinatal period (Salyer, Lund, Fleming, Lephart, & Horvath, 2001). Androgens
aromatized to estrogens in the rat retina masculinize that structure (Salyer et al., 2001),
similar to the sex-dimorphic development of other brain structures (MacLusky et al.,
1997). Est rogen receptors exist in the human retina (Ogueta, Schwartz, Yamashita, &
Farber, 1999), consistent with the recent proposal that the postnatal surge of testicular
androgens in males of a variety of mammalian species (Corbier, Edwards, & Roffi,
1992) may masculinize the retina and associated visual pathways, thereby promoting
sex-dimorphic visuospatial abilities (Salyer et al., 2001).
Other findings in studies on primates are consistent with androgen-dependent effects on
visual processing pathway structure at the level of the cortex. In infant rhesus moneys, a
female advantage in object discrimination is abolished by castration of males because
testicular androgens appear to suppress the maturation of the temporal cortex (i.e., part
of the ventral pathway) in nonhuman primates (Bachevalier & Hagger, 1991). Similarly,
the earlier onset of stereopsis and binocularity in girls compared to boys (Bauer,
Shimojo, Gwizada, & Held, 1986), coupled with findings of positive correlations
between testosterone levels and the onset of these abilities in male infants (Held, Bauer,
& Gwiazda, 1988), have suggested that the postnatal surge of testicular androgens may
influence neuronal connectivity of the human visual cortex. Finally, sex differences in
the functional efficiencies of these two pathways in later development are indicated by
findings that boys compared to girls show a greater global perceptu al bias (Kramer,
Ellenberg, Leonard, & Share, 1996), consistent with a male bias (or specialization) for
6. M-cell pathway processing. In contrast, girls compared to boys show an advantage for
object discrimination (similar to that observed in rhesus monkeys; Overman,
Bachevalier, Schuhmann, & Ryan, 1996) and for color naming (Bornstein, 1985),
consistent with a female bias (or an earlier specialization) for P-cell pathway
processing.
The ventral visual processing stream, and in particular the temporal cortex, is also
implicated in processing facial features (Nelson, 2001). Therefore, findings that girls
and women compared to boys and men show an advantage in processing facial
expressions (for review, see McClure, 2000) also support the existence of sex-
dimorphic visual processing biases. In early development, infants generally show
preferences for faces over patterned stimuli (e.g., Fantz, 1963). They also generally
prefer moving objects over stationary objects (Nelson & Horowitz, 1987). However,
when presented with an object with mechanical movement and a human face with
natural movement, 1-day-old boys show a larger visual preference for the object with
mechanical movement (i.e., a mobile), whereas girls of that age show a larger visual
preference for the female face (Connellan, Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Batki, &
Ahluwalia, 2000). These results suggest that sex-dimorphic visual preferences
consistent with M-cell or P-cell processing ef ficiencies precede experience with
gender-linked objects (e.g., trucks or dolls). Neonatal visual preferences (along with the
apparent recognition of sex-typed toy categories by infants and the masculinized toy
preferences of girls with atypical androgen exposure during prenatal development)
support the hypothesis that androgens may initiate the specialization of visual pathways
that contribute to visual biases for object movement or form/color.
Compared to adults, the segregation of the anatomical and functional properties of the
M-cell and P-cell pathways at the cortical level is less pronounced in infants (Dobkins
& Anderson, 2002), consistent with the proposal that parcellation (i.e., selective loss of
synapses and dendrites in the cortex) and specialization of visual processing streams is
directed by experience in postnatal life (Johnson, 2001). The tendency for newborns to
orient to faces, for example, is argued to reflect an innate bias mediated by the
subcortical visual pathways (Johnson & Morton, 1991; Morton & Johnson, 1991). This
visual bias at birth ensures that developing cortical circuits are preferentially exposed to
faces, which provides the necessary learning experiences that shape the further
development of cortical brain areas specialized for face-identification (Johnson, 2001).
This bidirectional interaction between the structure and function of visual processes is
7. consistent with the current proposal that sex differences in an i nnate tendency to attend
to movement or color/form direct a child's interest to gender-linked objects, such as
toys, and suggest further that these gender-linked experiences may organize brain
circuits that promote sex-dimorphic processing efficiencies. From this perspective, sex-
dimorphic toy preferences may arise from androgen-dependent effects on the visual
system, but gender socialization may provide the required experiences that further the
development of brain areas that contribute to sex differences in cognitive (i.e.,
visuospatial abilities) and social (i.e., face processing) behavior.
DISTAL FACTORS APPEAR TO HAVE INFLUENCED SEC-DIMORPHIC
VISUAL PATHWAY PROCESSING EFFICIENCIES IN HUMANS
Research on the adaptive significance of sex-dimorphic spatial abilities and color vision
suggests that the early social roles of women and men evolved sex differences in M-cell
(motion) and P-cell (object form and color) pathway function. Evolutionary theorists
(Eals & Silverman, 1994; Silverman & Eals, 1992) have reasoned that selection
pressures might have contributed to spatial abilities in men that enhanced the hunt and
capture of animals, such as the identification of spatial position and movement.
Similarly, they have proposed selection pressures might have contributed to abilities in
females that enhanced the foraging of plant food, such as the identification of form and
color and memory for object-landmark associations (Eals & Silverman, 1994;
Silverman & Eals, 1992). The adaptive significance of processing spatial position and
movement (i.e., information provided by the M-cell pathway; e.g., Ungerleider &
Mishkin, 1982) for males is consistent with the contemporary male advantage in spatial
navigat ion (Galea & Kimura, 1993; Moffat, Harnpson, & Hatzipantelis, 1998;
Silverman et al., 2000) and the accurate aim of projectiles (Watson & Kimura, 1991). In
addition, tasks developed to measure the processing requirements of gathering (Eals &
Silverman, 1994), which are consistent with information provided by the P-cell pathway
(Alexander, Packard, & Peterson, 2002), show that women and young girls outperform
men and young boys in their memory for objects identities and their relative locations in
a visual spatial array (Alexander et al., 2002; Eals & Silverman, 1994; Silverman &
Eals, 1992).
Research on the evolution of color vision also supports an association between the early
social role of women and an evolved female advantage or specialization for processing
the visual information provided by the P-cell pathway, in this instance red-green colors.
Open areas and objects differ substantially in the degree to which they reflect ultraviolet
8. light, consistent with speculation that early color vision was favored by selection
because discrimination between open spaces and objects facilitated an identification of
food sources (Pichaud, Briscoe, & Desplan, 1999). In humans and related primates, this
primordial color subsystem is the yellow-blue system (Nathans, 1999). Research on
foraging in contemporary nonhuman primates (e.g., Dominy & Lucas, 2001) supports
the hypothesis that the human evolution of the second red-green system may have
furthered food gathering ability because it facilitated, for example, the identification of
ripe, yellow fruit from a surround of green foliage (e.g., Nathans, 1999 ; Regan et al.,
2001) and edible red leaves among unripe green foliage (Dominy & Lucas, 2001).
Consistent with this interpretation of the adaptive significance of color vision for
foraging, memory scores in humans for object locations in a visual array (i.e., a
gathering analogue task that typically shows a female advantage) appear enhanced when
objects are red on a green background compared to green on red background (Hellige &
Cumberland, 2001; Roth & Hellige, 1998).
Whereas discrimination of red wavelengths appears to facilitate identification of plant
food, a preference for red or pink appears to have an advantage for successful female
reproduction. In research on nonhuman primates (Higley, Hopkins, Hirsch, Marra, &
Suomi, 1987), a female preference for "reddish-pink" compared to yellow or green is
thought to exist because infant faces compared to adult faces are reddish-pink, and red
or pink may signal approach behaviors that enhance infant survival. In addition, women
and men appear able to use the spectral properties of the human face for gender
discrimination (males being more red; females being more green; Tarr, Kersten, Cheng,
& Rossion, 2001), suggesting that a female preference for red may also have promoted
recognition and approach to males. Thus, the social role of early females (i.e., foraging
for plant food and caretaking of infants) may have evolved in girls compared to boys a
greater specialization for color processing and a greater preference for objects with a
pink or reddish color.
In humans, apes, and Old World monkeys normal color vision depends on three types of
photoreceptors (i.e., cones) that contain retinal photopigments that absorb light
maximally at low, medium, or high wavelengths. In humans, these wavelengths
correspond to the labels blue (S or short wave), green (M or mid wave), and red (L or
long wave; Mollon, 1986). Human color vision is trichromatic because all other colors
we perceive are determined by stimulation of one or more of these three cones and by
the strength of stimulation that is received. The primordial yellow-blue system is
9. transmitted on an autosomal gene, whereas red-green sensitivity is transmitted on the X
chromosome (Mollon, 1986; Nathans, Thomas, & Hogness, 1986). Males, having one X
chromosome--and so only one set of red-green system genes--are more likely than
females to be color deficient (Mollon, 1986). In contrast, women are more likely than
men to have evolved a fourth retinal photopigment that permits even greater
differentiation of colors (Ja meson, Highnote, & Wasserman, 2001), consistent with the
observed female advantage in sex-dimorphic color behavior (e.g., Bornstein, 1985). In
humans (Morgan, Adam, & Mollon, 1992) and in nonhuman primates (Shyue et al.,
1995), dichromats (who are more frequently males) are better able to detect texture and
color-camouflaged objects. These empirical findings have suggested color-blindness
may be adaptive for detecting and evading predation (Shyue et al., 1995). The genetic
basis of color vision, therefore, is consistent with the speculation that color vision and,
in particular the ability to discriminate red wavelengths, may have a greater adaptive
significance for foragers (i.e., females) than for resource protectors (i.e., males) and so
contribute to contemporary visual biases and object preferences. The recent finding that
sex-dimorphic object preferences appear to exist in a nonhuman primate species
(Alexander & Hines, 2002), suggests that, like color vision, sex-dimorphic object
preferences appear to hav e arisen early in human evolution, prior to the emergence of a
distinct hominid lineage.
CONCLUSIONS
There is increasing evidence that the brain has evolved specialized recognition systems
for categories that have adaptive significance, such as emotional expressions and facial
identity (for discussion, see Duchaine, Cosmides, & Tooby, 2001). In view of the
evidence summarized above, it seems possible that males and females have also evolved
specialized visual biases that optimize the development of sex-dimorphic behaviors
with adaptive significance. The adaptive significance of spatial abilities consistent with
hunting for males suggests that the male visual system (and in particular the M-cell
pathway) is highly sensitive or responsive to objects that provide experience with
tracking spatial movements of objects. This novel hypothesis is consistent with the
proposal that toys, such as balls or cars, are more interesting to males than to females
because they elicit motion (e.g., Eisenberg et al., 1982). If the female visual system (and
in particular the P-cell pathway) has evolved to better forage for food or promote
caretaking of infants, then female infants may be biologically prepared to be highly
sensitive or responsive to object features--in particular color. Girls' preferences for dolls
10. and warm colors (e.g., Iijima, Arisaka, Minamoto, & Arai, 2001) and a female
advantage in facial expression processing (McClure, 2000) are all consistent with this
possibility.
This theory of sex-typed toy preferences predicts that parametric manipulation of those
variables associated with the processing efficiencies of the different visual pathways
(e.g., texture, spatial frequency, movement) will produce sex-specific effects on the
visual preferences of infants and the toy preferences of older children. Further, given
that infants appear to use perceptual features, such as vocal pitch (Miller, Younger, &
Morse, 1982) to categorize males and females, it may be useful to consider whether the
early development of color vision in infancy (Bornstein, Kessen, & Weiskopf, 1976;
Teller, 1998) also provides information that contributes to gender category knowledge--
and whether this information is more salient to girls than to boys. Moreover, if
aromatized androgens influence visual processing pathway development in humans,
then androgenized girls compared to typically developing girls may show more
masculinized patterns of visual development (e.g., later color naming, poorer object
discrim ination, visual preferences for mechanical movement). Recent findings that
androgenized girls show in free drawings more of the perceptual features associated
with boys' drawings (i.e., attention to object movement and location) and fewer of the
perceptual features associated with girls' drawings (i.e., attention to form and color;
Iijima et al., 2001) are consistent with this possibility. Similarly, atypical toy
preferences are an early feature of the atypical development of sex-dimorphic behavior
(e.g., gender identity dysphoria, adult homosexual orientation; Bailey & Zucker, 1995;
Zucker & Bradley, 1995), suggesting the gender-typical early organization of the visual
processing pathways may be altered--perhaps by hormone effects during early postnatal
development or by experiences with gender-linked objects during early infancy. If so,
then male children with gender identity disorder, for example, may show feminized
patterns of visual development (e.g., earlier color naming, greater color discrimination,
b etter face processing). Whereas the sexual differentiation of the periphery (i.e.,
genitals) may be a primary determinant of gender socialization, early preferences for
object characteristics may be an empirical window to a sex-typed "temperament," a
product of the sexual differentiation of the central nervous system that evolved to
predispose an interest in stimuli that promote the acquisition of a gender identity and
gender role.
11. Evolutionary psychology holds that an individual processes and experiences the
external world as constrained by the survival and reproduction of the species (Bjorklund
& Pellegrini, 2000). Accordingly, a transactional relation between a maturing individual
and a changing environment is the formative force behind our developing cognitive
strategies and abilities. Evolutionary theory is a challenge to understand the complex
interplay between nature and culture, in the context of a more distal determinant of
behavior, namely, natural selection. From this perspective, it seems that an association
between toy preferences and gender role behavior may be mediated by sex differences
in visual processing that evolved from the social roles of early males and females and
are organized by hormones in perinatal development. Although hormones may organize
structures that predispose an interest in object features, the general bidirectional theory
of brain structure and brain function (Johnson & Morton, 1991) predicts that g ender
socialization provides the required experiences that direct the sex-dimorphic
specialization of the two visual processing streams. Thus, in view of the evolution of the
phylogenetically older yellow--blue opponent system (Nathan, 1999) and the X-linked
green--red opponent system (Mollon, 1986; Nathans et al., 1986), it may be more than a
trivial coincidence that in our current culture we assign blue to boys and pink to girls.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Mark G. Packard and Bradley S. Peterson for helpful comments on an earlier
version of the paper.
Received December 4, 2001; revisions received April 8, 2002, and May 21, 2002;
accepted May 21, 2002
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Gerianne M. Alexander, Ph.D. (1,2)
(1.) Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut.
(2.) To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department or Psychology, Texas
A&M University, 5235-TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-4235; e-mail:
gma@psyc.tamu.edu.
-1-
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Publication Information:Article Title: An Evolutionary Perspective of Sex-Typed Toy Preferences: Pink, Blue, and the
19. Brain. Contributors: Gerianne M. Alexander - author. JournalTitle: Archives of SexualBehavior. Volume: 32. Issue: 1.
Publication Year: 2003. Page Number: 7+. COPYRIGHT 2003 Plenum Publishing Corporation; COPYRIGHT 2003 Gale
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