The document discusses how cultural differences influence children's play. It analyzes research showing that cultural factors like parental beliefs, adult modeling, and societal values shape the themes, communication styles, and types of play engaged in by children from different cultures. For example, studies found that Anglo-American children engaged in more fantasy play while Korean-American children's play focused more on everyday activities. The document also examines how gender, socioeconomic class, and urbanization can impact cultural differences in children's play.
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain.docxbartholomeocoombs
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain Function
Jennifer S. Mascaro
Emory University
Kelly E. Rentscher
University of Arizona
Patrick D. Hackett
Emory University
Matthias R. Mehl
University of Arizona
James K. Rilling
Emory University
Multiple lines of research indicate that fathers often treat boys and girls differently in ways that impact
child outcomes. The complex picture that has emerged, however, is obscured by methodological
challenges inherent to the study of parental caregiving, and no studies to date have examined the
possibility that gender differences in observed real-world paternal behavior are related to differential
paternal brain responses to male and female children. Here we compare fathers of daughters and fathers
of sons in terms of naturalistically observed everyday caregiving behavior and neural responses to child
picture stimuli. Compared with fathers of sons, fathers of daughters were more attentively engaged with
their daughters, sang more to their daughters, used more analytical language and language related to
sadness and the body with their daughters, and had a stronger neural response to their daughter’s happy
facial expressions in areas of the brain important for reward and emotion regulation (medial and lateral
orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]). In contrast, fathers of sons engaged in more rough and tumble play (RTP),
used more achievement language with their sons, and had a stronger neural response to their son’s neutral
facial expressions in the medial OFC (mOFC). Whereas the mOFC response to happy faces was
negatively related to RTP, the mOFC response to neutral faces was positively related to RTP, specifically
for fathers of boys. These results indicate that real-world paternal behavior and brain function differ as
a function of child gender.
Keywords: experience sampling, fathers, fMRI, gender socialization, play
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bne0000199.supp
A number of studies argue that parents treat girls and boys
differently, and learning theory proposes that parents model and
reinforce gender stereotypes in their children (Bandura & Walters,
1977; Bussey & Bandura, 1999). For example, some research
indicates that mothers talk more (Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders,
1998; MacDonald & Parke, 1984) and are more restrictive of
physical risk-taking with daughters (Morrongiello & Hogg, 2004)
than with sons. Other research indicates that western fathers and
mothers are more elaborative in autobiographical storytelling with
girls than boys (Fivush, 2011). Moreover, parents often encourage
gender-stereotyped play behavior and household chores and dis-
courage gender-atypical behavior (Lytton & Romney, 1991), and
both mothers and fathers are more likely to engage in rough and
tumble (RTP) play with boys than with girls (McIntyre & Ed-
wards, 2009; Paquette & Dumont, 2013; Pellegrini & Smith,
1998). Related lines of research also point to differences in paren-
tal behavio.
Chapter 4WHAT DO YOU THINK1. Is the personality of an ind.docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 4
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
1. Is the personality of an individual determined at birth?
2. Are the media today as important in a child’s socialization as the child’s family? Might the media be more important?
3. Do people adjust the presentation of their personalities in interactions in order to leave particular impressions? Might we say that we have different “social selves” that we present in different settings?
p.80
GIRLS, BOYS, AND TOYS
REUTERS/Aly Song
We can find a box (or several boxes) of toys in most U.S. homes with children. Many of us can look back on our childhoods—whether they are a recent or distant memory—and recall a favorite toy. It might have been a smiling doll, a stuffed animal, a hardy truck or tank, or a set of colorful blocks. If we were lucky, we had an array of toys from which to choose our fun. In this chapter, we talk about agents of socialization, that is, the entities (like families, peers, and schools) that teach us the norms, rules, and roles of society. From a sociological perspective, toys are not just toys—rather, they too are agents of socialization, contributing to children’s early ideas of who they are and who they can be in society.
Like other key agents of socialization—families, peers, the media, school, and organized sports, among others—toys may contribute to a child’s sense of socially accepted roles, aspirations for the future, and perceptions of opportunities and limitations. If we as social beings are made not born, as sociologists argue, then toys contribute to the construction of boys and girls in ways that can be both predictable and surprising.
In 2014, two researchers at Oregon State University published a study with some attention-getting results. In this research, 37 girls ages 4 to 7 were each given one of three toys with which to play: a Mrs. Potato Head, a glamorous Barbie doll, or a doctor Barbie doll. After a short period of play, each subject was shown pictures depicting 10 female- and male-dominated professions, like librarian, teacher, and flight attendant (“female” jobs) and pilot, doctor, and firefighter (“male” jobs). With each picture, the subject was asked, “Could you do this job when you grow up?” and “Could a boy do this job when he grows up?” (see Figure 4.1). Notably, girls who played with either of the Barbie dolls identified fewer jobs that they could do than did the girls who played with Mrs. Potato Head—and all of the girls in the study thought that a boy would be able to do a greater number of both the male- and female-dominated jobs (Sherman & Zurbriggen, 2014). Other research has shown that young girls exposed to Barbies express a stronger desire to be thin and have lower body self-esteem than do girls exposed to dolls with more realistic body proportions (Dittmar, Halliwell, & Ive, 2006).
p.81
FIGURE 4.1 Number of Jobs Girls Think They Can Do Better or Worse Than Boys Based on Occupation Type
SOURCE: Sherman, A.M. and Zurbriggen, E.L. (2014). “‘Boys Can B ...
The Birds and the Bees” Differ for Boys and GirlsSex Diffe.docxmehek4
The “Birds and the Bees” Differ for Boys and Girls:
Sex Differences in the Nature of Sex Talks
Barry X. Kuhle
University of Scranton
Dawn K. Melzer
Sacred Heart University
Chelsea A. Cooper, Andrew J. Merkle, Nicole A. Pepe, Aida Ribanovic,
Arielle L. Verdesco, and Tiffany L. Wettstein
University of Scranton
The daughter-guarding hypothesis posits that “parents possess adaptations with design
features that function to defend their daughter’s sexual reputation, preserve her mate value,
and protect her from sexual victimization” (Perilloux, Fleischman, & Buss, 2008, p. 219).
One way that parents may attempt to guard their daughters’ sexualities is by conveying to
them certain messages about sex. To explore this possibility we administered an online
questionnaire that tested 8 sex-linked predictions derived from the daughter-guarding
hypothesis about the content of parent– child communications about sex. Participants were
undergraduates from a Northeastern U.S. Jesuit Catholic university (n � 226) and young
adults recruited through Facebook (n � 391). As predicted, daughters were more likely
than sons to recall receiving messages from their parents that (a) emphasized being
discriminating in allocating sexual access; (b) emphasized abstinence; (c) encouraged them
to deter, inhibit, and defend against their partners’ sexual advances; (d) encouraged them to
not emulate depictions of sexual activity; (e) stipulated when they were old enough to date;
and (f) curtailed contact with the opposite sex. Results supported several hypothesized
design features of the daughter-guarding hypothesis. Parents may be socializing children in
ways that fostered ancestral reproductive success through sex-linked birds-and-the-bees
talks and messages.
Keywords: birds and the bees, daughter-guarding, evolutionary psychology, parent– child sex
talks, sex differences
A rite of passage for many American children
is the parent– child sex talk. Although this
“birds and the bees” talk is fairly common and
commonly fraught with awkwardness for both
parties, relatively little is known about its con-
tent. Using evolutionary psychological theories
as a guidepost, we explored the content of com-
munications about sex that parents have with
their children. Our focal question was whether
parents tell certain things about sex to their
daughters and other things to their sons.
Although previous studies have explored pa-
rental sex talks, most have adopted an atheoreti-
cal perspective with regard to the content of
such talks for boys and for girls (e.g., DiIorio,
Kelley, & Hockenberry-Eaton, 1999; Downie &
This article was published Online First June 30, 2014.
Barry X. Kuhle, Department of Psychology, University
of Scranton; Dawn K. Melzer, Department of Psychology,
Sacred Heart University; Chelsea A. Cooper, Andrew J.
Merkle, Nicole A. Pepe, Aida Ribanovic, Arielle L.
Verdesco, and Tiffany L. Wettstein Department of Psy-
chology, University of Scranton.
Nicole A. Pepe i ...
httpjcc.sagepub.comPsychology Journal of Cross-Cultur.docxwellesleyterresa
http://jcc.sagepub.com
Psychology
Journal of Cross-Cultural
DOI: 10.1177/0022022194252002
1994; 25; 181 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Deborah L. Best, Amy S. House, Anne E. Barnard and Brenda S. Spicker
Effects of Gender and Culture
Parent-Child Interactions in France, Germany, and Italy: The
http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/25/2/181
The online version of this article can be found at:
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology
at:
can be foundJournal of Cross-Cultural Psychology Additional services and information for
http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:
http://jcc.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions:
http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/25/2/181 Citations
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from the SAGE Social Science Collections. All Rights Reserved.
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http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/01650254.html
Perspectives on gender development
Eleanor E. Maccoby
Stanford University, California, USA
Two traditional perspectives on gender development—the socialisation and cognitive perspectives—
are reviewed. It is noted that although they deal quite well with individual differences within ...
Children’s Attention to Interactions Directed to Others Guate.docxmccormicknadine86
Children’s Attention to Interactions Directed to Others: Guatemalan Mayan
and European American Patterns
Maricela Correa-Chávez & Barbara Rogoff
University of California, Santa Cruz
This study investigated differences in attention and learning among Guatemalan Mayan and European
American children, ages 5–11 years, who were present but not addressed while their sibling was shown
how to construct a novel toy. Each child waited with a distracter toy for her or his turn to make a different
toy. Nonaddressed children from Mayan traditional families (with little maternal involvement in Western
schooling; n � 40) showed more sustained attention and learning than their counterparts from Mayan
families with extensive involvement in Western schooling (n � 40) or European American children (with
extensive family involvement in schooling; n � 40). The nonaddressed Mayan children from highly
schooled families in turn attended more than the European American children. These findings are
consistent with research showing that traditional indigenous ways of organizing learning emphasize
observation of ongoing interactions.
Keywords: attention, culture, learning, observation, indigenous
This study examined attentiveness and learning of 5- to 11-year-
old Guatemalan Mayan and European American children who
were present as their sibling was taught how to construct a toy.
Attending to events that are not addressed to oneself (third-party
attention) appears to be central to learning in communities with
Indigenous Mesoamerican history.
Learning from third-party attention may be an important but
overlooked developmental context. Although most research on
teaching and learning has focused on situations in which children
are addressed directly, some research indicates that events not
directed at children provide them with important information in
many communities. Middle-class U.S. toddlers assess a stranger’s
character or the emotional valence of a new situation by observing
other people’s reactions to the stranger or situation (Feiring,
Lewis, & Starr, 1983; Repacholi & Meltzoff, 2007). Children
across many communities also learn vocabulary and appropriate
language use by overhearing conversation (Akhtar, 2005; Barton
& Tomasello, 1991; Ochs, 1988; Oshima-Takane, Goodz, & De-
verensky, 1996; Schieffelin, 1991; Ward, 1971).
Learning by Intent Community Participation: An
Indigenous Model of Teaching and Learning
Third-party attention may be especially important in communi-
ties in which children have access to a wide range of family and
community activities as legitimate peripheral participants (Lave
& Wenger, 1991; Rogoff, 2003; Ward, 1971). Ethnographic re-
search on Indigenous-heritage North and Central American com-
munities frequently has noted children’s keen observation of the
activities of their community, as they are integrated in everyday
work and social life (Cancian, 1964; Chamoux, 1992; Corona &
Pérez, 2005; de Haan, 1999; de Leon, 2000; Modiano ...
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain.docxbartholomeocoombs
Child Gender Influences Paternal Behavior, Language, and Brain Function
Jennifer S. Mascaro
Emory University
Kelly E. Rentscher
University of Arizona
Patrick D. Hackett
Emory University
Matthias R. Mehl
University of Arizona
James K. Rilling
Emory University
Multiple lines of research indicate that fathers often treat boys and girls differently in ways that impact
child outcomes. The complex picture that has emerged, however, is obscured by methodological
challenges inherent to the study of parental caregiving, and no studies to date have examined the
possibility that gender differences in observed real-world paternal behavior are related to differential
paternal brain responses to male and female children. Here we compare fathers of daughters and fathers
of sons in terms of naturalistically observed everyday caregiving behavior and neural responses to child
picture stimuli. Compared with fathers of sons, fathers of daughters were more attentively engaged with
their daughters, sang more to their daughters, used more analytical language and language related to
sadness and the body with their daughters, and had a stronger neural response to their daughter’s happy
facial expressions in areas of the brain important for reward and emotion regulation (medial and lateral
orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]). In contrast, fathers of sons engaged in more rough and tumble play (RTP),
used more achievement language with their sons, and had a stronger neural response to their son’s neutral
facial expressions in the medial OFC (mOFC). Whereas the mOFC response to happy faces was
negatively related to RTP, the mOFC response to neutral faces was positively related to RTP, specifically
for fathers of boys. These results indicate that real-world paternal behavior and brain function differ as
a function of child gender.
Keywords: experience sampling, fathers, fMRI, gender socialization, play
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bne0000199.supp
A number of studies argue that parents treat girls and boys
differently, and learning theory proposes that parents model and
reinforce gender stereotypes in their children (Bandura & Walters,
1977; Bussey & Bandura, 1999). For example, some research
indicates that mothers talk more (Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders,
1998; MacDonald & Parke, 1984) and are more restrictive of
physical risk-taking with daughters (Morrongiello & Hogg, 2004)
than with sons. Other research indicates that western fathers and
mothers are more elaborative in autobiographical storytelling with
girls than boys (Fivush, 2011). Moreover, parents often encourage
gender-stereotyped play behavior and household chores and dis-
courage gender-atypical behavior (Lytton & Romney, 1991), and
both mothers and fathers are more likely to engage in rough and
tumble (RTP) play with boys than with girls (McIntyre & Ed-
wards, 2009; Paquette & Dumont, 2013; Pellegrini & Smith,
1998). Related lines of research also point to differences in paren-
tal behavio.
Chapter 4WHAT DO YOU THINK1. Is the personality of an ind.docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 4
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
1. Is the personality of an individual determined at birth?
2. Are the media today as important in a child’s socialization as the child’s family? Might the media be more important?
3. Do people adjust the presentation of their personalities in interactions in order to leave particular impressions? Might we say that we have different “social selves” that we present in different settings?
p.80
GIRLS, BOYS, AND TOYS
REUTERS/Aly Song
We can find a box (or several boxes) of toys in most U.S. homes with children. Many of us can look back on our childhoods—whether they are a recent or distant memory—and recall a favorite toy. It might have been a smiling doll, a stuffed animal, a hardy truck or tank, or a set of colorful blocks. If we were lucky, we had an array of toys from which to choose our fun. In this chapter, we talk about agents of socialization, that is, the entities (like families, peers, and schools) that teach us the norms, rules, and roles of society. From a sociological perspective, toys are not just toys—rather, they too are agents of socialization, contributing to children’s early ideas of who they are and who they can be in society.
Like other key agents of socialization—families, peers, the media, school, and organized sports, among others—toys may contribute to a child’s sense of socially accepted roles, aspirations for the future, and perceptions of opportunities and limitations. If we as social beings are made not born, as sociologists argue, then toys contribute to the construction of boys and girls in ways that can be both predictable and surprising.
In 2014, two researchers at Oregon State University published a study with some attention-getting results. In this research, 37 girls ages 4 to 7 were each given one of three toys with which to play: a Mrs. Potato Head, a glamorous Barbie doll, or a doctor Barbie doll. After a short period of play, each subject was shown pictures depicting 10 female- and male-dominated professions, like librarian, teacher, and flight attendant (“female” jobs) and pilot, doctor, and firefighter (“male” jobs). With each picture, the subject was asked, “Could you do this job when you grow up?” and “Could a boy do this job when he grows up?” (see Figure 4.1). Notably, girls who played with either of the Barbie dolls identified fewer jobs that they could do than did the girls who played with Mrs. Potato Head—and all of the girls in the study thought that a boy would be able to do a greater number of both the male- and female-dominated jobs (Sherman & Zurbriggen, 2014). Other research has shown that young girls exposed to Barbies express a stronger desire to be thin and have lower body self-esteem than do girls exposed to dolls with more realistic body proportions (Dittmar, Halliwell, & Ive, 2006).
p.81
FIGURE 4.1 Number of Jobs Girls Think They Can Do Better or Worse Than Boys Based on Occupation Type
SOURCE: Sherman, A.M. and Zurbriggen, E.L. (2014). “‘Boys Can B ...
The Birds and the Bees” Differ for Boys and GirlsSex Diffe.docxmehek4
The “Birds and the Bees” Differ for Boys and Girls:
Sex Differences in the Nature of Sex Talks
Barry X. Kuhle
University of Scranton
Dawn K. Melzer
Sacred Heart University
Chelsea A. Cooper, Andrew J. Merkle, Nicole A. Pepe, Aida Ribanovic,
Arielle L. Verdesco, and Tiffany L. Wettstein
University of Scranton
The daughter-guarding hypothesis posits that “parents possess adaptations with design
features that function to defend their daughter’s sexual reputation, preserve her mate value,
and protect her from sexual victimization” (Perilloux, Fleischman, & Buss, 2008, p. 219).
One way that parents may attempt to guard their daughters’ sexualities is by conveying to
them certain messages about sex. To explore this possibility we administered an online
questionnaire that tested 8 sex-linked predictions derived from the daughter-guarding
hypothesis about the content of parent– child communications about sex. Participants were
undergraduates from a Northeastern U.S. Jesuit Catholic university (n � 226) and young
adults recruited through Facebook (n � 391). As predicted, daughters were more likely
than sons to recall receiving messages from their parents that (a) emphasized being
discriminating in allocating sexual access; (b) emphasized abstinence; (c) encouraged them
to deter, inhibit, and defend against their partners’ sexual advances; (d) encouraged them to
not emulate depictions of sexual activity; (e) stipulated when they were old enough to date;
and (f) curtailed contact with the opposite sex. Results supported several hypothesized
design features of the daughter-guarding hypothesis. Parents may be socializing children in
ways that fostered ancestral reproductive success through sex-linked birds-and-the-bees
talks and messages.
Keywords: birds and the bees, daughter-guarding, evolutionary psychology, parent– child sex
talks, sex differences
A rite of passage for many American children
is the parent– child sex talk. Although this
“birds and the bees” talk is fairly common and
commonly fraught with awkwardness for both
parties, relatively little is known about its con-
tent. Using evolutionary psychological theories
as a guidepost, we explored the content of com-
munications about sex that parents have with
their children. Our focal question was whether
parents tell certain things about sex to their
daughters and other things to their sons.
Although previous studies have explored pa-
rental sex talks, most have adopted an atheoreti-
cal perspective with regard to the content of
such talks for boys and for girls (e.g., DiIorio,
Kelley, & Hockenberry-Eaton, 1999; Downie &
This article was published Online First June 30, 2014.
Barry X. Kuhle, Department of Psychology, University
of Scranton; Dawn K. Melzer, Department of Psychology,
Sacred Heart University; Chelsea A. Cooper, Andrew J.
Merkle, Nicole A. Pepe, Aida Ribanovic, Arielle L.
Verdesco, and Tiffany L. Wettstein Department of Psy-
chology, University of Scranton.
Nicole A. Pepe i ...
httpjcc.sagepub.comPsychology Journal of Cross-Cultur.docxwellesleyterresa
http://jcc.sagepub.com
Psychology
Journal of Cross-Cultural
DOI: 10.1177/0022022194252002
1994; 25; 181 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Deborah L. Best, Amy S. House, Anne E. Barnard and Brenda S. Spicker
Effects of Gender and Culture
Parent-Child Interactions in France, Germany, and Italy: The
http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/25/2/181
The online version of this article can be found at:
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology
at:
can be foundJournal of Cross-Cultural Psychology Additional services and information for
http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:
http://jcc.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions:
http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/25/2/181 Citations
at WALDEN UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2010 http://jcc.sagepub.comDownloaded from
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http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/25/2/181
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from the SAGE Social Science Collections. All Rights Reserved.
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at WALDEN UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2010 http://jcc.sagepub.comDownloaded from
http://jcc.sagepub.com
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/01650254.html
Perspectives on gender development
Eleanor E. Maccoby
Stanford University, California, USA
Two traditional perspectives on gender development—the socialisation and cognitive perspectives—
are reviewed. It is noted that although they deal quite well with individual differences within ...
Children’s Attention to Interactions Directed to Others Guate.docxmccormicknadine86
Children’s Attention to Interactions Directed to Others: Guatemalan Mayan
and European American Patterns
Maricela Correa-Chávez & Barbara Rogoff
University of California, Santa Cruz
This study investigated differences in attention and learning among Guatemalan Mayan and European
American children, ages 5–11 years, who were present but not addressed while their sibling was shown
how to construct a novel toy. Each child waited with a distracter toy for her or his turn to make a different
toy. Nonaddressed children from Mayan traditional families (with little maternal involvement in Western
schooling; n � 40) showed more sustained attention and learning than their counterparts from Mayan
families with extensive involvement in Western schooling (n � 40) or European American children (with
extensive family involvement in schooling; n � 40). The nonaddressed Mayan children from highly
schooled families in turn attended more than the European American children. These findings are
consistent with research showing that traditional indigenous ways of organizing learning emphasize
observation of ongoing interactions.
Keywords: attention, culture, learning, observation, indigenous
This study examined attentiveness and learning of 5- to 11-year-
old Guatemalan Mayan and European American children who
were present as their sibling was taught how to construct a toy.
Attending to events that are not addressed to oneself (third-party
attention) appears to be central to learning in communities with
Indigenous Mesoamerican history.
Learning from third-party attention may be an important but
overlooked developmental context. Although most research on
teaching and learning has focused on situations in which children
are addressed directly, some research indicates that events not
directed at children provide them with important information in
many communities. Middle-class U.S. toddlers assess a stranger’s
character or the emotional valence of a new situation by observing
other people’s reactions to the stranger or situation (Feiring,
Lewis, & Starr, 1983; Repacholi & Meltzoff, 2007). Children
across many communities also learn vocabulary and appropriate
language use by overhearing conversation (Akhtar, 2005; Barton
& Tomasello, 1991; Ochs, 1988; Oshima-Takane, Goodz, & De-
verensky, 1996; Schieffelin, 1991; Ward, 1971).
Learning by Intent Community Participation: An
Indigenous Model of Teaching and Learning
Third-party attention may be especially important in communi-
ties in which children have access to a wide range of family and
community activities as legitimate peripheral participants (Lave
& Wenger, 1991; Rogoff, 2003; Ward, 1971). Ethnographic re-
search on Indigenous-heritage North and Central American com-
munities frequently has noted children’s keen observation of the
activities of their community, as they are integrated in everyday
work and social life (Cancian, 1964; Chamoux, 1992; Corona &
Pérez, 2005; de Haan, 1999; de Leon, 2000; Modiano ...
Children’s Attention to Interactions Directed to Others GuateTawnaDelatorrejs
Children’s Attention to Interactions Directed to Others: Guatemalan Mayan
and European American Patterns
Maricela Correa-Chávez & Barbara Rogoff
University of California, Santa Cruz
This study investigated differences in attention and learning among Guatemalan Mayan and European
American children, ages 5–11 years, who were present but not addressed while their sibling was shown
how to construct a novel toy. Each child waited with a distracter toy for her or his turn to make a different
toy. Nonaddressed children from Mayan traditional families (with little maternal involvement in Western
schooling; n � 40) showed more sustained attention and learning than their counterparts from Mayan
families with extensive involvement in Western schooling (n � 40) or European American children (with
extensive family involvement in schooling; n � 40). The nonaddressed Mayan children from highly
schooled families in turn attended more than the European American children. These findings are
consistent with research showing that traditional indigenous ways of organizing learning emphasize
observation of ongoing interactions.
Keywords: attention, culture, learning, observation, indigenous
This study examined attentiveness and learning of 5- to 11-year-
old Guatemalan Mayan and European American children who
were present as their sibling was taught how to construct a toy.
Attending to events that are not addressed to oneself (third-party
attention) appears to be central to learning in communities with
Indigenous Mesoamerican history.
Learning from third-party attention may be an important but
overlooked developmental context. Although most research on
teaching and learning has focused on situations in which children
are addressed directly, some research indicates that events not
directed at children provide them with important information in
many communities. Middle-class U.S. toddlers assess a stranger’s
character or the emotional valence of a new situation by observing
other people’s reactions to the stranger or situation (Feiring,
Lewis, & Starr, 1983; Repacholi & Meltzoff, 2007). Children
across many communities also learn vocabulary and appropriate
language use by overhearing conversation (Akhtar, 2005; Barton
& Tomasello, 1991; Ochs, 1988; Oshima-Takane, Goodz, & De-
verensky, 1996; Schieffelin, 1991; Ward, 1971).
Learning by Intent Community Participation: An
Indigenous Model of Teaching and Learning
Third-party attention may be especially important in communi-
ties in which children have access to a wide range of family and
community activities as legitimate peripheral participants (Lave
& Wenger, 1991; Rogoff, 2003; Ward, 1971). Ethnographic re-
search on Indigenous-heritage North and Central American com-
munities frequently has noted children’s keen observation of the
activities of their community, as they are integrated in everyday
work and social life (Cancian, 1964; Chamoux, 1992; Corona &
Pérez, 2005; de Haan, 1999; de Leon, 2000; Modiano ...
Data Collection and the Topic of Your InterestData collection pr.docxsimonithomas47935
Data Collection and the Topic of Your Interest
Data collection procedures must walk the reader through the process of collecting research data, starting with permission information and concluding with procedures to maintain confidentiality of information and participants. This is a standard section of chapter 3 in dissertation research studies.
In this assignment, you will gain an understanding of how to implement data collection procedures for a dissertation.
Tasks:
In about 750 words, prepare a report, including the following:
· A detailed description of data collection procedures you intend to implement for the chosen topic of your interest and qualitative methodology (case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative approaches).
· A rationale related to ethical issues that have been covered in this module (for example, confidentiality, anonymity, and respect for persons).
· An informed consent document related to the topic of your interest and methodology will accompany the data collection procedures and will be referenced as Appendix A.
Note that your submission should follow AUO academic writing guidelines and APA rules for academic writing and referencing.
Submission Details:
In early infancy emotional expressions are automatic and not
yet subject to voluntary control. As children develop and
mature, they begin to regulate emotional displays in order to
meet personal goals and to meet the demands and expectations
of their culture. Culturally prescribed social conventions
dictate how, where, when, and to whom specific emotions are
expressed. These norms, otherwise known as display rules, are
learned culture-specific rules that convey what is socially
appropriate or desirable in certain social contexts and underlie
the management and regulation of emotional expression
(Ekman & Friesen, 1975).
The use of display rules in young North American children
has been investigated largely through the administration of a
procedure known as the disappointment gift paradigm (Cole,
1986; Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994; Saarni, 1984,
1992). In this procedure, children are presented with an unde-
sirable gift in the presence of an audience figure, and their
emotional responses are recorded. This paradigm takes advan-
tage of the commonly understood North American practice of
smiling upon receiving a gift even though covertly one may not
like the gift (Goffman, 1967).
Existing research with North American children has gener-
ally focused on examining the role of age and gender in
children’s emotional reactions to a disappointing gift situation.
In addition to age and gender, culture is likely another source
of variation in children’s emotionally expressive behaviors. Yet
the role of cultural beliefs and norms in guiding expressive
behaviors has been largely overlooked in investigations of
children’s emotional development (Parke, 1994; Rubin, 1998;
Saarni, 1998, 1999). In the present study, the role of age,
gender, and cultur.
EFFECT OF PARENTS’ INFLUENCE ON SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG STUDENTS IN SECONDARY ...paperpublications3
Abstract:Increased sexual liberty and early initiation of adolescents into sexual activities have led to irresponsible and risky sexual behaviors among the adolescents. However, regardless of the availability of various sources of information about sexuality and reproduction, the adolescents are yet to adopt safe sexual behaviors. This has raised questions about the effects of parents on sexual behaviors among adolescent students. This study sought to investigate the effects parents' influence on the sexual behaviors among students in secondary schools in Nyahururu Division, Laikipia County. This study adopted an ex post facto research design. A random sample, of 338 respondents, was chosen from the seven randomly selected schools. Data was collected through administration of a structured questionnaire to the selected respondents. The collected data was then processed and analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17 for Windows. The content validity of the research instrument was established by ascertaining that it contained information that answered the research objectives. The instrument was piloted to ensure reliability and it gave a reliability coefficient of 0.82. The study finding indicated that most parents encouraged their adolescent children to have good sexual behaviors. They, however, lacked effective communication skills to pass their good intentions to their adolescent children and thus making their discussions on sexual matters boring and uninteresting. The study recommends the need for parents to adopt effective communication skills that could enable them pass their good sexual intentions to their adolescent children.
Gender Differences in Learners’ Perceptions of an Ideal Primary School INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Scholars have reached a consensus that students’ perceptions of learning environments have an important effect on their learning. The influence of physical attributes of educational space on students’ satisfaction has been studied extensively. However, our knowledge about students’ preferences for an ideal school is very limited. The current study is an attempt to address this gap. The sample in the current study consisted of 118students aged 8 -10 years old in the study. Participants were recruited from two public primary schools in Kerman, Iran. The data gathered through semi-structured interviews, and drawings. Quantitative data was analyzed using chi square tests. The findings from the quantitative data were further explored by qualitative data gathered from 14 (seven girls and seven boys) volunteer students. The study found a significant difference between boy’s and girl’s drawings. Boys portrayed more aerial views and the exterior of the school while girls depicted the frontal views and the interior of their ideal school. In addition, boys incorporated more natural elements, playground equipment and outdoor sport fields in their drawings. In contrast, girls were more likely than boys to use more decorative accessories in their drawings than boys. The result of this study suggests that children’s perceptions about ideal school are gender sensitive. The implications of the study for educational policy makers have been outlined.
Working for the Romanian Angel Appeal and the Royal College of Nursing in Constanta Romania after the fall of Ceaucescu. Working in the hospital and orphanages of Constanta. The largest HIV - AIDS population of children anywhere in Europe at that time. Working alongside mad nurses, doctors, psycholgists, the odd hippy and some generally wonderful human beings. This is some of the information I stored during that time.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Chapter 3 - Islamic Banking Products and Services.pptx
Differences in Play
1. Differences in Play
Why and how do cultural differences manifest in children’s play?
Evaluate appropriate research evidence to support your answer.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The cultural settings in which children grow up have profound influences on how
children develop and play.
Penn (2005) described culture as a:
“ ..a conglomeration of different, sometimes incompatible, views and understandings in a
given society or community…..” (Penn, p92).
For this paper I will use Penn’s definition of culture to investigate its influence on
children’s play. Research papers on play and culture point to many causal factors for
cultural differences manifesting in play. This paper will highlight these factors with
research evidence.
One of the factors noted by researchers that can affect play is parental beliefs and
behaviours. Play behaviours are not only influenced by immediate and social context, but
also by the beliefs, attitudes, and values {inner psychology of the parents and teachers
concerning the importance of play in early development} Roopnarine, Shin, Jung and
Hossain (2003).
Adult modelling of children’s play has been investigated in an experimental setting by
Nielson and Christie (2008).
Nielson and Christie investigated the effect on modelling on children’s behaviour. The
children aged 27-41 months were given 4 minutes free play with a dolls house and
2. associated toy props. An experimenter then acted out a series of scenes using the dolls
involving object substitutions, imaginary play and attribution of properties. The children
were given another 4 minutes of free play {post-modelling). The researcher’s findings
were that:
The children exhibited more pretend play after modelling. The children were also more
likely to generate their own novel pretence, as they were to copy the actions
demonstrated by the experimenter. The children increased the number of novel symbolic
acts involving imaginary play from the pre-modelling phase to the post-modelling phase.
Farver and Lee (1997) studied pretend play amongst Korean-American and Anglo-
American pre-schoolers. The children (46 Anglo-American and 46 Korean-American)
were observed during free play activities and videotaped in an experimental toy setting.
Cultural differences were examined in the frequency of social pretend play,
communicative strategies and pretend play.
The researchers found that the Anglo-American children engaged in more pretend play
during free play activities than Korean-American children. In this experimental setting
there were no cultural differences in the frequency of pretend play. There were however,
significant differences in children’s communicative strategies and in their play themes.
Korean-American children’s play included everyday activity and family role themes. The
Anglo-American children enacted danger in the environment and fantastic themes. The
Anglo-American group also described their own actions and rejected their partner’s
suggestions and used directives. The Korean-American‘s described their partner’s actions
and used tag questions, semantic ties and statements of agreement and polite request. The
study showed that play is a common activity, but the thematic content and the
communication strategies used to structure and maintain pretend play are influenced by
culture.
In an earlier study Farver, Kim, And Lee (1995) found that Korean American children
living in Los Angeles preferred academic activities over play. Here, perhaps we see
children manifesting their parent’s belief in academic achievement at an early age. Even
3. in societies that are concerned about academic achievement, parents have now placed
play as an important factor for socialisation and self-expression (Holmes 2001). A study
in Japan (Ishigaki and Lin, 2000) found that 67.6% of teachers in Japan, 78.5% in Korea
and 56.7% in China endorsed play as part of the schools curriculum.
Research in experimental settings perhaps has limitations on viewing culture and its
influences on play in a more natural setting. Studies of parent and child play in the home
appear to have some critical value on defining play behaviours. It could be argued that
the variations of play behaviours in culturally diverse children could be rooted in the
child’s experience of parent-child play. Roopnarine and Johnson (2001) catalogued the
incredible variation in the style and the amount of parent-child play across cultures:
Roopnarine (2001) documented studies finding that parent-child play at home had strong
links with the peer social system in a nursery setting. Macdonald and Parke (1986)
researched parent-child interactions of boys aged 3 to 5 at a Californian nursery. The
boys were rejected, neglected or considered popular by their peers. Fathers of neglected
boys engaged less affectively in arousing physical play than the fathers of popular and
rejected boys. There was more over stimulation or parental direction of the rejected boys.
The rejected boys would in turn avoid stimulation or would be less likely to join in
discussions or make suggestions in the classroom setting.
Macdonald and Parke (1986) found that there was also a negative relationship between
physical play and the age of the parent. There were strong gender differences in parental
engagement in physical games with the children, limb movement games, bouncing and
lifting games were more characteristic of the play of fathers. Conventional games like pat
a cake and peek a boo were more characteristic of the play of mothers.
Cross-cultural literature on parent-child rough play is small, but it is interesting.
Roopnarine and Johnson (2001) stated that generally rough play begins in infancy peaks
in pre-school and is uncommon after 10 years of age. Boys are more likely to be the
recipients of physical play than girls.
4. Roopnarine has carried out extensive research into rough play in Asian cultural settings.
In New Delhi, India, during the infancy period physical play, described here as rough,
tossing, tickling, bouncing, poking was observed in relatively low frequencies: Less than
one incident per one hour of observation. (Roopnarine, Taluker, Jain, Joshi and Sirvastav
1992). In Chi Chi, Dongkong, Taipei and Kalishung, Taiwan, rough play was recorded
on average less than one incident per one hour of observation. (Sun and Roopnarine
1996). Among older children, however, it accounted for about a third of play activities of
mothers and fathers and school children residing in Chang Mai Province in Northern
Thailand. Rough play was still infrequent and researchers recorded lass than one incident
across families in two hours of observations. (Tulananda and Roopnarine 2001).
Parent child games appear to be universal in their common form, but there are noticeable
stylistic differences. Games that involve face-to-face encounters may be more
characteristic of parents and children in some cultures than in others.
Research has revealed profound postural differences in parental engagement across
cultures. Japanese mothers loom in and out, tap infants to create visual displays and hold
and touch the infant continuously. White American mothers use their voice and are more
responsive to the infant’s vocalizations during face-to-face encounters. (Fogel, Nwokah
and Kerns 1993). In India early parent child games involve specific texts. Igbo and
Sinhala mothers include songs, lullabies, poetry or rhymes in face to face encounters
(Roopnarine, et al 1998).
During these playful interactions with their parents they learn and absorb aspects of their
cultures. Roopnarine (1998) summarised the themes that emerged when traditional and
non-traditional cultures were compared:
*Children’s play is more likely to reflect rituals and customs in traditional societies.
* One-to one play is more common in non-traditional societies.
5. * Group participation, interdependence and community values are transmitted through
play in traditional cultures. Self-reliance, independence and competition are encouraged
by non-traditional cultures.
* In traditional cultures play tends to occur in work-related settings.
* Variations of games such as peek-a-boo and pat a cake played between parents and
their children can occur across traditional and non-traditional cultures. Roopnarine et al.
(1998).
Research on the cultural differences in play has extensively focused on how boys and
girls play differently. Parents have been seen to contribute to the gender role development
of children. Lindsey, Mize, Pettit (1997) examined the extent of mother’s and father’s
involvement in children’s play. The stylistic variations in that play were examined among
pre-school children. The gender differences revealed that boys were more likely to play
more physically than girls and that girls were more likely to engage in pretence play.
Both girls and boys would play at pretend more in the presence of mothers than fathers.
The analysis of parental involvement in this study revealed some interesting stylistic
variations in the parent and child play behaviours. Parents of girls were more likely to be
involved in pretence play than parents of boys. Father’s of boys were more likely to be
involved in physical play than fathers of girls or mothers of boys and girls. Parents of
girls were more likely to comply with their children’s play leads than were parents of
boys. Mothers were more likely to comply with children’s play directives than were
fathers. The data suggests that parents may contribute to children’s gender specific types
of play and influence children by modelling particular play behaviours and/ or providing
differential patterns of reinforcement to sons and daughters. (Lindsey, Mize and Pettit
1997)
Other gender differences emerge in the way girls and boys communicate with their peers
in a play a setting. Serbin et al. (1982) found that girls use polite requests and persuasion
to get what they want in the play situation, whereas boys relied on commands and
physical force.
6. In observations of children’s play in London inner city schools Sayeed and Guerin (2001)
noted separate play patterns between boys and girls. Boys tended to re-enact fantasy
situations such as fighting, cops and robbers, whereas girls tended to act out real
situations from their immediate culture. Examples of girls play behaviour were feeding a
doll in the role of a mother. Sayeed and Guerin (2001) suggest it was debatable whether
gender preferences for particular types of play were the result of a socialisation process
where expectations around what boys and girls play and how they play are learned. This
is perhaps illustrated in research by Martin and Little (1990), which showed that young
children only needed a rudimentary understanding of gender differences prior to the
children learning about sex stereotypes and prior to showing sex-typed preferences for
peers or toys.
The social class or economic situation that a child is born into can be a contributory
factor in cultural differences in play. Early research viewed children from a low socio-
economic class as being deprived of play or were deficient in imaginative play behaviour
in comparison to their middle-class peers. (Smilansky 1968) Later researchers, Johnson,
Christie and Yawkkey (1987) discussed these controversies and concluded that evidence
suggested that materially deprived children or children from a low social-class engage
differently in imaginative play than middle-class children.
Sutton-Smith and Heath (1981) described differences in imaginative play style related to
culture. They analyzed two styles of imaginative behaviour in the form of story telling.
They compared a sample of stories told by working class black children in Piedmont,
Carolina, and a sample of stories by middle-class white children in New York. Stories
told by the working class Afro-American children tended to be relatively personal and
taken mostly from real-life experiences. The White middle-income group of children told
stories in the third person and which were more fantasy-like in content. Of the New York
stories, 95% were in the third person, but only 30% of stories by the Afro-American
children were. In their study Sutton-Smith and Heath (1982) found evidence of the very
different imaginations that children possessed. The Afro-American children were able to
7. show their imaginative talents in a more collective context. Sutton-Smith and Heath
suggested that children who come from more orally based than literary based cultures
appear more imaginative and playful when words are the main activity.
Researchers have drawn attention to the cross-cultural link between play and work. The
distinction between play and work become clearer as children age. In the UK the shift
towards less play based activities seems to occur at the transition from pre-school early
years settings to school. (Sayeed and Guerin 2001). Sayeed also suggests that ‘play-time’
during the school day can create the distinction for children of what is play and what is
not play.
Kalliala (2006) focused on hobbies as a direct way for parents to educate their children.
In her study of Scandinavian children she found that many 6 year olds had up to 3 weekly
hobbies e.g. Music, dance or sport after a full day at school or day care setting. Many of
the parents in her study encouraged their children to use technology. The parents believed
that technology would help advancement in their child’s adult life.
Penn (2005) argues that as children age in developing countries like Africa adults are less
likely to play with them. The reasons are given as economic, as parents have little time to
play with children and have to earn a living. From the ages of 5 years children in settings
such as Kenya are given more work according to the seasonal changes of their
environment. (Whiting and Edwards 1988), an example may be tending to animals,
herding, fishing and selling. Children from such communities mimic the adult roles in
preparation for an adult life. (Bloch and Adler 1994).
In both developed and developing countries material poverty does not prevent a child
from playing. The child will develop a sense of playfulness if the environment is
stimulating and will invent simple materials from nature or rejects from adults. (Bloch
and Pelligrini 1989).
8. Culture and society today is continuously being reshaped as people from different
communities, ethnic backgrounds, religions and countries come into contact with each
other. This is probably seen most obviously within cities where populations become more
diverse with the influx of migrants and refugees. Roopnarine and Johnson 2001 described
children’s play as a ‘social bridge’ between people of diverse cultures, that could help
foster a universal multi cultural education for early year’s settings.
Kalliala (2006) considered urbanisation, changing work patterns of parents and a more
middle-aged population having affected changes in society. Certainly societal influences
on children’s play may now be reflected through changes in family dynamics. Kallila
(2006) found that parents were more likely to adopt the role of a permissive parent,
placing importance on their child’s social skills and individual competence than a more
traditional approach that the child should internalize shared values without questioning
authority. Kallila found that some parents in her study adopted a ‘Pal’ parenting
approach. The ‘Pal’ approach being one of more guidance parents were more friends’
confidants and advisors. Hierarchical orders in the family group were rejected and the
parents appealed to children through discussion. (Kallila, p13).
Most researchers would agree that the status of play is ambiguous and constantly
changing. At an international level the child’s right to play has been recognised in Article
31 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Hodgkin and Newell (1998)
proposed that play is exclusively an activity of children without the control of adults or
constraints of rules. Putting these ideals into practise would mean changes in adult
attitudes, resources and government cooperation.
Bibliography
9. Bloch, M. and Adler, L. (1994) ‘African children’s play and the emergence of sexual
division of labour’, in Roppnarine, J., Johnson, J. and Hooper, F. (eds) Children’s Play in
Diverse Cultures. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Bloch, M and Pelligrini, A. (1989) The Ecological Context of Children’s Play. New
York: Ablex.
Farver, J. and Lee, Y. (1997) ‘Social pretend play in Korean- and Anglo-American pre-
schoolers’. Journal of Child Development. Vol 68, No.3, pp544-556.
Farver, J., Kim, Y.K, and Lee, Y. (1995) ‘Cultural differences in Korean and Anglo-
American preschoolers’ social interaction and play behaviours. Journal of Child
Development, 1995, 66, pp1088-1099.
Fogel, A., Nwokah, E., and Karns, J. (1993) ‘Parent-infant games as dynamic social
systems’ in: Macdonald, K. (Ed) Parent-Child Play. Descriptions and Implications.
SUNY press. New York.
Hodgkin, R. and Newell, P. (1998) Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the
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