Dr. Chandrakant Saxena, CIAE Bhoopal

1. 1
Krishi Career Academy, Pune
and
Agricultural Training Institute, Ahmednagar
Combinedly Organize One Month Online Training on
“Advance Irrigation Technologies: Methods,
Design & Application”
Training Period: 08th July 2020 to 05th August 2020
Date: 31 July 2020
Agricultural Drainage from Waterlogged Soils and Indian Experiences
C K Saxena
Senior Scientist
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering Division
ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal
Introduction
Agricultural land drainage has all along been an essential but neglected activity over
the irrigated crop lands in India right from the British period. One would have imagined that
with the post independence impetus on irrigation development, drainage of agricultural lands
would catch up to ensure sustainability of irrigation. Unfortunately, that has not been the
case. Sporadic efforts have been made from time to time to improve the lands degraded due
to water logging, groundwater table rise and the associated soil chemical problems in the
irrigated command areas by incorporating a drainage system. Such efforts were made at a
later time, much after the irrigation development when the situation had already become
alarming. Even as on date, one finds plans of developing new irrigation projects, either
without a drainage component or with it but not detailing the specific activities, the execution
plan and the target time of completion. Rather, in many cases the drainage need is
undermined citing queer reasons such as low water allowance, currently deep water table,
well developed natural drainage system, favourable land slops, groundwater use for
irrigation, etc. and in some projects, in many cases the drainage need is undermined citing
queer reasons such as low water allowance, currently deep water table, well developed
natural drainage system, favourable land slope, groundwater use for irrigation, etc. In some
projects, these works are left to be done by the Water Users Associations whose effectiveness
in sustaining the health of command area is yet to be established on any measurable scale.
The current examples are the Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujrat the Narmada Canal Project in
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, the Indira Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh, the Subarnarekha
Barrage project in West Bengal, the Arjun Sahayak Pariyojana in UP, the Bodwad Parisar
Sinchan Yojana in Maharashtra and many others.
National Water Policy (2002) emphasizes on following issues and policies related
water resources development and management for sustainable agriculture. Water resources
development and management will have to be planned for a hydrological unit such as
drainage basin as a whole or for a sub-basin, multi-sectorally, taking into account surface and
ground water sustainable use incorporating quantity and quality aspects as well as
environmental considerations. There should be an integrated and multi-disciplinary approach

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to the planning, formulation, clearance and implementation of projects, including catchment
area treatment and management environmental and ecological aspects, the rehabilitation of
affected people and command area development. Reclamation of water logged/saline affected
land by scientific and cost-effective methods should form a part of command area
development programme. The drainage system should form an integral part of any irrigation
project right from the planning stage. Management of the water resources for diverse uses
should incorporate a participatory approach. Water User’s Association s and the local bodies
such as municipalities and gram panchayats should particularly be involved in the operation,
maintenance and management of water infrastructures/ facilities at appropriate levels
progressively, with a view to eventually transfer the management of such facilities to the user
groups/local bodies.
Waterlogging, Salinity and Drainage Situation in India
The natural geo-physiographical and agro-ecological situations of India are one of the
major factors in causing surface water logging and development of salt affected areas in
coastal region, which is bounded by a coast line of over 7000 km length. The natural drainage
systems are severely affected by the development processes and thus increased in
waterlogged and salt affected areas. The other major factor is the development of man-made
major and medium irrigation systems during post-independence period, where huge quantity
of water is being transported into new geo- hydrological arid and semi-arid regions. The lack
of working experiences in these regions caused inadequate designs coupled with poor
management practices has raised groundwater table and in
turn sizeable command areas are being affected both by water logging and soil salinization.
National Commission on Agriculture, Govt. of India (NCA, 1976) defined an area as
waterlogged when the water table causes saturation of crop root zone soil, resulting to
restriction to air circulation, decline in oxygen and increase in carbon dioxide levels. The
Working Group on Problem Identification in Irrigated area, constituted by the Ministry of
Water Resources, Govt. of India (MOWR, 1991) adopted the following norms for
identification of waterlogged areas:
(i) Waterlogged area : Water table within 2 m from the land surface
(ii) Potential area for waterlogging: Water table between 2-3 m from the land surface
(iii) Safe area : Water table below 3 m from the land surface
The physical effects of waterlogging are lack of aeration in the crop root zone,
difficulty in soil workability and deterioration of soil structure. Its chemical effect is soil
salinisation. Both adversely affect the growth and the yield of the crops. The extent of drop
damage depends upon the magnitude, duration and frequency of the waterlogged condition
and the degree of soil salinity. Salt problem is a major cause of decreasing agricultural
production in many of the irrigation project areas. Salinity may be a major problem in many
non-irrigated areas where cropping is based on limited rainfall. The various agencies
evaluated the status of water-logging and soil salinization problems in these areas but they
vary widely. However, the officially accepted one is the Working Group, (1991) estimates
and till date only the referred one (Table 1).

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Table-1. Water logged and Salt affected areas in million hectares
Source Irrigated Command Area Country as a whole
Water
logged
Salt affected Tota
l
Water
logged
Salt affected Total
Saline Alka
li
Saline Alkali
Working
Group
of
MoWR
(1991)
2.46 3.06 0.24 5.76 - - -
-
MoA,
GoI
- - - - 8.53 5.50 3.58 17.61
In most irrigated projects there has been increase in the water table and consequent
degradation of soils through water logging and soil salinity. Reasons for this twin problem
include faulty system of irrigation water supply and improper on farm water management.
Large areas have been degraded in the country due to problem of waterlogging and salinity,
specially in the irrigated alluvial tracts in north-west India (Haryana, Punjab, Gujrat etc.).
Table 2 gives the rate of rise of water table in different irrigation commands. Drainage
measures consist of mainly to evacuate salts and water from the crop root zone.
Table 2: Rate of rise of water table in different irrigation commands
Irrigation Command Rise of water table ( m / day )
MRBC, Gujarat 0.28
IGNP, Rajasthan 0.29 - 0.88
W J B C C, Haryana 0.30 - 1.00
S C C , Punjab 0.10 - 1.00
S S C C, U.P. 0.68
M C C ,Karnataka 0.6 - 1.20
N S I P, A.P. 0.32
S. S .I. Project, A. P. 0.26
However, over the years, phenomenal rate of rise of water level by as much as 0.2m and
above per year has created waterlogging conditions. Such a situation can emerge in MP too.
In India about 4.528 mha and 7.006 mha land is having waterlogging and salinity problems
respectively (Table 3) problem. In order to restore these degraded lands drainage becomes an
essential measure.
Table 3: Geographical, waterlogged and salt affected areas of some states in India
State Geographical
area mha
Waterlogged area
mha
Salt affected area
mha
Andhra Pradesh 27.44 0.339 0.813
Bihar 17.40 0.363 0.400
Gujrat 19.60 0.484 0.455

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Haryana 4.22 0.275 0.455
Karnataka 19.20 0.036 0.404
Kerala 3.89 0.012 0.026
Madhya Pradesh 44.20 0.057 0.242
Maharashtra 30.75 0.111 0.534
Orissa 15.54 0.196 0.400
Punjab 5.04 0.199 0.520
Rajasthan 28.79 0.348 1.122
Tamilnadu 12.96 0.128 0.340
Uttar Pradesh & Uttaranchal 29.40 1.980 1.295
Total 258.43 4.528 7.006
Source : Ghosh, 1991 and Tyagi, 1999.
Drainage Systems for Waterlogged Areas
The methods which can be adopted for reclaiming waterlogged and salt affected areas
are, surface drainage, subsurface drainage, vertical drainage and biological drainage. The
drainage measures can be categorized as structural and non structural.
Structural measures
The structural measures for draining soils are summarized as follows:
* surface drainage
* subsurface drainage (also referred to as ground water or tile drainage)
* mole drainage
* vertical drainage
(i) Surface drainage
Surface drainage is described as “the removal of excess water from the soil surface in
time to prevent damage to crops and to keep from ponding on the soil surface, or, in
surface drains that are crossed by farm equipment without causing soil erosion”
Surface drainage is a suitable technique where excess water from precipitation can not
infiltrate into the soil and move through the soil to a drain, or can not move freely
over the soil surface to a natural channel. The parallel ditch system is the most
efficient surface drainage system to use with mechanized agriculture.
(ii) Sub- surface drainage
Sub-surface drainage (SSD) is the removal of excess soil water in time to prevent
damage to the crops because of a high ground water table. Subsurface field drains can
be either open ditches or pipe drains. Pipe drains are installed underground at depths
varying from 1 to 3 m. Excess ground water enters the perforated field drain and
flows by gravity to the open or closed collector drain.

5. 5
(iii) Vertical drainage
In this method tube wells are to be drilled to lower the ground water table where
adequate permeability of soil between the crop root zone and aquifer are available.
Vertical drainage is useful where pumped water is qualitatively fit for irrigation
through direct application or conjunctive use. Vertical drainage has been extensively
done for lowering of the water table and augmentation of canal supply. The pilot
project JTP (Jagadhri Tubewell Project -Haryana / Punjab ) aimed to lower the water
table which had risen due to seepage from western Yamuna canal in fifties and sixties.
(a) Multiple well point drainage system
This system consists of mainly a number of well points connected to each other
through a horizontal pipeline to be pumped centrally. The depth of the well points is
kept well above the fresh water-saline interface to prevent mixing up. This system
has been tried in Faridkot (Punjab) by installing a battery of 24 wells each about 6m
deep.
b) Vertical pipe or chimney drainage
Poorly permeable vertisols on the Deccan plateau in central India have been drained
successfully using vertical chimney drains. The chimney drains intercept water
seeping through the horizontally occurring permeable and of weathered rock located
between poorly permeable clay soils are difficult to drain even by subsurface drainage
due to low infiltration rate.
(iv) Mole drainage
Mole drains are unlined circular soil channels, which function like pipe drains. Mole
drainage is an inexpensive and effective method of drainage which is widely used in
the clay soils of temperate regions such as United Kingdom, northern Europe and in
New Zealand. It is generally confined to soils having clay content of about 30 – 35%.
Their disadvantage is their restricted life (5 to 10 years), but, providing benefit-cost
ratios are favourable, a short life can be acceptable. Mole drains are formed with a
mole plough which comprises a cylindrical foot attached to a narrow leg, followed by
a slightly larger diameter cylindrical expander. Mole drains are commonly installed at
depths between 0.4 and 0.7 m with drain spacings range between 2 to 5 m. Common
length of mole drains vary from 20 to 100 m long depending on the grade. Mole
drains are installed using a mole plough, pulled by a powerful tractor (drawbar pull
40-60 KN).
Non-structural Measures (Bio-drainage)
Plantation of high water consuming trees for withdrawal of ground water is termed
bio-drainage. In dry arid regions, the plantation provides bio-mass and acts as shelter belt in
light soil areas such as in IGNP command area against shifting sands and dunes. The bio-
mass also provides natural mulch. Study and experiment conducted on IGNP on an area of
31000 ha by planting Eucalyptus and other similar species have shown effective results in
lowering of water table.

6. 6
Envelope Materials for Sub Surface Drainage
An envelope is defined as the material placed around pipe drains to perform one or
more of the following functions:
▪ Filter function: to prevent or restrict soil particles from entering the pipe where they
may settle and eventually clog the pipe.
▪ Hydraulic function: to constitute a medium of good permeability around the pipe and
thus reduce entrance resistance;
▪ Bedding function: to provide all-round support to the pipe in order to prevent damage
due to the soil load. Note that large diameter plastic pipe is embedded in gravel
especially for this purpose.
The first two functions provide a safeguard against the two main hazards of poor drain
line performance: siltation and high flow resistance in the vicinity of the drain.
Movement of soil particles in weakly structured and unstable soils in the vicinity of
subsurface drain pipes can lead to clogging of unprotected pipes. Sedimentation of drain
pipes can be avoided or reduced by using suitable envelope material. Ineffective subsurface
drain performance as a result of clogging has been a problem in many countries. There are
generally two types of drain clogging. One type is related to clogging caused chemically and
biologically, e.g. iron and manganese ochre described by Broughton et al (1977). The second
is associated with blockage of the drainpipe by soil particles that have entered and settled in
the pipe. Clogging of the envelope has become an increased problem with the introduction of
synthetic envelope materials. To overcome this problem, envelope materials are used to
protect the drainpipes in soils where a drain clogging potential has been diagnosed. The
envelope requirement is evaluated by determining the degree of sedimentation in the drain
(Legace and Skaggs, 1982) as follows:
* Envelope is not required when the sedimentation depth in the drain is less than 10 mm
* Envelope is advised when the sedimentation depth is between 10 and 30 mm.
* Envelope is strongly recommended if the sedimentation depth is more than 30 mm.
Broughton (1993) suggests that in humid and sub-humid climatic zones, soils without
dispersion problems do not require envelopes when the clay content is greater than 30 per
cent. Research has shown that the type of clay soils may be an issue in determining the need
for drain envelope A minimum flow velocity of about 0.35 m/s is needed for self-cleaning of
a drainpipe.
The Envelope materials are mainly classified as : (i) Inorganic envelope materials i.e.
Gravel and sand; (ii)Organic envelope materials i.e. hay, straw, sawdust, jute fibers,
corncobs etc. (iii) Fiber-glass and (iv)Synthetic envelope materials i.e. polyester,
polyethylene (PE) or Polypropylene PP) fibers or filaments etc. Though sand and gravels are
the most reliable material for envelopes, but it is more expensive than a lot of available
synthetic envelope materials. Of all the organic filter and envelope materials, organic soils
are most commonly used. The life of organic filter materials is limited due to their
decomposition and decay. Fiber-glass filters are manufactured from glass products and are
commercially available in rolls for various size drains and trench widths. There are currently
several types of this material available, varying in thickness from paper thin to about 25 mm.

7. 7
Lime-borosilicate glass is the only type of glass suitable for use in underground filters. Fiber-
glass filters, or mats as they are often called, are a non woven fabric and the size of openings
varies from point to point within the material. Synthetic envelope materials are made of
polyester, polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP) fibers or filaments. A list of types of
synthetic envelope materials is presented in Table-4. The most widely accepted types of
envelope materials used in agricultural drainage are non-woven needle punched,
spunbounded and knitted sock fabrics. The most widely accepted types of envelope materials
used in agricultural drainage are non-woven needle punched, spun bounded and knitted sock
fabrics.
Table -4 : Classification of synthetic envelope materials
Process Envelope materials
Knitted Standard, interlocked and pile
Woven Monofilament, multifilament and slit film
Non-woven Spunbonded : filaments
Needle-punched: filaments or fibre
Chemical bonded: fibers
Wet laid bonded: filaments
Composite Woven with needle-punched staple fibers
Multi-layer non wovens
Non-woven incorporating a woven scrim
Woven with calendered surface
The cost of the sub surface drainage (SSD) envelope materials varies from 25 to 30 %
of the total cost of the SSD systems depending upon the type of the commonly used synthetic
envelope materials. In vertisols, the initial cost of SSD technology with envelope is high due
to closer drain spacing.
Selection Criteria for Drain Envelopes
Besides considering costs and local availability, the following technical consideration
should be taken into account:
(i) a relatively thick (1-2 cm when compressed) permeable envelope, with good
filtering properties (e.g. gravel or a good synthetic substitute) should be used
where pipes are installed in weak structured, easily dispersed soil, or where this
type of soil is used for backfill around the pipe. This applies to most silty and fine
sandy loams, silty sand and unstable sodic soils;
(ii) a (cheap) thin synthetic fabric, woven or non-woven, may be used where the
envelope functions mainly as a screen but these should only be used on corrugated
pipes (e.g. installation in, or backfill with, very permeable sandy soil). With
smooth plastics, tile and concrete pipes the use of such an envelope may lead to
high entry resistances;
(iii) in situations in which the flow to the drain is likely to be very high (wide spacings
and/or high drainage rate), good envelopes are both technically and economically
justified.

8. 8
Indian Experiences in Drainage Technology
In India, the performance of SSD systems with different envelope materials were
evaluated in fields under Rajasthan Agriculture Drainage Research Project (RAJAD), Central
Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal and under Haryana Operational Pilot Project
(HOPP) and AICRP on Agricultural Drainage. CSSIR and RAJAD studies were carried out
mainly for sandy and sandy loam soils(Bhattacharya et al. 2010). These studies revealed that
SSD systems had resulted in control of soil salinity/alkalinity effectively and significant
increase in yields (about 50 to 75%) of important crops (i.e. paddy, wheat, cotton). Studies on
envelope materials under above AICRP were carried out for problematic coastal black soil.
However, limited studies of SSD system in vertisols under semi arid climate were carried out.
Since drainage problems/ measures are location and site specific and their suitability has to be
studied under different agro-climatic region. Studies on performance of surface and SSD
systems including mole drainage in heavy clay soils (vertisols) were carried out at CIAE,
Bhopal (M.P.) and at Water Management Research Center, Parbhani (Maharashtra). An
abridged information on land drainage works with their outcome, carried out in India for
controlling waterlogging and land reclamation measures is given in Table-5.
CSSRI, Karnal
To evaluate the performance of drain envelope materials for their suitability in the
installation of SSD system, a study was conducted in the laboratory. The soil of Karnal
region (sandy loam soil having clay 9.9, silt 34.6 and sand 55.5 per cent) had a weak
structure due to high sand content. Three drain envelope materials i.e. polypropylene band
(PPB) of 3.2 mm thickness, geotextile propylene bands (GPB 186) and GPB 187 whose O90
values were 450, 230 ( 1.9 mm thick) and 225μm (1.7 mm thick) respectively were tested in
lab using permeability meters. Based on hydraulic considerations, PPB performed better
followed by GPB 187. The ratio of hydraulic gradient over soil column and over the drain
envelope was 0.98, 1.09, and 1.27 in case of PPB, GPB 186 and GPB 187, respectively which
indicated lesser mechanical function i.e. clogging effect of PPB. The performance of other six
geotextile drain envelope with opening pore size (O90 values) 320, 359,355,366,866 and 366
μm and thickness of 3.2, 2.8, 2.1, 1.8, 5.4 and 3..3 mm respectively were tested in laboratory.
The hydraulic performance of all the enveloping materials was good without any risk of
blocking the envelopes .The performance of the four geotextile envelopes having effective
opening sizes (O90 values) of 325, 329,359 and 360 μm and thickness of 3.1, 6.0, 9.0, 3.3 and
3.4 mm respectively were tested in laboratory using Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride
(UPVC) for sandy loam soil of Hanumangarh ( Rajasthan). The performance of all the drain
envelope materials was found to be good and these can be accepted for SSD system
installation.
Table 5: Summary of land drainage endeavours and their outcome in India
Sl.
No
Place Drainage type Major Conclusion Reporting
Year
1. Ludhiana, Punjab Tile and open Maize yield increased 1967
2.. Digod, Rajasthan Mole and Tile Moling was cheaper 1972
3. Pant Nagar, Uttaranchal Tile Surface runoff reduced 1972
4. Karnal, Haryana Tile and open Open drain is unsuitable in alkali
soil
1972
5. IARI, New Delhi Open Increased sorghum and wheat
yield
1975
6. Indore, M.P. Tile Crop yield increased 1975
7. Sample, Haryana Tile and open Crop yield increased 1979

9. 9
8. Bidaj, Gujarat Open Improved salinity and
waterlogging
1981
9. Kailana Khas, Haryana Open Increased crop yield good salt-
water regime
1982
10. Parbhani, Maharashtra Tile Increased net profit 1982
11. Karumady, Kerala Tile Increased rice yiled 1993
12. Golewala, Punjab Multiple well
point system
Permitted conjunctive use of
groundwater
1995
13. Barna, M.P. Open Increased crop yield 1995
14. Machilipatnam, A.P. Tile Increased crop yield 1995
15. Kota, Rajasthan Tile and open Projected B:C ratio 2.5. 1995
16. Midnapore, West Bengal Open Increased crop yield 1996
17. Mornai, Assam Tile controlled water table and
increased crop yield
1996
18. Dankuni basin, West Bengal Raised bed-pond Salvaged waterlogged land for
crop production
1999
19. Central Institute of
Agricultural Engineering,
(CIAE) M.P.
Surface and Sub
Surface Drainage
controlled water table and
increased soybean crop yield
Increased crop yields of Maize
and Pigeon Pea
2003
2007
20. CIAE, Bhopal M.P. Mole Drainage Increased soybean crop yield 2005
The performance of synthetic envelope materials (voluminous propylene with
thickness of 3.3 - 3.6 mm and O90 values of 266 – 400 μm ) were evaluated using SSD
system installed with UPVC corrugated perforated pipes (Drain sizes 80 – 100 mm, length
150 – 350m, drain depth 1.6 m and drain spacing 60 m and drain slope 0.1% ) in fields of
Block 3 and block 14 under Haryana Operational Pilot Project (HOPP) of Gohana area for
sandy loam water logged soils. The performance of these synthetic envelope materials was
observed to be Moderate to good in Block No. 3 and good in Block No. 14. The entrance
resistance of the drainage system varied from 0.83 to 1.36 day/m with average value less
than ).5 day/m. About 25 cm drop in water table in 2 days after the rains was observed
indicating good performance of the system. The synthetic filter materials namely PP band,
typar and nylon sleeve so far tried in sandy loam soils of Haryana gave very good to
moderate performance. The Indian made geotextiles (90/3) and coir was found to give
moderate performance in sandy loam soil of Gujrat, and the nylon netting gave poor
performance. Gravel filter was also found to perform moderately in sandy loam to clay loam
soils of Gujrat. These soils had 50% sand, 30% silt and 20% clay content.The filter action of
this range of gravel filter found to be inadequate with choking of 33-70 per cent of drain
capacity in about 5 years time.
Rajasthan Agriculture Drainage Research Project (RAJAD) Studies
The Rajasthan Agricultural Drainage Research Project (RAJAD) was introduced in 1992 to
combat the problems of salinity and waterlogging in the CCA, using the horizontal
subsurface drainage (SSD) technology. During 1992-95, experimental test sites were
established on 2,100 ha of land to assess the effectiveness of SSD for salinity control and
develop the design criteria for the project. Installation of SSD at these sites was carried out
by rubber-tired excavators by an imported trenchless drain laying plow equipped with a laser
grade control system. Based on the design criteria developed, more than 10,000 ha of SSD
were installed from 1996-1998, using imported drain-laying equipment. The SSD System has

10. 10
been monitored to found to have major positive impacts in alleviating soil salinity and
waterlogging. The technology has been found cost effective.
Water table monitoring at 250 ha locations in the drainage blocks from 1992-1996 indicated
that during the crop seasons, nearly 65 percent of the study area had average water table
depth within 1 m of the ground surface. About 30 percent of the area had a water table within
2 m. The soil salinity survey in these drainage blocks, on an 8.5 ha grid showed that about 36
percent of the area was saline (ECe > 4 dS/m) or saline-sodic (ECe > 4 dS/m and SAR>15).
Based on studies on various drain envelope materials under field conditions following
recommendations were made:
. Gravel envelopes do not appear to be effective and are not a practical option for
RAJAD in areas where drain pipe envelope is needed. Synthetic fabric envelopes with
polyester or a mixture containing polyester and up to 50 percent polyethylene fibres should
be used.
➢ Envelopes with characteristics similar to SAPP 240 are found to be most effective in
preventing sediment movement into the drain pipes.
➢ Installation by the trenchless drain laying plow reduces sedimentation deposit in drain
pipes by nearly half compared to installation by backhoe excavation. Considerable
cost savings should result from plow installation.
➢ Drain pipes laid at more than 0.4% grade should above the drain appear to impact the
sediment movement in the pipe.
Before taking up the large-scale sub-surface drainage installation, a number of smaller
representative areas- 50 to 180 ha in size were identified to conduct pilot experiments to
develop the design criteria and identify suitable installations technology. The total pilot
experimental area was 1400 ha distributed in ten locations. The results from all the pilot study
sites were synthesized for undertaking the sub-surface drainage work in the remaining area of
the RAJAD project (the target having been reduced from 20,000 ha to about 16,000 ha).
Different drainage machinery, filter types (without filter also) drain depth and spacing and
layouts were used and adopted to complete the installation by the year 2000. The installation
programme included providing suitable structures, outlets, deepening and re-sectioning of the
existing open drain network, providing new open drains and some other constructional
activities.
AICRP on Agricultural Drainage (ICAR)
All India Co-ordinated Research Project (AICRP) on “Agricultural Drainage under
Actual Farming Conditions on Watershed Basis” was started by ICAR with Co-ordinating
center at IARI, New Delhi. The Scheme was having cooperating centers in many states such
as Punjab, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala etc. The main objectives
of the project include, evaluation of suitable drainage design criteria for surface and sub-
surface drainage (SSD) systems including evaluation of drain envelope materials,
assessment of the effectiveness of SSD system in the performance of crop growth and yield,
assessment of status of water quality, waterlogging and strategies for reclamation of salt
affected soils, assessment of the socio-economic benefits to the users of SSD technology etc.
The field studies on SSD system using inorganic and organic envelope materials mainly at
three centers i.e. PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab, ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala Agril.
University, Alleppey. The findings of the conducted field studies on drain envelope materials
are briefly presented here.

11. 11
The performance of sand and gravel envelope material was evaluated through filed
experiments on SSD system laid with three drain spacings of 40, 60, and 80 m at 1.8 m depth
and 0.2 % slope using perforated PVC pipes on 100 mm diameter under sodic sandy loam
soil. The SSD system worked well and the performance of the sand and gravel envelope was
observed to be good. The sand and gravel envelope material was also used in the SSD
system laid using clay tile drains with three drain spacings of 10m, 15 m and 35 m, installed
on 3.2 ha for paddy crop in black soils at Agricultural Research Station, Machilipatnam in
Coastal Andhra. The SSD system performed well indicating suitability of sand and gravel
envelopes.
At KAU, Kerala center of this AICRP, the effectiveness of inorganic and organic
envelope materials was evaluated through filed experiments on SSD system using tile drains
of 40 m length and spaced at 15 m. The study area is located in Kari lands of Kuttanad in
Kerala. The site is characterized as black , organic, acid-sulphate soils of high salinity soil,
toxicity and shallow water table. Following treatments were carried out using envelope
materials:
Treatment-1 : Sea sand all round the drain,
Treatment-2 : Sea sand around the drain joints only
Treatment-3 : River sand all round the drain,
Treatment-4 : River sand around the drain joints only
Treatment-5 : Paddy straw around the drain joints only,
Treatment-6 : Coconut coir fiber around the drain joints only
Treatment-7 : No envelope material
During field experimentation, the crop performance as well as hydraulic parameters
show no significant difference among the treatments. This indicated that no envelope
material is required for acid-saline soils of Kuttanad, Kerala for laying out SSD system.
This may be attributed to the nature of the area.
Water Management Research Centre, Parbhani (Maharashtra)
A long term SSD experiment was started in 1994 at WMRC, Parbhani on deep
black soil having clay 52 (Bhattacharya and Michael 2010). As far as drainage material is
concerned, the clay tile is required minimum drain out period as compared to PVC corrugated
perforated pipe and Rigid PVC perforated pipes. A long term SSD experiment was started
in 1994 at Water Management Research Centre, Parbhani on deep black soil having clay
52% and field capacity 36%. The drain materials used were (1) clay tile of 100mm diameter
(2) 80 mm diameter PVC corrugated perforated pipe and (3) PVC rigid pipe with
perforations of 63 mm diameter with the combination of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand and
geo textile as envelope materials. The SSD system were installed at 1.3 m depth. The main
treatments were three drain spacings ( D1 = 25 m , D2 = 50 m and D3 = 75 m). Lysimetric
tank (16 Nos) of size 5x1.8 and 1.5 m deep were constructed for this experiment. As far as
drainage material is concerned, the clay tile s required minimum drain out period as
compared to PVC corrugated perforated pipe and Rigid PVC perforated pipes. The
performance of sand and gravel envelope was observed to be better than geo-textile envelop
material. The field experiment was conducted for soybean crop followed by wheat crop in
Rabi season. As regards grain yield of soybean and wheat, the yields were at par for all three
drain spacing treatments.

12. 12
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE), Bhopal
Survey conducted for assessing drainage problems in Madhya Pradesh, revealed that
water logging problem exists mainly in three major canal command areas in Madhya
Pradesh viz. Chambal , Tawa and Barna having CCA 0.2.83 Mha, 0.247 Mha and 0.065
Mha respectively. At present, 14.06 % , 1.20 % and 0.90 % of command areas are affected
due to waterlogging in Chambal, Tava and Barna respectively (Ramadhar Singh et.al. 2001).
The Ken, Ken- Betwa Link Project, is to provide irrigation to the tune of 0.127 million
hectares in the Raisen and Vidisha districts of Madhya Pradesh by utilising 659 million cubic
meters of water annually. As the project irrigation efficiency has been considered to be 55%,
a sizeable quantum of recharge would be available to ground water which will raise the
water levels depending on physiographic and hydro geological features of the region. Thus
making drainage a dire necessity. The analysis of ground water levels in relation to
physiographic and hydro geological features of the region indicate a probable rise in water
table in certain areas of the command on implementation of the proposed Ken-Betwa Link
Project . In order to control and prevent the rise of water table to hazardous levels in the
command, it is necessary to evolve certain practical and meaningful integrated strategies.
The soil texture at CIAE farm is heavy clay(vertisols) with 51.0-54.7% clay
content. High intensity erratic rainfall during Kharif season combined with poor physical
properties of vertisols leads to rise in temporary water table (20 - 40 cm) in crop root zone
affecting their growth. Therefore, field studies on surface drainage and SSD (tile drainage
and mole drainage ) were carried out for soybean crop at CIAE, Bhopal. Drainage
systems were designed and field experiments on surface drainage system were conducted
for soybean. The feasibility trials of mole drainage for soybean in vertisols were carried
out. For soybean crop surface drainage resulted in 35-40% increase in yield over control
and the SSD system resulted in 50-54 % increase over control. The mole drainage has
resulted in increase of soybean crop yield by 65% over the control. Field experiment were
planned and carried out to evaluate the performance of surface and SSD systems with
and without filter materials for maize and pigeon pea crops consecutively during kharif
seasons of the year 2005 to 2009. The maize crop yield increased by 40%, 54.8% ,
59.5% and 40% over the control ( 3.543 t/ha) under SSD with filter, SSD ( chimney with
filter), combination of surface and SSD with filter and SSD without filter systems
respectively installed at 20 m drain spacing. The pigeon pea crop yield increased by
41%, 50.1% , 64.2% and 39%% over the control (1.314 t/ha) under SSD with filter, SSD
(chimney with filter), combination of surface and SSD with filter and SSD without filter
systems respectively.
Laboratory testing set up for performance evaluation of drain envelope/filter materials
using upward flow circular permeameters was designed and developed. The components of
the test set up include four units of upward flow permeameters, two water head loss
measurement units, and one variable head water supply system. Hydraulic conductivities of
vertisols and drain materials were measured using the drain material testing setup The
hydraulic performance of inorganic (sand and gravel), organic (coconut coir fiber, paddy
straw) and synthetic (nylon netting fabric and non-woven geotextile fabric) envelope
materials in vertisols were evaluated using developed permeameter based test set-up. The
study revealed that in heavy clay soils (vertisols), the use of envelope materials is suggested
for increasing the sub surface flow through pipe drainage and effective drainage of temporary
waterlogged areas. The hydraulic performance of coconut coir fiber and non-woven geo-
textile fabric is on par.

13. 13
Equipment/ Machinery or Surface Drainage
In land forming and constructing surface ditches three types of operations namely digging,
hauling, and placing are performed. Digging of drains is normally done in off-season to
provide employment. Tractors with back hoe front-end loader, dragline ; excavators, ditchers,
etc. are generally used for drainage construction. For open ditch construction the selection of
equipment depends largely on moisture conditions and type of soil..
Tractor Drawn Ditcher
It is used for making ditches for irrigation and drainage. It consists of two curved wings with
cutting blades, front cutting point, tie bars for adjusting wingspan, and hitch assembly with 3-
point linkages. The ditcher is operated by tractor and controlled by hydraulic system. The
ditcher penetrates in the soil due to its own weight and suction of the cutting point. Upon
drawing the ditcher in the fie1d, it opens the soil in the shape of ditch with either 'V' bottom
or flat bottom. The depth and width of the ditch is adjusted from the operators seat. Earthen
channels because of their low cost and ease of construction are widely used for conveyance
of irrigation water. For small holdings V ditcher can be used for making channels (T=40 cm
& d= 25 cm). Tractor drawn V ditcher can be used (T=120 cm and d=40 cm) at faster rate @
1.2 km/h.
Rotary Ditcher
Rotary ditcher is used for making ditches for irrigation and drainage. It consists of a rotary
cutter operated by PTO shaft of the tractor, gear box, 3-point linkage, hitch system, frame,
body, deflector and ditch former. The machine is operated by tractor. Rotary cutter is main
component of the ditcher and it consists of drum fitted with cutting knives or cutters. The
rotary cutter excavates soil, which is uniformly distributed to one side. The deflection of the
soil can be adjusted by the deflector. Ditch former, having trapezoidal shape fitted in the rear,
form the ditch. The specifications are given below:
Top width of the ditch (mm) : 740-915; Depth of the ditch (mm) : 460-560
Base width of the ditch (mm) : 180-250; Power requirement (hp) : 40- 70, tractor
Tractor Drawn Channel Former
It is used for making channels and beds at regular intervals for irrigation. The channel former
consists of two inner blades, two outer blades, hitch frame, mainframe and shovel. The front
portions of the two inner blades are joined together and form an angle of 300 in between
them. At the junction of these two inner blades a cultivator shovel is fixed to penetrate into
the soil. The inner blades can be mounted 50 to 100 mm lower than the outer blades and form
a furrow at a lower depth than the surface of the bed for the flow of irrigation water. The two
outer blades are placed one on each side of the inner blades and at an angle of 600 to the
direction of the travel. The soil collected from the furrow is formed as bund on both the sides
of the irrigation furrow. The power requirement for channel former is 35-45 hp tractor and its
field capacity is 1.2 - 1.4 ha/day.
Tractor Drawn Bed-Furrow Former
It is used for forming alternate beds and channels. The beds are suitable for planting crops
like sorghum, maize, cotton. This bed and furrow system is ideal for efficient irrigation and
drainage water management The tractor drawn bed-furrow former requires 35 hp tractor and
consists of mild steel angle iron frame; three point linkage, lifting pin, furrow former, bed

14. 14
former and stiffeners. The bed and furrow formers are made of mild steel sheet and bent in
required shape. The stiffeners are used to strengthen the fortners. The implement is operated
in the tilled soil.The performance results are given below :
Width of coverage (mm) : 2250 (3-furrows at 750 mm centre distance)
Depth of cut (mm) : 140
Operating speed (km/h) : 3.2
Field capacity (ha/h) : 0.75-1.00
Machinery for Subsurface Drainage
General Many types of mechanical equipment are available for installing subsurface pipe
drains. These include the general groupings of (1) backhoes, (2) trenchers and (3) trenchless
plows. Backhoes have been discussed earlier; other groupings are discussed in following
sections. Maintaining proper grade is the single most important component of installation of a
surface drainage system. Most trenching machines are equipped with features for maintaining
a uniform grade and many are now fitted with automatic laser grade control systems.
Trenchers were one of the first agricultural operations to use laser beam technology, which
provides increased productivity while maintaining laying accuracy.
Trenching Machines
Trenching machines, which can operate continuously, are of two basic types (1) a wheel
excavator on which digging blade buckets that cut and carry the soil are attached, and (2)
endless chain normally operating on a slanting boom. These trenchers are manufactured in
various sizes depending upon the size of the pipe to be laid and the difficulty of excavation.
Trench widths may vary from as little as 240 mm to as wide as 650 mm with maximum
trenching depths of from 1.8 m to 5.5 m.
Wheel trenchers
Rotating, hydraulically powered, circular digging wheel trenchers have been used extensively
in America and Europe for many years for the installation of subsurface field tile drains. In
recent years many of these machines have been converted from track to pneumatic tired
propulsion and adapted for laser grade control to achieve greater mobility and accuracy of
excavation. The digging wheel used for trenching for agricultural purposes is about 2.5 to 3.0
m in diameter and can dig a trench to a maximum depth of 1.8 m. With wheel excavators soil
is carried to the top of the wheel and then dropped onto a moving conveyor belt, which
carries it to the spoil bank along the side of the trench. Wheel machines generally have a
more limited depth capability than do the endless-chain types.
Chain trenchers
The endless-chain trenchers are generally more versatile than the wheel trencher with greater
depth capability and are thus used on a greater variety of agricultural, utility and civil
construction projects. Chain trenchers are nearly always mounted on tracks and therefore
have limited mobility but are capable of working in more difficult terrain and moisture
conditions. The endless-chain type trencher may have a slanting boom (usually 600
boom to
ground angle) as shown in Fig. 3.
Trenchless plows
The most recent of subsurface drainage innovations is the development of trenchless plows
which are capable of inserting continuous perforated corrugated plastic drainage title into the

15. 15
ground. These machines have the potential for rapid installation on large jobs and may be
more economical than trenching type machines (Fig. 4). Trenchless machines are ideally
suited for installing corrugated plastic drainage tubing and are capable of placing tubing up to
200 mm in diameter to depths of up to 2.5m . They can be used in stony soils. They have less
stoppage for repairs than trenchers.
Fig. 3: Endless- chain slanted boom trencher
Fig. 4: Drain tube plow
Experience in Western Europe and North America has shown that, for drain depths up to
some 1.3 to 1.4 m, the cost of trenchless drain installation is lower than trencher installation,
mainly because of a higher speed. In the Netherlands, with drain depths of mostly 1.0 to 1.2
m and pipe diameters of up to 0.08 m, the difference is 15 to 25%. Soil resistance is higher in
fine-textured soils than in course-textured ones. Because of the high speeds, depth regulation
by laser is the only practical method for trenchless machines.
Laser beam grade control equipment
Since the late 1960’s, laser beam equipment for grade control has become available
commercially. One system consists of a tripod command post with a 3600
rotating low-power
laser beam that can be set to give a level or sloping plane of reference. A second major
component is the detector, which is placed on the trenching machine. It picks up the beam
and automatically keeps the machine on the same slope as the plane produced by the laser
beam. The area covered by the circle of the beam at one setup is about 70 ha. The laser beam
is accurate to about 5 mm in 300 m distance. A system of electrically controlled valves and
cylinders keeps the trencher automatically on grade. The laser system has been adapted to
many other earth-moving machines, such as the blade grader, scraper, bulldozer, drain-tube
plough, etc. The maximum safe operating distance between the laser and receiver is 300 m.
Mole Plough for Mole Drains
Mole drains are unlined circular soil channels, which function like pipe drains. Mole
drainage is an inexpensive and effective method of drainage which is widely used in the clay

16. 16
soils of temperate regions such as United Kingdom, northern Europe and in New Zealand.
It is generally confined to soils having clay content of about 35 – 40%. Their disadvantage
is their restricted life (5 to 10 years), but, providing benefit-cost ratios are favourable, a short
life can be acceptable. Mole drains are formed with a mole plough (Fig.5), which comprises a
cylindrical foot attached to a narrow leg, followed by a slightly larger diameter cylindrical
expander. The foot and expander form the drainage channel and the leg generates the slot
with associated soil fissures, which extend from the surface down into the channel. The leg
fissures are vertical and formed at an angle of approximately 450
to the direction of travel. A
Mole Plough suitable for tractors from 80 to 200 H.P. which forms a 100 mm diameter drain
tunnel, subsoils or lays water pipe at a depth adjustable from 300 mm to 500 mm. The mole
drain spacings range between 2.0 and 3.5 m. Common length of mole drains vary from 20m
to 100m but can go upto 500 m long depending on the grade, which may range from nearly
level to 5 per cent. Mole plough dimensions, as commonly used in the United kingdom and
New Zealand, are given below :
Common mole plough dimensions
Foot Diameter
(mm)
Expander
Diamater (mm)
Leg Thickness
(mm)
Side length of
leg (mm)
United
Kingdom
75 85-100 25 200
New Zealand 50 75 16 200
Fig. 5: Cracking and fissuring of heavy soils formed by Mole plough
Vertisols/clay soils offer good prospects of production when adequately drained since
they suffer from flooding, surface ponding and/or waterlogging due to poor soil physical
properties. Studies on effectiveness of different SSD systems using filter materials had been
carried out world wide mainly for weakly structured soils (i.e. sandy loam and silty loam
soils) in humid and sub-humid climate. Limited studies on performance of SSD system in
sandy clay and silty loam soils of semi-arid region were carried out especially in Egypt and
United Kingdom. In India limited studies on performance evaluation of SSD system with
different drain envelope materials at field scale had been carried out mainly at Central Soil
Salinity Research Institute, Karnal under Haryana Operational Pilot Project(HOPP),
Rajasthan Agriculture Development Project (RAJAD), and AICRP on Agricultural Drainage.
These studies were carried out mainly for sandy loam, silty loam soils and problematic
coastal black soil. These studies revealed that SSD systems had resulted in control of soil
salinity/alkalinity effectively and significant increase in yields (about 50 to 75%) of
important crops (i.e. paddy, wheat, cotton). Planning and execution of proper drainage

17. 17
systems should be made essential component of on-going rural development programmes
and watershed development programme through Policy formulation. State and Central Govt.
should provide financial assistance to resource poor farmers, as SSD requires high initial
investment .Agricultural drainage is neglected activity in Indian farming. Awareness about
the benefits of the drainage technology in the farmers need to be brought through
demonstration and training programs.
Advances in Subsurface Drainage Advances in drainage design
Based on large number of studies conducted at CSSRI and elsewhere in India, guidelines
have been prepared to design a subsurface drainage system under different agro-climatic
conditions of India (Gupta et al., 2002; Table 6).
Table 6. Guidelines for drainage design under various agro-climatic conditions in India
Drainage coefficient (mm/day) Drain depth (m) Drain spacing (m)
Climatic conditions Range
(mm/day)
Optimum
value (mm)
Outlet
condition
Depth of
drains
Optimum
depth (m)
Soil texture Spacing of
drains
Arid 1-2 1 Gravity 0.9-1.2 1.1 Light 100-150
Semiarid 1-3 2 Pumped 1.2-1.8 1.5 Medium 50-100
Subhumid 2-5 3 Heavy/
Vertisols
30-50
Advances in construction technology
Tremendous achievements have been made in the construction technology. Initially, most
pilot areas in India were laid out using manual labour. Here, both the digging of trenches and
assembling the system were accomplished using manual labour. On the contrary, most large
projects world over have been implemented by mechanical means since limited time is
available to construct the systems. Studies in India revealed that the cost of the system
installed through fully mechanical means depends to a large extent on the area to be covered
under drainage and synchronization of various activities to avoid logistic problems. Besides,
the initial investments on the import of the machinery are quite high. Recent experience with
semi-mechanical means has been quite encouraging. In this technique, locally available
machines are used to dig the trenches while the system is assembled manually. This strategy
helped to reduce the time to lay the system avoiding many difficulties encountered in fully
mechanical laying. The later technology would help to keep a balance between mechanization
and employment generation. As such, the projects would have a better chance of funding by
national and international organizations.
Guidelines for monitoring and evaluation
Guidelines for monitoring and evaluation have been defined for the realistic assessment of
design, quality of construction and the efficiency of the system (Table 7).
Table 7. The data and frequency of their measurement
Data Frequency of measurement
Discharge of individual laterals Daily in the first season, weekly lateron
Discharge from the whole area Continuously with stage level recorder
Water table midway between
drains
Daily in the first season and then weekly
Water level on the drains and Two drains each with different filter materials for one

18. 18
w.t. 0.5 away from the drain season
Soil salinity 1st
year twice, then once in a year, up to 120 cm depth;
preferable layers 0-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-90, 90-120 cm.
Quality of drainage effluent Weekly in the first year and then monthly
Crop yields Every season for at least 5 years
Drainage installation and land
development cost
Keep regular records during installation
Cost of crop production and returnsEvery season
Reuse of drainage effluent for irrigation
Subsurface drainage projects have been criticized mainly on the basis of environmental
degradation that would be caused through disposal of drainage effluents. This question has
been addressed to a great extent in the studies conducted under various agro-climatic
conditions. The salient observations that emerged from these studies are as follows:
• The quality of the drainage effluent gets improved over the years and after few years
the quality is substantially good than at the beginning.
• Subsurface drainage effluent is a good source of water for irrigation either alone or in
combination with canal water.
• Evaporation tanks could be used to dispose of drainage effluent in land locked areas.
These tanks could also be used for brackish water aquaculture.
Socio-economic Impacts
So far technical issues were discussed with a focus on its impact on agricultural productivity.
Realizing that social issues must not take a back seat to the technology component, socio-
economic impacts of the projects were monitored both in terms of benefits and limitations.
Some of the socio-economic impacts such as poverty alleviation and reduced disparity,
employment generation, increase in land value (Fig. 6), opportunities for regional
industrialization, reduction in gender disparity, reduced migration from rural areas to urban
centers were documented. The increase in land value alone was sufficient to play a catalytic
role in the adoption of this technology. To illustrate some of these issues it was assessed that
about 303 man-days would be required to cover a ha of land when the lateral drain spacing of
the system is 25 m. For a drain spacing of 100 m, the requirement will reduce to about 128
man-days/ha. If the digging of drains is done through machines and the system is laid
manually, then the requirement could be about half of the requirement (65-150 man-days)
compared to a fully manually laid system. Considering employment opportunities in
agricultural operations following reclamation, it has been estimated that a man could get
employment for a year upon reclamation of about 3-5 ha of agricultural land. Moreover, out
of the total investment on subsurface drainage, nearly 60% is attributed to materials produced
in the industrial sector (Table 8). This distribution of cost is ample evidence that large-scale
application of this technology would boost the industrial sector and rural based industries in
the region. As such one can anticipate more opportunities for employment generation as well
as overall infrastructure development of the region.

19. 19
Table 8. Sector wise distribution of investments on subsurface drainage
Sector % of the total investment
Industrial 60
Landless 20
Agriculture 20
Fig. 6 Land value as affected by subsurface drainage
Socio-economic Impediments
It should be realized that people’s participation in development interventions is not like
turning on a light switch. It is a time consuming and often-frustrating process requiring
determination, patience, compassion and understanding. Often conflicting needs and demands
of the farming community are difficult to be reconciled. For example, within a block drainage
requirement of the stakeholders are different due to location of the fields, topographical
differences and due to different crops grown. A rice-growing farmer resents drainage while
others prefer to drain following rainfall. Some progress on this front could be made when in a
part of the project, individual controls were provided. Sometimes you need to experiment till
a successful socially compatible solution is found. For example, three models were
experimented to hand over the drainage blocks after institutional support was withdrawn. In
the first case, drainage infrastructure was handed over to Village Panchayat as per lease
agreement. Since, there was no pumping after the handover, this model could not generate
confidence. In the second model, drainage blocks were handed over to FDSs with common
sump constructed on the common property. The response was lukewarm and slowly the
pumping activity came to a halt. No body in the society took responsibility of this state of
affairs. The third model was also based on FDSs but with an identified farmer as its president
with the block sump located in his field. The society members were free to approach him for
pumping by contributing in terms of diesel. This model has consistently worked well over a
period of more than 7 years. Notwithstanding the limitations and criticism by few farmers of
this model, currently it seems to be the best bet for encouraging pumping in the drainage
blocks. Technically, some progress still needs to be made in applying non- intrusive and non-
destructive techniques for maintenance of the systems. Attracting capable and financially
sound contractors is still a problem since private demand for drainage has yet to be generated.
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
Before drainage
After drainage
Landvalue(Rs/ha)
Konanki
Uppu
Segwa
Segwa
Islampur

20. 20
Prospects of Subsurface Drainage
During the past 30 years, a firm foundation for subsurface drainage has been laid. Capacity
build-up has been in tune with the present requirement. Planners, government officers and
farming communities have been sensitized to the need of drainage. Drainage Master Plans of
several states have already been formulated. Government provides a subsidy of Rs. 20000 or
half of the costs of land drainage whichever is less. With the percolation of local technical
know how, private entrepreneurs could be attracted to contribute to land drainage. Trench
digging machines are already in place in every nook and corner of the country. These could
be used as a part of the hybrid technology of constructing drainage systems. Developing a
drainage ripe environment needs continuing attention and support of the government. It is
believed that there would be a large spurt in drainage activities in the next 2-3 decades
because it is the only ray of hope to ensure sustainability of irrigated agriculture on which
sustains hopes of food and nutritional security of the country.
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Eastern Costal Areas of India. Technical Report No. 38. Water Resources
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Anonymous. 1999, 2001, 2002 ,2003. Annual Reports. Central Soil Salinity Research
Institute(CSSRI), Karnal (India).
Anonymous. 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009. Annual Reports. Central Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, Bhopal ( M.P. ), India.
Anonymous.1999. Progress Report of ICAR Coordinated Research Project on Agricultural
Drainage Under Actual Farming Conditions on Watershed Basis. Department of Soil
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Bhattacharya AK and Michael AM 2010, Land Drainage- Principles, methods and
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Bhattacharya AK (2010). Draft on Policy Formation for Agricultural Land Drainage to
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Gosh, S.P.(Editor), 1991. Agro-Climatic Zone specific Research-Indian perspective under
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Lagace, R.amd R.W.Skaggs.1982. Prediction of Drain silting and filter Requirement Criteria,
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International Drainage Workshop , Washington. D.C.USA December 5-11.
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Lok
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