Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Brent Sha-
phren, Deborah Skriba, Erin Dignam, and Pamela Minet
for serving as models. We are indebted to Marilyn
Waterman for filming and editing the videotape modeling
sequence, to Eileen Lynch and Sara Buxton, who acted
as experimenters, and to Nancy Adams, who assisted in
collecting the data. Finally, we also thank the staff and
children from Bing Nursery School, Stanford University.
Requests for reprints should be sent to either Kay
Bussey, School of Behavioral Sciences, Macquarie Uni-
versity, North Ryde, Australia, 2113, or to Albert Bandura,
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Building
420 Jordan Hall, Stanford, ...
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docxkarisariddell
1: You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your gene. Identify all candidate sgRNAs which can knockout all isoforms of your gene. Paste the excel spreadsheet with a list below.
2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren.
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docxjeremylockett77
1: You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your gene. Identify all candidate sgRNAs which can knockout all isoforms of your gene. Paste the excel spreadsheet with a list below.
2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren ...
This document discusses theories of gender identity development in children. It explores the differences between sex and gender, and how gender identity and roles have remained largely constant over time, influenced by both social and cognitive factors. Socially, children learn gender stereotypes from a young age through interactions with family and environment, as proposed by social learning and cognitive theories. Cognitively, children's own understanding of being male or female plays a role in their gender development as proposed by cognitive developmental and gender schema theories, with gender identity forming in distinct stages as they grow. The development of gender is complex with many influences, though research provides clues to understand the process.
- The study examined how an interviewer's gender influences children's assignment of gender to toys and games. 11 children aged 3-5 were interviewed by either a male or female interviewer.
- When asked to categorize known neutral games, most children said they were for both boys and girls. However, 80% said football was only for boys.
- For unknown neutral games, some children assigned the gender based on the interviewer's gender, while others said both genders.
- All female participants chose a female undergraduate to play with, while most male participants chose someone of their own gender.
gender development and social process in gender dominated societies. Gender development in terms of social process within social or gender differences. Social process regarding genders.
The document discusses a 1975 study by Slaby and Frey that found children with higher levels of gender constancy showed more attention to same-sex role models, supporting Kohlberg's theory of gender constancy. It also reviews a 1984 study by Weinraub finding that once children identify their own gender, they behave in ways stereotypical of that gender. Gender schema theory holds that children form mental frameworks of gender-appropriate behaviors from a young age based on their social environment.
This document discusses gender identity and its development. It defines sex as biological and refers to physical differences, while gender is psychological and relates to one's sense of masculinity or femininity. It explores several theories on how gender roles and identities form, including:
- Biological factors like evolutionary mating strategies
- Kohlberg's cognitive theory of gender constancy in childhood
- Social cognitive theory of learning gender roles through observation and reinforcement
- Gender schema theory of organizing information according to masculine/feminine concepts
- Psychoanalytic theories like Freud's identification theory of gender development through the Oedipus complex.
Psychological explanations of gender development: Cognitive development theory, inc. Kohlberg and Gender schema theory.
Biological influences on gender, including hormones, evolutionary, and biosocial approach to gender dysphoria
Social influences on gender, including parents, peers, and cultural influences on gender role
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docxkarisariddell
1: You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your gene. Identify all candidate sgRNAs which can knockout all isoforms of your gene. Paste the excel spreadsheet with a list below.
2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren.
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docxjeremylockett77
1: You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your gene. Identify all candidate sgRNAs which can knockout all isoforms of your gene. Paste the excel spreadsheet with a list below.
2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren ...
This document discusses theories of gender identity development in children. It explores the differences between sex and gender, and how gender identity and roles have remained largely constant over time, influenced by both social and cognitive factors. Socially, children learn gender stereotypes from a young age through interactions with family and environment, as proposed by social learning and cognitive theories. Cognitively, children's own understanding of being male or female plays a role in their gender development as proposed by cognitive developmental and gender schema theories, with gender identity forming in distinct stages as they grow. The development of gender is complex with many influences, though research provides clues to understand the process.
- The study examined how an interviewer's gender influences children's assignment of gender to toys and games. 11 children aged 3-5 were interviewed by either a male or female interviewer.
- When asked to categorize known neutral games, most children said they were for both boys and girls. However, 80% said football was only for boys.
- For unknown neutral games, some children assigned the gender based on the interviewer's gender, while others said both genders.
- All female participants chose a female undergraduate to play with, while most male participants chose someone of their own gender.
gender development and social process in gender dominated societies. Gender development in terms of social process within social or gender differences. Social process regarding genders.
The document discusses a 1975 study by Slaby and Frey that found children with higher levels of gender constancy showed more attention to same-sex role models, supporting Kohlberg's theory of gender constancy. It also reviews a 1984 study by Weinraub finding that once children identify their own gender, they behave in ways stereotypical of that gender. Gender schema theory holds that children form mental frameworks of gender-appropriate behaviors from a young age based on their social environment.
This document discusses gender identity and its development. It defines sex as biological and refers to physical differences, while gender is psychological and relates to one's sense of masculinity or femininity. It explores several theories on how gender roles and identities form, including:
- Biological factors like evolutionary mating strategies
- Kohlberg's cognitive theory of gender constancy in childhood
- Social cognitive theory of learning gender roles through observation and reinforcement
- Gender schema theory of organizing information according to masculine/feminine concepts
- Psychoanalytic theories like Freud's identification theory of gender development through the Oedipus complex.
Psychological explanations of gender development: Cognitive development theory, inc. Kohlberg and Gender schema theory.
Biological influences on gender, including hormones, evolutionary, and biosocial approach to gender dysphoria
Social influences on gender, including parents, peers, and cultural influences on gender role
Gender identity develops through a complex interaction of biological, cognitive, social, and environmental factors from a very young age. Children begin showing preferences for gender-typed toys and behaviors between 18 months and 3 years old. Between ages 2 and 4, children progress through stages of gender identity development, gaining the ability to correctly label themselves and others by gender and understand that their gender remains constant. Nurture also plays an important role, as parents influence children's development of gender schemas by encouraging gender-typed behaviors and preferences in toys and activities from a young age.
This document discusses several theories around the development of gender roles in children. According to psychoanalytic theory, psychoanalytical complexes influence gender identity development. Behavioral and social learning theories posit that children learn gender roles through reinforcement and imitation of same-sex peers and adults. Cognitive learning theory suggests children progress through stages of gender identity, stability, and constancy from ages 2 through 5. Gender roles are typically adopted between 15-36 months when children experience gender intensification during adolescence. Observable behaviors that may indicate changes in gender identity include preference for opposite gender activities, dress, and peer groups.
This document discusses several theories around the development of gender roles in children. According to psychoanalytic theory, boys and girls develop gender identities through the Oedipus and Electra complexes. Behavioral and social learning theories posit that children learn gender appropriate behaviors through reinforcement. Cognitive learning theory outlines stages of gender identity development from ages 2 to 5+. The document also explores the influences that shape gender roles, how roles may change through adolescence, and observable behaviors that could indicate changes in gender identity.
1) The document discusses social desirability response bias, which is the tendency for people to respond to questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others or society, even if their responses do not fully reflect reality.
2) Past research has found that self-reports of personality and behavior can be influenced by social desirability bias, tending to under-report undesirable qualities. Several studies examined social desirability bias in children's self-reports of aggression.
3) The document reviews methods that have been used to measure and account for social desirability response bias, such as peer reports and observations, which may provide a more accurate perspective than self-reports.
Psychological explanations of gender developmentJill Jan
The document discusses cognitive theories of gender development, including gender schema theory. It explains that cognitive approaches see gender development as influenced by a child's thinking patterns and perceptions. Gender schema theory specifically proposes that children form mental models (schemas) of gender-appropriate behaviors from a young age, around 2-3 years old, and use these schemas to guide their own behavior and evaluate others. The document provides an overview of Kohlberg's stages of gender identity and constancy development, and discusses how gender schema theory builds on but differs from Kohlberg's theory in proposing an earlier emergence of gender-related schemas.
The document summarizes a study that examined teenagers' views on masculine and feminine personality traits. Male participants were more likely than females to label traits as stereotypically masculine or feminine. However, both males and females labeled many traits as neutral, contrary to the hypothesis. This may indicate that younger generations are moving away from strict gender stereotypes. Repeating the study with a larger, more diverse sample could provide more insights into generational differences in views of masculinity and femininity.
C:\Fakepath\Research Project Power Pointguest1381ffe
The document summarizes a study that examined teenagers' views on masculine and feminine personality traits. Male participants were more likely to identify traits as stereotypically masculine or feminine than female participants. However, both males and females labeled many traits expected to be stereotypical as neutral. This suggests younger generations may be moving away from strict gender stereotypes. The study could be improved by surveying a larger, more diverse sample and comparing responses of different age groups.
httpjcc.sagepub.comPsychology Journal of Cross-Cultur.docxwellesleyterresa
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Psychology
Journal of Cross-Cultural
DOI: 10.1177/0022022194252002
1994; 25; 181 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Deborah L. Best, Amy S. House, Anne E. Barnard and Brenda S. Spicker
Effects of Gender and Culture
Parent-Child Interactions in France, Germany, and Italy: The
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Perspectives on gender development
Eleanor E. Maccoby
Stanford University, California, USA
Two traditional perspectives on gender development—the socialisation and cognitive perspectives—
are reviewed. It is noted that although they deal quite well with individual differences within ...
Gender: Social influences on gender role A2Jill Jan
Social factors can strongly influence gender development according to social cognitive theory. Children learn gender roles and behaviors through social modeling, reinforcement, and instruction from parents, peers, and media. Research provides support, such as studies finding that children are more likely to emulate behaviors they observe being rewarded or instructed. However, the social approach has also received criticism, like the possibility that peers may simply reinforce existing stereotypes rather than create them. Evaluation of different social influences, such as potential gender biases in parental reinforcement, is still ongoing.
The document discusses four major theories of gender typing: psychoanalytic theory, social learning theory, cognitive development theory, and gender schema theory. Psychoanalytic theory proposed by Freud suggests that gender typing results from the psychosexual stages of development. Social learning theory emphasizes that children learn gender roles through reinforcement and modeling of same-gender parents and peers. Cognitive development theory such as Kohlberg's suggests children actively work to understand gender concepts and construct their own gender identity. Gender schema theory proposes that children form mental frameworks for processing information based on their gender.
This document discusses several theories around the development of gender roles in children: psychoanalytic theory, behavioral theory, social learning theory, and cognitive learning theory. It explores how gender roles are adopted between 15-36 months through social learning and reinforcement. Key influences that shape gender role perceptions are discussed, as well as how gender identity may change from early childhood through adolescence. Observable behaviors that could indicate changes in gender identity are also outlined.
The document discusses a study conducted by the author on the role of gender in child discipline. The author surveyed 11 families with a total of 22 parents. The results showed that while fathers indicated a greater inclination towards physical discipline like spanking, mothers were more likely to engage in intense verbal discipline. This supported the author's hypothesis about corporal punishment but not verbal punishment. The author acknowledges limitations in relying on parent self-reports and proposes alternative study designs.
This document discusses how gender affects parenting and child development. It notes that with more women working, children are spending more time with other caregivers, potentially impacting gender development. The family is the starting point for children to develop gender stereotypes, which can influence later career goals. Parents unconsciously pass on their own views of gender through their interactions with children based on gender. The author conducted a small survey finding mothers spend more time on schoolwork and childcare while fathers were more satisfied with the parent-child relationship, demonstrating how gender influences parenting roles and child development.
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Essay about Gender Identity
The development of gender awareness is fundamental for our sense of self and is also predominant in any assessment made of another person as from birth on people respond differently to males and females. Gender identity can be seen as one of the earliest social categories that children learn to apply to both themselves and other people. This is suggested in Schaffer s (1996) definition where gender identity is the correct labelling of self and others as male or female. There are three main theories that have been explored which all suggest multiple ways in which gender awareness is developed: Bandura, Kohlburg and the Gender Scheme Theory. Firstly, Bandura (1977) notes that the idea that social influences clearly plays a very significant...show more content...Therefore, this shows that the development of gender awareness and identity has been the topic of many debates, thus showing how important the development of gender awareness is.
Sex role development begins in infancy and is a basic component of a stable identity throughout life and it can be suggested that the key component to identity formation are the social influences. This includes parental expectations, peer relationships and social experience that result in conforming to the gender stereotypes. Research into this has explored the ways in which parents and children interact with each other. From the beginning, parents tend to treat their child by their sex, ranging from the name given to the baby, to toys and furnishings. This, therefore, places t
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You get an original and high-quality paper based on extensive research. The completed work will be correctly formatted, referenced and tailored to your level of study.
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Every single order we deliver is written from scratch according to your instructions. We have zero tolerance for plagiarism, so all completed papers are unique and checked for plagiarism using a leading plagiarism detector.
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We strive to deliver quality custom written papers before the deadline. That's why you don't have to worry about missing the deadline for submitting your assignment.
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Essay about Gender Identity
The development of gender awareness is fundamental for our sense of self and is also predominant in any assessment made of another person as from birth on people respond differently to males and females. Gender identity can be seen as one of the earliest social categories that children learn to apply to both themselves and other people. This is suggested in Schaffer s (1996) definition where gender identity is the correct labelling of self and others as male or female. There are three main theories that have been explored which all suggest multiple ways in which gender awareness is developed: Bandura, Kohlburg and the Gender Scheme Theory. Firstly, Bandura (1977) notes that the idea that social influences clearly plays a very significant...show more content...Therefore, this shows that the development of gender awareness and identity has been the topic of many debates, thus showing how important the development of gender awareness is.
Sex role development begins in infancy and is a basic component of a stable identity throughout life and it can be suggested that the key component to identity formation are the social influences. This includes parental expectations, peer relationships and social experience that result in conforming to the gender stereotypes. Research into this has explored the ways in which parents and children interact with each other. From the beginning, parents tend to treat their child by their sex, ranging from the name given to the baby, to toys and furnishings. This, therefore, places t
Gender based social reactions powerpointBethannie216
The study aimed to test whether a person's reaction to an unexpected request depends on the gender of the person making the request. A male and female experimenter each approached 10 people and asked to borrow their cell phone. Contrary to the hypothesis that females would receive more favorable responses, the results showed that people seemed more willing to help the male experimenter than the female experimenter. The small sample size may have impacted the results, and further studies with more experimenters and a larger sample were suggested to get more conclusive results.
This document discusses stereotypes from several perspectives:
1. It defines stereotypes as generalizations made about groups that get applied to individuals. Several theories on the origins of stereotypes are presented, including social categorization and the "grain of truth" hypothesis.
2. Research is summarized that shows how holding stereotypes can impact perceptions and expectations of others. Studies demonstrate stereotypes influence judgments of intelligence and ability.
3. Additional research shows how knowing stereotypes exist about one's own group can negatively impact performance through "stereotype threat."
4. The document ends by reviewing studies on ways stereotypes may be overcome, such as exposing children to counter-stereotypical media portrayals and increasing awareness of implicit biases
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the heritages mentioned about and how they affect (positively or negatively) the delivery of health care.
2. Identify sociocultural variables within the Irish, Italian and Puerto Rican heritage and mention some examples.
References must be no older than 5 years. A minimum of 700 words is required.
.
1. Compare and contrast DEmilios Capitalism and Gay Identity .docxcroysierkathey
1. Compare and contrast D'Emilio's
Capitalism and Gay Identity
with the
From Mary to Modern Woman
reading. What patterns do you see that are similar to the modern American society? What can be said about global notions of gender in the modern age? Feel free to invoke Foucault.
2. How is the writer's experience important in the story being told in
Middlesex
? Describe your reaction to the reading and invoke some of the concepts discussed in the
Queer Theory
reading to try to make sense of sexuality when it does not match your own conventions. Compare both readings, but go deeper to explore your own stereotypes and socialization.
**PLEASE READ THE READINGS IN ODER TO DO THIS ASSIGNMENT.
.
1.Purpose the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness .docxcroysierkathey
1.
Purpose: the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness around stereotyping and how it can be very hurtful to some people.
2.
Audience: Anyone that uses stereotypical jokes or saying around people that are different than them even without realizing that they are making a stereotypical joke or statement.
3.
Genre: the genre that I will be trying to reach out to in this essay will be informational, reason being is that I mainly look at informational online documentaries and stories.
4.
Stance and tone: I’m just a young man who grew up around a lot of people from different places and have different cultures and never paid attention in my younger years to what was happening from stereotyping others that they are different till recently.
5.
Graphic design
: My essay will be a strict academic essay
.
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.2. Talk about the .docxcroysierkathey
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.
2. Talk about the interconnection between the aesthetic and the technical aspects of the film. This should include at least seven of the following: Editing, Film Structure, Cinematography, Lighting, Colors, Screenwriting, Special effects, Sound and Music.
3. After this course, will you see you favorite film in a different light? Why or why not?
.
1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan.docxcroysierkathey
1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan Harlow?
Fargo and Town Manager Harlow are on a slippery slope to corruption. I think that Harlow is handling her position the correct way by trying to remain neutral and sticking to a code of ethics so the problem really comes down to the political actors in the town. It is good that Harlow declined the invite to the dinner party, and cracked down on employees playing politics at work, that is a step in the right direction to removing the possibility of political corruption.
2.What is the basis for your answer to question #1?
At the end of the article Harlow remembers another city manager saying “you never have more authority than the day you walk into your office” What I get from that, and what I think Harlow got from that is that when you come into a position as a public manager everyone is going to want something from you. Political actors are going to want political favors, quid pro quos, you have something that everyone else wants and they are going to try and get that from you.
3.What are your recommended solutions to the problems you identified?
I think the best thing to do would be to continue to try to remain neutral. It will always be impossible to please absolutely everybody so the best thing to do is try to avoid doing everything everyone asks and stick to some sort of code of ethics.
4.What points do you agree, disagree or want further discussion from your fellow classmates and why? (tell them not me)
I think the overarching theme of this article is that people are going to want things from the government. I agree with Harlow's steps to avoid political corruption in her administration by cracking down on political favors with the snow plows and referring to the ICMA code of ethics.
.
More Related Content
Similar to Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology1»M. Vd 47, No 6. .docx
Gender identity develops through a complex interaction of biological, cognitive, social, and environmental factors from a very young age. Children begin showing preferences for gender-typed toys and behaviors between 18 months and 3 years old. Between ages 2 and 4, children progress through stages of gender identity development, gaining the ability to correctly label themselves and others by gender and understand that their gender remains constant. Nurture also plays an important role, as parents influence children's development of gender schemas by encouraging gender-typed behaviors and preferences in toys and activities from a young age.
This document discusses several theories around the development of gender roles in children. According to psychoanalytic theory, psychoanalytical complexes influence gender identity development. Behavioral and social learning theories posit that children learn gender roles through reinforcement and imitation of same-sex peers and adults. Cognitive learning theory suggests children progress through stages of gender identity, stability, and constancy from ages 2 through 5. Gender roles are typically adopted between 15-36 months when children experience gender intensification during adolescence. Observable behaviors that may indicate changes in gender identity include preference for opposite gender activities, dress, and peer groups.
This document discusses several theories around the development of gender roles in children. According to psychoanalytic theory, boys and girls develop gender identities through the Oedipus and Electra complexes. Behavioral and social learning theories posit that children learn gender appropriate behaviors through reinforcement. Cognitive learning theory outlines stages of gender identity development from ages 2 to 5+. The document also explores the influences that shape gender roles, how roles may change through adolescence, and observable behaviors that could indicate changes in gender identity.
1) The document discusses social desirability response bias, which is the tendency for people to respond to questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others or society, even if their responses do not fully reflect reality.
2) Past research has found that self-reports of personality and behavior can be influenced by social desirability bias, tending to under-report undesirable qualities. Several studies examined social desirability bias in children's self-reports of aggression.
3) The document reviews methods that have been used to measure and account for social desirability response bias, such as peer reports and observations, which may provide a more accurate perspective than self-reports.
Psychological explanations of gender developmentJill Jan
The document discusses cognitive theories of gender development, including gender schema theory. It explains that cognitive approaches see gender development as influenced by a child's thinking patterns and perceptions. Gender schema theory specifically proposes that children form mental models (schemas) of gender-appropriate behaviors from a young age, around 2-3 years old, and use these schemas to guide their own behavior and evaluate others. The document provides an overview of Kohlberg's stages of gender identity and constancy development, and discusses how gender schema theory builds on but differs from Kohlberg's theory in proposing an earlier emergence of gender-related schemas.
The document summarizes a study that examined teenagers' views on masculine and feminine personality traits. Male participants were more likely than females to label traits as stereotypically masculine or feminine. However, both males and females labeled many traits as neutral, contrary to the hypothesis. This may indicate that younger generations are moving away from strict gender stereotypes. Repeating the study with a larger, more diverse sample could provide more insights into generational differences in views of masculinity and femininity.
C:\Fakepath\Research Project Power Pointguest1381ffe
The document summarizes a study that examined teenagers' views on masculine and feminine personality traits. Male participants were more likely to identify traits as stereotypically masculine or feminine than female participants. However, both males and females labeled many traits expected to be stereotypical as neutral. This suggests younger generations may be moving away from strict gender stereotypes. The study could be improved by surveying a larger, more diverse sample and comparing responses of different age groups.
httpjcc.sagepub.comPsychology Journal of Cross-Cultur.docxwellesleyterresa
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Psychology
Journal of Cross-Cultural
DOI: 10.1177/0022022194252002
1994; 25; 181 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Deborah L. Best, Amy S. House, Anne E. Barnard and Brenda S. Spicker
Effects of Gender and Culture
Parent-Child Interactions in France, Germany, and Italy: The
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Perspectives on gender development
Eleanor E. Maccoby
Stanford University, California, USA
Two traditional perspectives on gender development—the socialisation and cognitive perspectives—
are reviewed. It is noted that although they deal quite well with individual differences within ...
Gender: Social influences on gender role A2Jill Jan
Social factors can strongly influence gender development according to social cognitive theory. Children learn gender roles and behaviors through social modeling, reinforcement, and instruction from parents, peers, and media. Research provides support, such as studies finding that children are more likely to emulate behaviors they observe being rewarded or instructed. However, the social approach has also received criticism, like the possibility that peers may simply reinforce existing stereotypes rather than create them. Evaluation of different social influences, such as potential gender biases in parental reinforcement, is still ongoing.
The document discusses four major theories of gender typing: psychoanalytic theory, social learning theory, cognitive development theory, and gender schema theory. Psychoanalytic theory proposed by Freud suggests that gender typing results from the psychosexual stages of development. Social learning theory emphasizes that children learn gender roles through reinforcement and modeling of same-gender parents and peers. Cognitive development theory such as Kohlberg's suggests children actively work to understand gender concepts and construct their own gender identity. Gender schema theory proposes that children form mental frameworks for processing information based on their gender.
This document discusses several theories around the development of gender roles in children: psychoanalytic theory, behavioral theory, social learning theory, and cognitive learning theory. It explores how gender roles are adopted between 15-36 months through social learning and reinforcement. Key influences that shape gender role perceptions are discussed, as well as how gender identity may change from early childhood through adolescence. Observable behaviors that could indicate changes in gender identity are also outlined.
The document discusses a study conducted by the author on the role of gender in child discipline. The author surveyed 11 families with a total of 22 parents. The results showed that while fathers indicated a greater inclination towards physical discipline like spanking, mothers were more likely to engage in intense verbal discipline. This supported the author's hypothesis about corporal punishment but not verbal punishment. The author acknowledges limitations in relying on parent self-reports and proposes alternative study designs.
This document discusses how gender affects parenting and child development. It notes that with more women working, children are spending more time with other caregivers, potentially impacting gender development. The family is the starting point for children to develop gender stereotypes, which can influence later career goals. Parents unconsciously pass on their own views of gender through their interactions with children based on gender. The author conducted a small survey finding mothers spend more time on schoolwork and childcare while fathers were more satisfied with the parent-child relationship, demonstrating how gender influences parenting roles and child development.
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Essay about Gender Identity
The development of gender awareness is fundamental for our sense of self and is also predominant in any assessment made of another person as from birth on people respond differently to males and females. Gender identity can be seen as one of the earliest social categories that children learn to apply to both themselves and other people. This is suggested in Schaffer s (1996) definition where gender identity is the correct labelling of self and others as male or female. There are three main theories that have been explored which all suggest multiple ways in which gender awareness is developed: Bandura, Kohlburg and the Gender Scheme Theory. Firstly, Bandura (1977) notes that the idea that social influences clearly plays a very significant...show more content...Therefore, this shows that the development of gender awareness and identity has been the topic of many debates, thus showing how important the development of gender awareness is.
Sex role development begins in infancy and is a basic component of a stable identity throughout life and it can be suggested that the key component to identity formation are the social influences. This includes parental expectations, peer relationships and social experience that result in conforming to the gender stereotypes. Research into this has explored the ways in which parents and children interact with each other. From the beginning, parents tend to treat their child by their sex, ranging from the name given to the baby, to toys and furnishings. This, therefore, places t
Paper Writing Service - HelpWriting.net 👈
✅ Quality
You get an original and high-quality paper based on extensive research. The completed work will be correctly formatted, referenced and tailored to your level of study.
✅ Confidentiality
We value your privacy. We do not disclose your personal information to any third party without your consent. Your payment data is also safely handled as you process the payment through a secured and verified payment processor.
✅ Originality
Every single order we deliver is written from scratch according to your instructions. We have zero tolerance for plagiarism, so all completed papers are unique and checked for plagiarism using a leading plagiarism detector.
✅ On-time delivery
We strive to deliver quality custom written papers before the deadline. That's why you don't have to worry about missing the deadline for submitting your assignment.
✅ Free revisions
You can ask to revise your paper as many times as you need until you're completely satisfied with the result. Provide notes about what needs to be changed, and we'll change it right away.
✅ 24/7 Support
From answering simple questions to solving any possible issues, we're always here to help you in chat and on the phone. We've got you covered at any time, day or night.
Essay about Gender Identity
The development of gender awareness is fundamental for our sense of self and is also predominant in any assessment made of another person as from birth on people respond differently to males and females. Gender identity can be seen as one of the earliest social categories that children learn to apply to both themselves and other people. This is suggested in Schaffer s (1996) definition where gender identity is the correct labelling of self and others as male or female. There are three main theories that have been explored which all suggest multiple ways in which gender awareness is developed: Bandura, Kohlburg and the Gender Scheme Theory. Firstly, Bandura (1977) notes that the idea that social influences clearly plays a very significant...show more content...Therefore, this shows that the development of gender awareness and identity has been the topic of many debates, thus showing how important the development of gender awareness is.
Sex role development begins in infancy and is a basic component of a stable identity throughout life and it can be suggested that the key component to identity formation are the social influences. This includes parental expectations, peer relationships and social experience that result in conforming to the gender stereotypes. Research into this has explored the ways in which parents and children interact with each other. From the beginning, parents tend to treat their child by their sex, ranging from the name given to the baby, to toys and furnishings. This, therefore, places t
Gender based social reactions powerpointBethannie216
The study aimed to test whether a person's reaction to an unexpected request depends on the gender of the person making the request. A male and female experimenter each approached 10 people and asked to borrow their cell phone. Contrary to the hypothesis that females would receive more favorable responses, the results showed that people seemed more willing to help the male experimenter than the female experimenter. The small sample size may have impacted the results, and further studies with more experimenters and a larger sample were suggested to get more conclusive results.
This document discusses stereotypes from several perspectives:
1. It defines stereotypes as generalizations made about groups that get applied to individuals. Several theories on the origins of stereotypes are presented, including social categorization and the "grain of truth" hypothesis.
2. Research is summarized that shows how holding stereotypes can impact perceptions and expectations of others. Studies demonstrate stereotypes influence judgments of intelligence and ability.
3. Additional research shows how knowing stereotypes exist about one's own group can negatively impact performance through "stereotype threat."
4. The document ends by reviewing studies on ways stereotypes may be overcome, such as exposing children to counter-stereotypical media portrayals and increasing awareness of implicit biases
Similar to Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology1»M. Vd 47, No 6. .docx (17)
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the.docxcroysierkathey
1. Discuss the organization and the family role in every one of the heritages mentioned about and how they affect (positively or negatively) the delivery of health care.
2. Identify sociocultural variables within the Irish, Italian and Puerto Rican heritage and mention some examples.
References must be no older than 5 years. A minimum of 700 words is required.
.
1. Compare and contrast DEmilios Capitalism and Gay Identity .docxcroysierkathey
1. Compare and contrast D'Emilio's
Capitalism and Gay Identity
with the
From Mary to Modern Woman
reading. What patterns do you see that are similar to the modern American society? What can be said about global notions of gender in the modern age? Feel free to invoke Foucault.
2. How is the writer's experience important in the story being told in
Middlesex
? Describe your reaction to the reading and invoke some of the concepts discussed in the
Queer Theory
reading to try to make sense of sexuality when it does not match your own conventions. Compare both readings, but go deeper to explore your own stereotypes and socialization.
**PLEASE READ THE READINGS IN ODER TO DO THIS ASSIGNMENT.
.
1.Purpose the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness .docxcroysierkathey
1.
Purpose: the purpose of this essay is to spread awareness around stereotyping and how it can be very hurtful to some people.
2.
Audience: Anyone that uses stereotypical jokes or saying around people that are different than them even without realizing that they are making a stereotypical joke or statement.
3.
Genre: the genre that I will be trying to reach out to in this essay will be informational, reason being is that I mainly look at informational online documentaries and stories.
4.
Stance and tone: I’m just a young man who grew up around a lot of people from different places and have different cultures and never paid attention in my younger years to what was happening from stereotyping others that they are different till recently.
5.
Graphic design
: My essay will be a strict academic essay
.
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.2. Talk about the .docxcroysierkathey
1. Tell us why it is your favorite film.
2. Talk about the interconnection between the aesthetic and the technical aspects of the film. This should include at least seven of the following: Editing, Film Structure, Cinematography, Lighting, Colors, Screenwriting, Special effects, Sound and Music.
3. After this course, will you see you favorite film in a different light? Why or why not?
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1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan.docxcroysierkathey
1.What are the main issues facing Fargo and Town Manager Susan Harlow?
Fargo and Town Manager Harlow are on a slippery slope to corruption. I think that Harlow is handling her position the correct way by trying to remain neutral and sticking to a code of ethics so the problem really comes down to the political actors in the town. It is good that Harlow declined the invite to the dinner party, and cracked down on employees playing politics at work, that is a step in the right direction to removing the possibility of political corruption.
2.What is the basis for your answer to question #1?
At the end of the article Harlow remembers another city manager saying “you never have more authority than the day you walk into your office” What I get from that, and what I think Harlow got from that is that when you come into a position as a public manager everyone is going to want something from you. Political actors are going to want political favors, quid pro quos, you have something that everyone else wants and they are going to try and get that from you.
3.What are your recommended solutions to the problems you identified?
I think the best thing to do would be to continue to try to remain neutral. It will always be impossible to please absolutely everybody so the best thing to do is try to avoid doing everything everyone asks and stick to some sort of code of ethics.
4.What points do you agree, disagree or want further discussion from your fellow classmates and why? (tell them not me)
I think the overarching theme of this article is that people are going to want things from the government. I agree with Harlow's steps to avoid political corruption in her administration by cracking down on political favors with the snow plows and referring to the ICMA code of ethics.
.
1.Writing Practice in Reading a PhotographAttached Files.docxcroysierkathey
This document provides instructions for analyzing a photograph by Jonathan Bachman titled "Bachman, Ieshia Evans, Baton Rouge (2016)". Students are asked to select three rhetorical elements from a provided list and write three paragraphs analyzing how each element contributes to the overall meaning or message of the photograph. Additional context is provided about when and where the photo was taken, and that it was a finalist for a Pulitzer Prize. Students are then given similar instructions to analyze a political advertisement, and to watch and take notes on the documentary film "Advertising and the End of the World" by Sut Jhally. A folder of additional images is also provided for future analysis.
1.Some say that analytics in general dehumanize managerial activitie.docxcroysierkathey
1.Some say that analytics in general dehumanize managerial activities, and others say they do not. Discuss arguments for both points of view.
2.What are some of the major privacy concerns in employing intelligent systems on mobile data?
3. Identify some cases of violations of user privacy from current literature and their impact on data science as a profession.
4.Search the Internet to find examples of how intelligent systems can facilitate activities such as empowerment, mass customization, and teamwork.
Note: Each question must be answered in 5 lines and refrences must be APA cited.
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1.What is the psychological term for the symptoms James experiences .docxcroysierkathey
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2.With reference to associative learning principles/models/theories, why does James consume alcohol
to alleviate these symptoms? What motivates his drinking behaviour given that he no longer enjoys this
activity (most of the time)?
3.How do these factors prevent James from quitting his drinking, and lead to a cycle of relapse when he
attempts to do so? Why are these processes important for our understanding of addiction and
substance use disorders.
1 Page
at least 3 sources
APA
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1.Write at least 500 words discussing the benefits of using R with H.docxcroysierkathey
1.Write at least 500 words discussing the benefits of using R with Hadoop. Use APA format and Include at least 3 quotes from your sources enclosed in quotation marks.
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1.What is Starbucks’ ROA for 2012, 2011, and 2010 Why might focusin.docxcroysierkathey
1.What is Starbucks’ ROA for 2012, 2011, and 2010? Why might focusing specifically on ROA be misleading when assessing asset management (aka management efficiency)?
2.Why is ROE considered the most useful metric in measuring the overall ability of a business strategy to generate returns for shareholders?
3. How do the financial statements reveal company strategy (i.e., what story do the numbers tell and does that story align with the strategy of Starbucks?)?
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1. Discuss the cultural development of the Japanese and the Jewis.docxcroysierkathey
This assignment requires discussing the cultural development of the Japanese and Jewish heritage in regards to their health care beliefs and how those beliefs influence evidence-based health care delivery. At least two references no older than five years must be used, and the paper must be a minimum of 600 words excluding the cover page and references.
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Discuss at least 2 contextual factors(family, peers, school, community, work, etc.) that might make young people more or less likely to experience adolescence as a period of storm and stress.
2. How might the dramatic physical changes that adolescents undergo—and the accompanying reactions from others—influence other aspects of development, such as social or emotional development?
3. Describe some ways in which adolescent decision making is a product of interactions among puberty, brain development, cognitive growth, and contextual influences such as parents, peers, and community.
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1.Write at least 500 words in APA format discussing how to use sentiment analysis how political speech affects voters. Use at least 3 references in APA format.
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1.The following clause was added to the Food and Drug Actthe S.docxcroysierkathey
1.The following clause was added to the Food and Drug Act:
“the Secretary [of the Food and Drug Administration] shall not approve for use in food any chemical additive found to induce cancer in man, or, after tests, found to induce cancer in animals.”
After this clause was adopted, no new additives could be approved for use in food if they caused cancer in people or animals.
The public loved this and industry hated it.
What do you think of this clause? Do you support it or do you oppose it?
At the top of your post, please indicate SUPPORT or OPPOSE and then give your rationale. Then after you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
2.There was a law that individuals who were indigent and who wished to litigate could apply to the courts for a total waiver of the normal filing fee. In the legislative session, however, a statute was enacted which limits the courts' authority to waive filing fees in lawsuits brought by prisoners against the state government.
Under this new law, a court has to require the prisoner to pay a filing fee "equal to 20 percent ... of the average monthly deposits made to the prisoner's [prison] account ... or the average balance in that account", whichever is greater (unless this calculation yields a figure larger than the normal filing fee).
A prisoner (who was indigent) wanted to appeal his case and was to be charged this fee. He filed suit claiming it was unconstitutional to charge this fee to prisoners.
Choose the side of the prisoner or the side of the state and tell why you would rule for the side you chose.
At the top of your post, please indicate SUPPORT PRISONER or OPPOSE PRISONER and then give your rationale. After you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
3.A defendant pleaded guilty to receiving and possessing child pornography and was sentenced to 108 months in prison. The sentencing judge raised the defendant’s base offense level….by two levels because "a computer was used for the transmission" of the illegal material.
The appeal filed challenged the punishment enhancement (not his guilt of the base punishment.)
The defendant argued the law did not apply to him because he did not use a computer to transmit the material. (ie He was the receiver, not the sender, of the child pornography.)
Do you believe that the sentence enhancement should be upheld? Give an economic analysis and rational for your choice.
At the top of your post, please indicate SENTENCE UPHELD or SENTENCE REVERSED and then give your economic analysis/rationale. After you can view your classmates' posts, make your case to your fellow students.
4.The ordinance was enacted that gives tenants more legal rights including:
the payment of interest on security deposits;
requires that those deposits be held in Illinois banks;
allows (with some limitations) a tenant to withhold rent in an amount reflecting the cost to him of the landlord's v.
1.What are social determinants of health Explain how social determ.docxcroysierkathey
1.What are social determinants of health? Explain how social determinants of health contribute to the development of disease. Describe the fundamental idea that the communicable disease chain model is designed to represent. Give an example of the steps a nurse can take to break the link within the communicable disease chain.
Resources within your text covering international/global health, and the websites in the topic materials, will assist you in answering this discussion question.
2. Select a global health issue affecting the international health community. Briefly describe the global health issue and its impact on the larger public health care systems (i.e., continents, regions, countries, states, and health departments). Discuss how health care delivery systems work collaboratively to address global health concerns and some of the stakeholders that work on these issues.
Resources within your text covering international/global health, and the websites in the topic materials, will assist you in answering this discussion question.
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1.This week, we’ve been introduced to the humanities and have ta.docxcroysierkathey
1.
This week, we’ve been introduced to the humanities and have taken some time to consider the role of the humanities in establishing socio-cultural values, including how the humanities differ from the sciences in terms of offering unique lenses on the world and our reality. Since one of the greatest rewards of being a human is engaging with different forms of art, we’ve taken some time this week to learn about what it means to identify and respond to a work of art. We’ve learned about the difference between abstract ideas and concrete images and concepts like structure and artistic form. To help you deepen your understanding of these foundational ideas, your Unit 1 assignment will consist of writing an essay addressing using the following criteria:
Essay Requirements:
• 1,000 words or roughly four double-spaced pages.
• Make use of at least three scholarly sources to support and develop your ideas. Our course text may serve as one of these three sources.
• Your essay should demonstrate a thorough understanding of the READ and ATTEND sections.
• Be sure to cite your sources using proper APA format (7th edition).
Essay Prompt:
• In this essay, you will consider the meaning of art and artistic form by responding to these questions:
o To what extent does Kevin Carter’s Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph (figure 2-5) have artistic form?
o Using what you’ve learned in Chapters 1, 2 and 14 explain if you consider Carter’s photograph a work of art? Be sure to point to specific qualities of the photograph to support/develop your response.
o How do you measure the intensity of your experience in response to Carter’s photograph? What does it make you see/feel/imagine and how does your response/reaction support Carter’s image as a work of art?
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1.What are barriers to listening2.Communicators identif.docxcroysierkathey
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What are barriers to listening?
2.
Communicators identified the following as major listening poor habits. Search what each poor habit means and try to set an example using your own experience.
Poor listening habit:
Pseudo-listening, Stage hogging, Filling in gaps, Selective listening, Ambushing (
Definition & Example)
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1.Timeline description and details There are multiple way.docxcroysierkathey
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Timeline description and details
: There are multiple ways to construct a timeline. Find one that fits you and your information.
Include 10-15 events, each including the following descriptors:
- titles of books or writings or some sort of identifier
- your age or some time reference
- and whether it was a positive or negative experience
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1.The PresidentArticle II of the Constitution establishe.docxcroysierkathey
1.
The President
Article II of the Constitution established the institution of the presidency. Select any TWO Presidents prior to 1933 and any TWO Presidents since 1933 and for EACH one:
a.
Discuss
any
expressed
power used by each president and the
impact
that decision had on American society at the time of its use
b.
Explain
whether you
agree/disagree
with the presidential action taken and
WHY
c.
Describe
one
legislative initiative
promoted by each president and the
impact
on America at the
time of its passage
as well as what the impact of that legislation is
TODAY
d.
Discuss
one
executive order
issued by each president and whether you
agree/disagree
with the order and
WHY
1.
Select any FOUR United States Supreme court decisions related to Civil Rights/Civil Liberties and for
each one
:
a.
Describe
the facts of the case
b.
Discuss
the arguments of each side as it pertains to the
Constitutional issue
being addressed
c.
Explain
the decision citing
Constitutional rationale
of the court including any dissenting opinion if not a unanimous verdict
d.
Explain
whether you
agree/disagree
with the court’s decision and
WHY
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1.What other potential root causes might influence patient fal.docxcroysierkathey
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What other potential root causes might influence patient falls?
2.
Equipped with the data, what would you do about the hypotheses that proved to be unsupported?
3.
Based on the correctly identified hypothesis in the case scenario, what would be your course of action if you were the CEO/president of St. Xavier Memorial Hospital?
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What do you think of the CNO’s (Sara Mullins) position of “waiting and seeing what the data tells us” instead of immediately jumping to conclusions?
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A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
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Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology1»M. Vd 47, No 6. .docx
1. Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental
theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In
cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary
prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social
learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social
influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information.
In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender
conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of
2. gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female
models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This
finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a
second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social
power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by
male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources
produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of
cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist
for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of
social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
3. We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Brent Sha-
phren, Deborah Skriba, Erin Dignam, and Pamela Minet
for serving as models. We are indebted to Marilyn
Waterman for filming and editing the videotape modeling
sequence, to Eileen Lynch and Sara Buxton, who acted
as experimenters, and to Nancy Adams, who assisted in
collecting the data. Finally, we also thank the staff and
children from Bing Nursery School, Stanford University.
Requests for reprints should be sent to either Kay
Bussey, School of Behavioral Sciences, Macquarie Uni-
versity, North Ryde, Australia, 2113, or to Albert Bandura,
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Building
420 Jordan Hall, Stanford, California 94305.
behavior after same-sex models. However,
these studies typically include only one model
of each sex. In a recent series of studies,
Bussey and Perry (1982; Perry & Bussey,
1979) have used multiple modeling as more
closely related to how modeling influences
operate in everyday life. When exposed to
multiple models the propensity of children
to pattern their performances after same-sex
models increases as the percentage of same-
sex models displaying the same preferences
increases.
The preceding research lends support to
the view that same-sex modeling can promote
same-sex differentiated patterns of behavior.
It remains an open question, however, con-
cerning the extent to which modeling plays
an important role in the development of sex-
typed behavior in younger children. Models
may simply serve to activate the already
4. developed sex-typedness of children.
Cognitive-developmental theory holds that
sex typing is simply one outgrowth of chil-
dren's cognitive development. From this
viewpoint, the most important consideration
of the child's sex role development is the
1292
SEX-LINKED MODELING 1293
child's cognitive capacity. According to Kohl-
berg (1966), it is not until about age six that
a child understands that a person's gender
remains constant regardless of appearance
changes. Recognition of gender constancy is
achieved during the same stage in which
Piagetian conservation is attained. After chil-
dren achieve a clear conception of themselves
as a "boy" or "girl," they automatically value
and strive to behave in ways appropriate for
their sex. Therefore, in this view, it is as a
result of having attained the concept of gender
constancy that children will seek behavior
appropriate for their own sex. Furthermore,
consistency between the child's gender, self-
categorization, and appropriate behaviors and
values is thought to sustain the child's self-
esteem. Sex-typed behavior is considered to
be motivated by the child's desire to behave
in a way consistent with his or her sexual
label.
5. According to cognitive-developmental the-
ory, children imitate same-sex models because
they perceive them as similar to themselves.
Such selective imitation fosters emotional ties
to same-sex models. Children's differentiation
of gender roles and their perception of them-
selves as more similar to same-sex models
precedes, rather than follows, identification.
That is, sex typing is not viewed as a product
of identification, but rather as an antecedent
of it.
One of the problems for Kohlberg's (1966)
theory has been that children show prefer-
ences for sex-typed objects earlier than gender
constancy normally develops (Maccoby &
Jacklin, 1974). Although stable gender identity
is not attained until about 4 to 6 years of
age, Thompson (1975) found that 24-month-
olds did quite well when asked to sort pictures
of feminine and masculine toys, articles of
clothing, tools, and appliances in terms of
their stereotypical sex relatedness.
Social learning theorists (Bandura, 1969;
Mischel, 1966, 1970) view sex role develop-
ment as promoted through a vast system of
social influences. These involve differential
gender labeling and the structuring of activi-
ties in ways that teach the sex roles tradition-
ally favored by the culture. Modeling serves
as a major conveyor of sex role information
(Bandura, in press). Children are continuously
exposed to models of sex-typed behavior in
the home, in schools, and in televised repre-
6. sentations of society. On the basis of these'
multiple sources of sex role information,
young children learn the behaviors appropri-
ate for their own sex. Social sanctions make
outcomes partly dependent on the sex-appro-
priateness of actions. Observed consequences
to others also convey role knowledge. On the
basis of direct and vicarious experiences,
children learn to use sex-typing information
as a guide for action. Other things being
equal, children are, therefore, more inclined
to pattern their behavior after a same-sex
model than an opposite-sex model.
Kohlberg (1966) postulates attainment of
gender constancy as a necessary prerequisite
for children's identification with same-sex
models. Social learning theorists, however,
view gender constancy as a product rather
than an antecedent of the emulation of same-
sex models. To explore these contrasting pre-
dictions, we selected children for study on
the basis of their level of gender constancy as
measured by the procedure devised by Slaby
and Frey (1975). This measure distinguishes
between gender identity (knowledge of self
and other's gender), gender stability (knowl-
edge that gender remains invariant across
time), and gender consistency (knowledge that
gender remains invariant across situations).
Children at three levels of gender constancy
were selected: low, medium, and high. Those
in the low group had not achieved gender
identity. The medium gender constancy group
had attained gender identity, but neither gen-
der stability nor consistency. Finally, the high
7. group had attained both gender identity and
gender stability and some displayed gender
consistency as well. Children from these three
levels of gender constancy were exposed to
multiple male and female models exhibiting
differential patterns of behavior, whereupon
the children's acquisition and spontaneous
emulation of the modeled patterns was mea-
sured.
Experiment 1
Method
Subjects Subjects were 18 boys and 18 girls enrolled
in the Stanford University Nursery School. They ranged
in age from 29 to 68 months, with mean age of 44.5
months. Models were three men and three women, all of
1294 KAY BUSSEY AND ALBERT BANDURA
whom had prior acting experience. Two female experi-
menters conducted the study.
Design. The subjects were assigned randomly to a
modeling group and a control group of 18 subjects each.
Within each group, equal numbers of boys and girls were
selected as either low, medium, or high on the Slaby and
Frey (1975) gender constancy interview.
Assessment of gender constancy The tester adminis-
tered the gender constancy interview (Slaby & Frey, 1975)
to each child individually. On the basis of the children's
responses, equal numbers of boys and girls were selected
8. at the low, medium, and high levels of gender constancy.
Sex-linked modeling Approximately 3 days after the
test of sex constancy, the same experimenter brought
each child individually to the experimental room and
asked the child if he or she wanted to watch television.
The child was seated in front of the television set and
the experimenter sat in front of and with her back to the
child. This seating arrangement prevented the experi-
menter from inadvertently communicating to the child
any reactions to the modeled displays. Half of the children
saw a modeling videotape and the other half a cartoon;
both were in color. The modeling display depicted three
men and three women playing a game. Find the Surprise.
in which all the men exhibited the same behavior patterns
but differed from the women, who also acted like each
other.
Two modeling tapes were produced to counterbalance
sex of models and the set of behaviors they modeled. For
the second videotape, the men and women displayed the
set of behaviors and verbalizations performed by the
opposite-sex models in the first tape. Half the subjects in
the modeling condition saw one videotape and the re-
mainder saw the other one. The modeling display opened
with a woman inviting three men and three women
seated on chairs beside her to play a game, Find the
Surprise She explained that she would hide a picture
sticker in one of two boxes and the object of the game
was to guess which box contained the sticker. They would
take turns playing this guessing game. The sticker game
served as a cover task for modeling a varied array of
stylistic behaviors, preferences, and novel utterances.
The models were then invited to select a "thinking
cap." All the men chose a green Mickey Mouse cap and
9. placed it with the Mickey Mouse photograph to the front
of their head. The women chose a blue Mickey Mouse
cap and placed the cap on their head with the Mickey
Mouse photograph to the back The experimenter then
hid the picture sticker in one of the two boxes. Each
model individually had a chance to find a sucker. When
a female model approached one of the boxes she said,
"Forward march," and began marching slowly towards
Box A repeating, "March, march, march." When she
reached Box A she said, "Jump, jump," as she made a
koala bear jump from the lid of the box. She opened the
box and exclaimed, "Bingo," took the sticker from the
box and walked to the paper hanging on the wall behind
the boxes and said, "Lickit-stickit," as she pressed the
picture sticker with her thumb, in the upper-nght quadrant
of the paper, with the comment "Up there." She then
placed the koala bear on the lid of the box facing sideways
and said, "Look at the door," walked back to her chair
with her arms folded and said, "There." Each female
model displayed the same patterns of behavior.
The men in their turn each stood up and said, "Get
set, go," and walked stiffly towards the boxes repeating,
"Left, right, left, right." When the male model reached
Box B he said, "Fly, fly" as he made the koala bear fly
from the lid of the box. He opened the box and exclaimed,
"A stickeroo," took the sticker from the box and walked
to the paper hanging on the wall behind the boxes and
said, "Weto-smacko" as he slapped the picture sticker
with his open hand, in the lower left quadrant of the
paper, and said, "Down there." He then placed the koala
bear on the lid of the box and said, "Lay down," and
walked back to his chair with his hands behind his back
and sat down with the comment, "That's it."
At the completion of the game, the male models said,
10. "Off with think caps," walked to Box A and placed their
hats inside the box and said, "In there." The female
models said, "No more think caps," walked to Box B
and placed their hats on top of the box and said, "On
top." Each model exhibited the appropriate behavior
pattern twice. In the other version of the modeling
videotape, the behavior patterns of the male and female
models were reversed.
Test for modeled behavior The modeling videotape
and cartoon were of approximately 11 nun duration.
After the two sets of models had selected their Mickey
Mouse caps, the experimenter turned off the television
and informed the child that another woman at the
nursery school was playing a game with children. The
experimenter returned with the second experimenter who
was unaware of the experimental condition to which the
children were assigned. The first experimenter exited and
the second experimenter asked the child to select a
Mickey Mouse cap. The children were free to perform
any or none of the behaviors they had seen modeled in
the videotape.
After the test for modeled behavior, the first experi-
menter showed the children a further segment of the
videotape in which the two sets of models had a chance
to find a sticker. The first experimenter exited again and
the second experimenter administered seven trials on the
sticker task. The children then watched the remainder of
the videotape, after which they performed the sticker
task for a further eight trials. A picture sticker was
hidden 12 out of the total 15 trials for each child
Children in the control condition were exposed to the
cartoon for the same length of time as children in the
modeling condition. The same procedure of interspersing
tests for imitation between segments of television viewing
11. was also used. Televised exposure and test trials were
interspersed to sustain children's attention.
The child's spontaneous imitative behavior was recorded
by an observer who watched the test sessions through a
one-way mirror. The observer was provided with a check-
list of responses exhibited by the models in the videotape
and the observer simply checked any of the responses
performed by each child on each trial. The observer was
unaware of the child's experimental assignment. A second
observer independently scored the performance of five
children. The product-moment correlation (r = .99) re-
vealed virtually perfect interrater agreement.
Acquisition test. Children in the modeling condition
were administered a test of acquisition at the conclusion
of the experiment. They were asked to demonstrate how
the men and women behaved. The order in which they
SEX-LINKED MODELING 1295
rcenactcd the behavior of each sex was counterbalanced.
Standard prompts were used to direct the children's
attention to different aspects of the modeled events. For
example, the experimenter asked, "How did the boys
(girls) walk to the box?" Following the acquisition test,
the children responded to questions designed to check
the effectiveness of the experimental manipulations
Results
Modeled behavior. A 2 X 3 X 2 X 2 ( S e x
of Subject X Level of Gender Constancy:
High, Medium, Low X Condition: Model-
12. ing, Control X Sex of Models/Within-Subjects
Factor) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was per-
formed on the scores for modeled behavior.
These scores were obtained by summing the
frequency of the stylistic responses (postural,
verbal, and motor) and preferences that
matched those of either the male or female
models. This analysis yielded a significant
main effect for gender constancy level, F{2,
24) = 3.41, p < .05. Children of low gender
constancy reproduced fewer of the modeled
behaviors than children of either medium
gender constancy, /(24) = 2.48, p < .05, or
high gender constancy, f(24) = 1.97, p < .06,
who did not differ from each other. The main
effect for modeling is also significant, F,
24) = 49.40, p < .0001. Children exposed to
modeling performed substantially more of
the behaviors exemplified by the models than
children in the control condition.
A significant interaction emerged between
sex of model and sex of subject, F, 24) =
11.22, p < .005. This interaction was quali-
fied, however, by a three-way interaction in-
volving sex of model, sex of subject, and
condition, 7-1(1, 24) = 16.20, p < .0005. This
interaction is depicted graphically in Figure
1. We examined the nature of this interaction
by performing t tests on the subgroup means.
In the modeling condition, boys sponta-
neously performed those behaviors displayed
by the male models in preference to those
displayed by the female models, f(24) = 5.06,
/ x . O O l , and conversely the girls sponta-
13. neously performed behaviors exhibited by the
female models over those displayed by the
Control Condition
Boys
Girls
Male Models Female Models Male Models Female Models
Figure I. Mean imitative performance scores of boys and girls
exposed to male and female models as a
function of condition (Experiment 1).
1296 KAY BUSSEY AND ALBERT BANDURA
male models, f(24) = 2.71, p< .02. Children
in the control condition, who had no exposure
to the modeled behavior, evidenced few
matching responses in either of the two mod-
eled sets of performances. The latter finding
demonstrates the efficacy of the modeling
influence and also reveals the neutrality of
the modeled responses. The sex-linked mod-
eling provides strong support for the same-
sex modeling hypothesis regardless of gender
constancy level.
Acquisition of modeled behavior patterns.
Children in the modeling condition were
asked to reenact the various behaviors dis-
played by the male and female models, re-
spectively. In the ANOVA performed on these
14. scores the only effect to attain significance
was gender constancy level, F2, 12) = 4.40,
p < .05. Children of low gender constancy
(Af = 3.67) recalled fewer modeled responses
than did children of either medium (M =
7.67) or high (M = 9.50) gender constancy,
whose scores did not differ from each other.
Relation between age and gender constancy
level. Children who achieve higher gender
constancy scores are also older. Indeed, age
is highly correlated with gender constancy
scores for boys (r = .76, p < .01) and for
girls (r = .82, p < .01). Because age and gender
constancy are so highly related, we might ask
if gender constancy exerts any effect on mod-
eling when age is controlled? To answer this
question we performed an analysis of covari-
ance, using age as a covariate and sex of
subject, level of gender constancy, condition,
and sex of models as factors. The results
reveal, as in the previous analyses of modeling
scores, a main effect for modeling, F 1, 23) =
48.70, p < .001; an interaction between sex
of model and sex of subject, fl, 24) = 11.22,
p < .005; and an interaction between sex of
model, sex of subject, and modeling, f{l,
2 4 ) = 16.20, / ? < . 0 0 0 5 . When age is con-
trolled as a covariate in the analysis of spon-
taneous modeling, gender constancy does not
account for any variance in children's mod-
eling behavior.
The children's acquisition scores were sub-
mitted to a similar covariance analysis to
control for the effect of age. The only effect
15. to attain significance was the covariate for
age, F{1, 11) = 5.99, p < .05. Therefore, gen-
der constancy is no longer a significant deter-
minant of modeling when age is controlled.
Discussion
Results of this experiment document the
prevalence of same-sex modeling. When chil-
dren observe that same-sex models collectively
exhibit stylistic behaviors that diverge from
those displayed by opposite-sex models under
the same circumstances, children are far more
likely to pattern their behavior after same-
sex models. The same-sex modeling occurs
irrespective of children's level of gender con-
stancy.
Children with low levels of gender con-
stancy, in this case, those who had not even
achieved gender identity on Slaby and Frey's
(1975) gender constancy scale, adopted more
behaviors displayed by same-sex than oppo-
site-sex models. Although the total amount
of modeling behavior increased with the chil-
dren's level of gender constancy, they adopted
more behaviors displayed by same-sex than
opposite-sex models irrespective of their gen-
der constancy level. Because age and gender
constancy levels were highly correlated and
low gender identity did not preclude same-
sex modeling, it seems that gender constancy
reflects children's overall cognitive competen-
cies rather than operating as a uniquely se-
lective factor in sex role development. This
16. interpretation is further supported by the
analysis that shows that when age is con-
trolled, gender constancy exerts no effect on
the children's modeling behavior. A stereo-
typic sex role conception is not a prerequisite
for same-sex modeling.
This does not mean that cognitive factors
are thought to be of minimal significance in
the child's sex role development. The ability
to selectively adopt these behaviors displayed
by same-sex models requires cognitive skills
in categorization and judgment of similarity
of self to others. Rather, the specific role of
gender constancy in the sex-typing process is
being questioned. There is little in the findings
to indicate that mastery of gender constancy
is necessary for sex-typing. Results of other
studies are also consistent with this view.
Large sex differences in preference for sex-
typed objects and play patterns exist in the
SEX-LINKED MODELING 1297
toddler and nursery school child long before
a fully matured gender constancy is estab-
lished (Blakemore, La Rue, & Olejnik, 1979;
Masters & Wilkinson, 1976; Thompson,
1975). Children as young as 2 and 3 years
possess remarkable awareness of sex role
stereotypes and sex differences (Kuhn, Nash,
& Brucken, 1978; Marcus & Overton, 1978).
Same-sex modeling seems to involve relying
17. on classifying males and females into distinct
groups, recognizing personal similarity to one
group of models, and tagging that group's
behavior patterns in memory as the ones to
be used as a guide to behavior. Even very
young children give evidence of classificatory
capabilities involving social stimuli. By the
time infants are 6 months old, they are
capable of treating infant faces as a category
different from adult faces, and female faces
as different from male faces (Fagan & Singer,
1979). Sex labeling and differential structuring
of social experiences teach children to use
the sex of the model as a guide for action
(Huston, 1983).
It is thus possible to explain same-sex
modeling even in young children on the basis
of their having cognitively abstracted activities
stereotypical for each sex and judging that
behaviors displayed by same-sex models are
the appropriate ones for them to adopt, with-
out requiring a conception of gender con-
stancy. Both the gender classificatory basis of
same-sex modeling and the impact of social
factors on this process accord with Spence's
(1984) formulation. She posits that sexual
identity facilitates adoption of prototypic
gender-congruent attributes, but interacting
social and personal factors determine what
particular constellations of gender-related
characteristics are developed. Thus people
within each sex can develop heterogeneous
patterns of gender-related attributes while
retaining a confirmed personal sense of mas-
culinity and femininity.
18. Results of the acquisition test cast further
doubt on mastery of gender constancy as the
selective mechanism of sex role learning.
Children's level of gender conception was
related to acquisition of modeled patterns,
but not selectively according to the model's
sex. The higher the gender conception was,
the more children learned the behavior of
both types of models. The measure of gender
conception may serve more as a proxy mea-
sure of skill in cognitive processing than a
unique determinant of sex role learning. The
older the children are, the more they learn
the behavior of both male and female models.
Thus when age is controlled, children of all
gender constancy levels learn equally from
the models.
Gender-schema theory also suggests that
children's readiness to classify objects and
people in gender-related terms may well de-
velop before a conception of gender constancy
is achieved (Bern, 1981; Markus, Crane,
Bernstein, & Siladi, 1982). Children learn to
encode, organize, and retrieve information
about themselves and others in terms of a
developing gender schema. Results of the
acquisition test, however, reveal that same-
sex modeling is not due to differential gender-
schematic processing and retention of the
behavior patterns exhibited by the male and
female models. Rather, gender self-knowledge
seems to be operating more on selective re-
trieval and enactment of what has been
19. learned observationally from both sexes.
These findings underscore the importance of
including measures of observational learning
as well as of spontaneous performance in
testing theories about gender-role develop-
ment. Children observe and learn extensively
from models of both sexes, but they are
selective in what they express behaviorally.
Experiment 2
The purpose of the second experiment was
to test the power of model sex on same-sex
modeling when countervailing social influ-
ences come into play. Do children always
choose a same-sex model over an opposite-
sex one, or is this proclivity readily altered
by social factors? Sex roles reflect, in part,
power relations in a society. Social power can
exert a strong impact on modeling (Bandura,
Ross, & Ross, 1963). It is, therefore, of
considerable interest to clarify what happens
in the course of modeling when social power
is pitted against the force of collective mod-
eling. In most societies, men typically wield
more social power than do women. Of special
interest is the impact of cross-sex social power
on cross-sex modeling.
1298 KAY BUSSEY AND ALBERT BANDURA
To clarify these issues, we varied the power
of one group of models over the other group.
In one condition, three male models were
20. depicted as the powerful controllers of re-
warding resources and three female models
occupied a subordinate role. In a second
condition, the male and female power posi-
tions were reversed so that the female models
were the powerful members of the group and
the male models the subordinate ones. Social
power was manifested in several ways: own-
ership of play materials, command over play
activities, and the dispensation of food and
soft drinks.
After children observed on videotape either
the men or the women exercising power, they
were then exposed to the same collective
modeling used in the previous experiment.
Children assigned to a condition in which
power of the models was not varied watched
a cartoon in place of the power induction
videotape and then the videotape of collective
modeling of behavior patterns. Children in
the control condition, who were exposed nei-
ther to power nor modeling displays, saw two
cartoons. If social power is an influential
determinant of model selection, cross-sex
modeling would be expected in those condi-
tions in which models of the opposite sex are
portrayed as the wielders of social power.
Method
Subjects Subjects were 16 boys and 16 girls enrolled
in the Stanford Nursery School. They ranged in age from
3 years to 5 years and 10 months, with a mean age of 4
years and 8 months, and all were categorized as high
scorers on the Slaby and Frey (1975) gender constancy
21. measure (i.e, 72% had attained at least gender identity
and gender stability, and 28% has also attained gender
consistency).
Design Children were assigned randomly to conditions
in a 2 X 4 design involving sex of child (boys, girls) and
treatment condition (men in power, women in power, no
power, control).
Procedure The procedure used in this experiment
was virtually identical to that described in Experiment
1. The main difference was the portrayal of social power
before the collective modeling.
The two videotapes for the power induction were
identical, except that in one videotape the male models
were in power and in the other the female models
exercised power. The females-in-power movie opened
with a narrative about three girls who owned a playroom.
The girls are seen in their playroom unpacking their
large collection of toys and having much fun playing with
them. As they were playing with their toys, three boys
walk by and hear the fun and laughter emanating from
the room. One of the boys peeks through the ajar door
to see what is happening inside. He quickly exclaims to
the other boys that there are some girls in there who are
playing with some "really neat" toys. The boys ask the
girls if they too could play with some of their toys. After
some deliberation, the girls allow the boys into the
playroom, but initially only to watch them play. The girls
play with even more interesting games, a Mickey Mouse
dip game, a wind-up dog, musical instruments, and other
exciting playthings. Finally, the girls who are the controllers
of these resources, allow the boys to play with one of
their toys. The boys express much joy at being able to
22. play with the girls' toys. The boys are given other
playthings.
The girls further exemplify their controller status by
telling the boys that they recently had $50 to spend, so
they went to San Francisco and bought a pinball machine.
After taking turns playing the pinball machine, the girls
announce, "It's time for treats," whereupon they set out
cans of soda, cookies, candy, chocolates, and make
popcorn in their popcorn machine The girls shared their
goodies with the boys. The end of the session is heralded
by the boys, at the girls' request, packing away the toys
for the day. Before leaving the playroom, one of the girls
announces that she had located a "really nqat" department
store in San Francisco that sells lots of things suitable
for their playroom. The girls count their money and then
peruse the department store's catalogue. They consider
buying roller skates and computer games, but finally
settle on a color television sef "Let's buy a color TV. set
for our room. We can keep it in our room. Then we can
come to our room and watch any program we like."
When the boys were in power, the sequence of events
and activities were the same except that the boys rather
than the girls exercised the control over resources and
activities. The participants in the power-induction vid-
eotape appear as the models in the collective modeling
videotape.
At the completion of the power induction or exposure
to the cartoon, children in the experimental condition
observed the collective modeling on the television monitor,
the children in the control condition saw another cartoon
The tests for acquisition and spontaneous adoption of
modeled behavior were identical to those followed in
Experiment 1. Similarly, the test procedures were identical,
23. with the tester having no knowledge of the conditions to
which the children were assigned.
Results
Modeled behavior. A 2 X 4 X 2 (Sex of
Subject X Treatment Condition X Sex of
Models/Within-Subject Factor) ANOVA was
performed on the scores of modeled behavior.
There was a strong main effect of modeling,
F3, 24) = 12.14, p < .001, with children in
the modeling conditions displaying more
modeled behavior than children not exposed
to the models. A significant interaction be-
tween sex of subject and sex of model, fl,
24) = 10.58, p < .005, also emerged. We ex-
SEX-LINKED MODELING 1299
Table 1
Modeled Behavior Means for Interaction of Sex
of Subject and Sex of Model (Experiment 2)
Sex of subject
• Boys
Girls
Sex
Males
18.88
12.19
24. of models
Females
9.81
15.19
amined the nature of this interaction by
performing / tests on the means in Table 1.
Both boys and girls patterned their behavior
more after same-sex models than opposite-
sex models. This effect was highly statistically
significant for boys, *(24) = 3.49, p < .01,
but the difference fell short of significance
for girls, f(24) = 1.15, p> .10.
The three-way interaction involving all
three factors (sex of subject, power treatment,
and sex of model) was also significant, F(S,
24) = 3.30, p < .05. This interaction is de-
picted graphically in Figure 2. In contrast to
boys and girls in the control condition, chil-
dren in the treatment conditions were influ-
enced by the power displays. First, it is of
interest to note that in the no-power condi-
tion, same-sex modeling predominates, an
effect that is stronger for" boys, t(24) = 4.38,
p< .001, than for girls, f(24) = 1.59,/? = .12.
The portrayal of the models as powerful
produced different results depending on the
sex of the models and the sex of the observer.
Boys emulated many of the behaviors of the
male models irrespective of whether they
25. were powerful or not, enacting an average of
20, 22, and 29 imitative responses in the
males-in-power, females-in-power, and no-
power conditions, respectively. However, the
boys did not show an equal propensity to
imitate the female models irrespective of
power. The boys' mean imitative scores of
the female models for the males-in-power and
no-power conditions, were 8 and 6, respec-
tively. When the female models were in power,
however, a different result emerged. The boys
emulated the female models (M = 18) almost
Boys
Girls
10 -
5 -
MM FM MM FM
Males in Power
MM FM MM FM
Females in Power
MM FM MM FM
No Power
MM FM MM FM
Control
26. Figure 2. Mean imitative performance scores of boys and girls
exposed to male and female models as a
function of condition (Experiment 2; MM = male models, FM =
female models).
1300 KAY BUSSEY AND ALBERT BANDURA
to the same extent as the male models (Af =
21), t(24) = 0.72, p > .10, and this was
significantly greater than their imitation of
female models who lacked power /(24) =
1.98, p < .06, or for whom power relations
were left undefined, t{24) = 2.20, p < .05.
Their emulation of female models in power
was equal to that of the male models in
power, /(24) = 0.43, p > . 1 0 , but less than
their imitation of the male models for whom
power relations were left undefined, /(24) =
2.11, p< .05. Same-sex modeling is thus a
robust phenomenon in boys. Emulation of
female models is relatively infrequent in boys,
unless the female models command power,
under such conditions the boys' same-sex
imitation preference is attenuated so that
male and female models are emulated equally.
In all conditions the girls were influenced
by both male and female models. When
power differentials were not exhibited girls
tended to favor same-sex models. When fe-
male models exercised power, girls adopted
significant amounts of both the female and
male models' behavior, although they revealed
27. a slight preference for the female models over
the male models, /(24) = 0.48, p > .10. For
girls, seeing women command rewarding
power equalized sex-linked modeling; seeing
males exercise power attenuated but did not
completely override the influence of the same-
sex models, /(24) = 0.24, p > .10.
Acquisition of modeled pattern. Analysis
of variance of the acquisition scores yielded
no significant differences as a function of sex
status and power differentials. The latter fac-
tors clearly exert their effects on spontaneous
performance of modeled patterns of behavior
rather than on their acquisition.
Discussion
Results of the second experiment further
corroborate the prevalence of same-sex mod-
eling, although the effect was much stronger
for boys than for girls. Interestingly, powerful
female models were effective in producing
cross-sex imitation in boys. This readiness to
emulate a powerful opposite-sex model was
not so apparent for the girls.
The results of this study, along with those
of others (Bussey, 1979; Bussey & Perry,
1980; Bussey & Perry, 1982; Perry & Bussey,
1979), underscore the efficacy of models in
the sex-typing process. They further support
the two-process model of sex-typing proposed
by Bussey and Perry (1982), for boys. The
stronger same-sex modeling shown by boys
28. in many of the modeling studies presumably
stems from boys' desire to adopt masculine
behavior, and, simultaneously, to reject fem-
inine behavior. Girls also adopt same-sex
behavior, but not at the expense of rejecting
behavior patterns modeled by the oppo-
site sex.
A surprising finding of this research is that
cross-sex modeling was more pronounced in
boys than for girls. This finding would seem
to contradict the common view that boys
show a more rigid adherence to the masculine
role than girls show for the feminine role
(Brown, 1956; Hartup & Moore, 1963; Heth-
erington, 1967; Kleinke & Nicholson, 1979;
Marcus & Overton, 1978; Nadelman, 1974).
For example, boys are less likely to imitate
cross-sex behavior or to develop egalitarian
conceptions of sex roles when pressured to
do so (Abramovitch & Grusec, 1978; Flerx,
Fidler, & Rogers, 1976; Grusec & Brinker,
1972; Wolf, 1973, 1975). Why then was
cross-sex modeling so effective, in this study,
for boys but not girls?
For boys, cross-sex modeling resulted when
female models commanded power, which in
this instance involved controlling rewarding
resources and the activities of others. This
form of interpersonal power may conform
more closely to the sex role that boys have
been socialized to play. If the type of power
exercised in this study is more in keeping
with the male sex role, the results become
understandable. Boys may be prone to emu-
29. late models whose style of behavior is consis-
tent with the male sex role stereotype, re-
gardless of the models' sex. Similar cross-sex
modeling may well occur for girls if, for
example, a factor such as nurturance, which
is more consistent with the female sex role
stereotype, was varied instead of power.
An alternative explanation is that girls are
less constrained in their modeling by the sex
of the model. Girls, typically, do not reject
opposite-sex models to the same extent as
boys do (Bussey & Perry, 1982). In the con-
dition that did not include power differentials
girls tended to imitate male models more
SEX-LINKED MODELING 1301
than the boys imitated female ones. Because
boys tend to adopt the behavior patterns of
same-sex models and reject the behavior pat-
terns of opposite-sex models, they generally
engaged in minimal cross-sex imitation. If,
however, the opposite-sex models command
power, which may appeal to boys, then the
boys not only cease rejecting the behavior
patterns of the opposite-sex models, but ac-
tively adopt them.
In contrast to the boys, the girls exhibited
greater consistency, across all three modeling
conditions, in their degree of cross-sex mod-
eling, whereas the boys engaged in highly
specific cross-sex modeling confined predom-
30. inantly to the condition in which the female
models had social power. For girls, cross-sex
modeling was thus not as dramatic as for
boys, because it occurred to a lesser extent
under ordinary conditions. The same inhibi-
tion for cross-sex models does not exist for
girls in the way it does for boys, so that
unless the behavior is particularly unattractive
to girls, they are likely to demonstrate some
cross-sex imitation, at least more than is
characteristic of boys. Boys, in contrast, are
unlikely to show much cross-sex modeling at
all in the absence of strong vicarious insti-
gators.
General Discussion
The results of our studies support and
extend previous research (Bussey & Perry,
1982; Perry & Bussey, 1979) in demonstrating
the viabililty of same-sex modeling as a
mechanism of sex role development. The
results demonstrate this impact on diverse
behavior patterns in children as young as 3
years of age, who have not even achieved
gender identity. This finding is at variance
with the assumption in cognitive-develop-
mental theory (Kohlberg, 1966) that the at-
tainment of gender constancy is a necessary
antecedent of same-sex modeling. Instead,
this research shows that children pattern their
behavior after members of their sex long
before they grasp gender constancy.
Another noteworthy feature of this research
is the dramatic cross-sex modeling effect for
31. boys. There are few reports of successful
cross-sex modeling effects for boys, but many
for girls. The finding of this study departs
from these typical findings in that the reverse
was true: Cross-sex modeling was more suc-
cessful and dramatic in boys than girls. One
reason for this lies in the nature of the factor
pitted against sex of the model, namely, the
powerfulness of the models. Boys emulated
powerful female models almost to the same
extent as male models. Because power is a
valued male behavior, the boys were prepared
to emulate models assuming power, regardless
of their sex. The girls, in contrast, were less
affected by the power manipulation. There
are two possible explanations for this finding.
First, girls displayed more generalized adop-
tion of cross-sex behavior across the various
modeling conditions and hence it was more
difficult to demonstrate a cross-sex modeling
effect for girls than boys. Second, power is
much more consistent with the male role and
hence the girls were less likely to construe
the male models as appropriate models for
themselves. Had the male models behaved in
a way more consistent with the female sex
role, the reverse result might have been ob-
tained.
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Revision received March 9, 1984 •