By Dr. C. Saxena

1. 1
Agricultural Drainage from Waterlogged Soils and Indian Experiences
C K Saxena
Senior Scientist
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering Division
ICAR-Central Institute ofAgricultural Engineering,Bhopal
Introduction
Agricultural land drainage has all along been an essential but neglected activity over the
irrigated crop lands in India right from the British period. One would have imagined that with the post
independence impetus on irrigation development, drainage of agricultural lands would catch up to
ensure sustainability of irrigation. Unfortunately, that has not been the case. Sporadic efforts have
been made from time to time to improve the lands degraded due to water logging, groundwater table
rise and the associated soil chemical problems in the irrigated command areas by incorporating a
drainage system. Such efforts were made at a later time, much after the irrigation development when
the situation had already become alarming. Even as on date, one finds plans of developing new
irrigation projects, either without a drainage component or with it but not detailing the specific
activities, the execution plan and the target time of completion. Rather, in many cases the drainage
need is undermined citing queer reasons such as low water allowance, currently deep water table,
well developed natural drainage system, favourable land slops, groundwater use for irrigation, etc.
and in some projects, in many cases the drainage need is undermined citing queer reasons such as
low water allowance, currently deep water table, well developed natural drainage system, favourable
land slope, groundwater use for irrigation, etc. In some projects, these works are left to be done by the
Water Users Associations whose effectiveness in sustaining the health of command area is yet to be
established on any measurable scale. The current examples are the Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujrat
the Narmada Canal Project in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, the Indira Sagar Project in Madhya
Pradesh, the Subarnarekha Barrage project in West Bengal, the Arjun Sahayak Pariyojana in UP, the
Bodwad Parisar Sinchan Yojana in Maharashtra and many others.
National Water Policy (2002) emphasizes on following issues and policies related water
resources development and management for sustainable agriculture. Water resources development
and management will have to be planned for a hydrological unit such as drainage basin as a whole or
for a sub-basin, multi-sectorally, taking into account surface and ground water sustainable use
incorporating quantity and quality aspects as well as environmental considerations. There should be
an integrated and multi-disciplinary approach to the planning, formulation, clearance and
implementation of projects, including catchment area treatment and management environmental and
ecological aspects, the rehabilitation of affected people and command area development.
Reclamation of water logged/saline affected land by scientific and cost-effective methods should form
a part of command area development programme. The drainage system should form an integral part
of any irrigation project right from the planning stage. Management of the water resources for diverse
uses should incorporate a participatory approach. Water User’s Association s and the local bodies
such as municipalities and gram panchayats should particularly be involved in the operation,
maintenance and management of water infrastructures/ facilities at appropriate levels progressively,
with a view to eventually transfer the management of such facilities to the user groups/local bodies.
Waterlogging , Salinity and Drainage Situation in India
The natural geo-physiographical and agro-ecological situations of India are one of the major
factors in causing surface water logging and development of salt affected areas in coastal region,
which is bounded by a coast line of over 7000 km length. The natural drainage systems are severely
affected by the development processes and thus increased in waterlogged and salt affected areas.
The other major factor is the development of man-made major and medium irrigation systems during
post-independence period, where huge quantity of water is being transported into new geo-
hydrological arid and semi-arid regions. The lack of working experiences in these regions caused
inadequate designs coupled with poor management practices has raised groundwater table and in

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turn sizeable command areas are being affected both by water logging and soil salinization. National
Commission on Agriculture, Govt. of India (NCA, 1976) defined an area as waterlogged when the
water table causes saturation of crop root zone soil, resulting to restriction to air circulation, decline in
oxygen and increase in carbon dioxide levels. The Working Group on Problem Identification in
Irrigated area, constituted by the Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India (MOWR, 1991) adopted
the following norms for identification of waterlogged areas:
(i) Waterlogged area : Water table within 2 m from the land surface
(ii) Potential area for waterlogging : Water table between 2-3 m from the land surface
(iii) Safe area : Water table below 3 m from the land surface
The physical effects of waterlogging are lack of aeration in the crop root zone, difficulty in soil
workability and deterioration of soil structure. Its chemical effect is soil salinisation. Both adversely
affect the growth and the yield of the crops. The extent of drop damage depends upon the
magnitude, duration and frequency of the waterlogged condition and the degree of soil salinity. Salt
problem is a major cause of decreasing agricultural production in many of the irrigation project areas.
Salinity may be a major problem in many non-irrigated areas where cropping is based on limited
rainfall. The various agencies evaluated the status of water-logging and soil salinization problems in
these areas but they vary widely. However, the officially accepted one is the Working Group, (1991)
estimates and till date only the referred one (Table 1).
Table-1. Water logged and Salt affected areasin million hectares
Source Irrigated Command Area Country as a whole
Water
logged
Salt affected Total Water
logged
Salt affected Total
Saline Alkali Saline Alkali
Working
Group of
MoWR
(1991)
2.46 3.06 0.24 5.76 - - -
-
MoA, GoI - - - - 8.53 5.50 3.58 17.61
In most irrigated projects there has been increase in the water table and consequent
degradation of soils through water logging and soil salinity. Reasons for this twin problem include
faulty system of irrigation water supply and improper on farm water management. Large areas have
been degraded in the country due to problem of waterlogging and salinity, specially in the irrigated
alluvial tracts in north-west India (Haryana, Punjab, Gujrat etc.). Table 2 gives the rate of rise of water
table in different irrigation commands. Drainage measures consist of mainly to evacuate salts and
water from the crop root zone.
Table 2 : Rate of rise of water table in different irrigation commands
Irrigation Command Rise of water table ( m / day )
MRBC, Gujarat 0.28
IGNP, Rajasthan 0.29 - 0.88
W J B C C, Haryana 0.30 - 1.00
S C C , Punjab 0.10 - 1.00
S S C C, U.P. 0.68
M C C ,Karnataka 0.6 - 1.20
N S I P, A.P. 0.32
S. S .I. Project, A. P. 0.26

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However, over the years, phenomenal rate of rise of water level by as much as 0.2m and above per
year has created waterlogging conditions. Such a situation can emerge in MP too. In India about
4.528 mha and 7.006 mha land is having waterlogging and salinity problems respectively (Table 3)
problem. In order to restore these degraded lands drainage becomes an essential measure.
Table 3: Geographical, waterlogged and salt affected areas of some states in India
State Geographical
area mha
Waterlogged area
mha
Salt affected area
mha
Andhra Pradesh 27.44 0.339 0.813
Bihar 17.40 0.363 0.400
Gujrat 19.60 0.484 0.455
Haryana 4.22 0.275 0.455
Karnataka 19.20 0.036 0.404
Kerala 3.89 0.012 0.026
Madhya Pradesh 44.20 0.057 0.242
Maharashtra 30.75 0.111 0.534
Orissa 15.54 0.196 0.400
Punjab 5.04 0.199 0.520
Rajasthan 28.79 0.348 1.122
Tamilnadu 12.96 0.128 0.340
Uttar Pradesh & Uttaranchal 29.40 1.980 1.295
Total 258.43 4.528 7.006
Source : Ghosh, 1991 and Tyagi, 1999.
Drainage Systems for Waterlogged Areas
The methods which can be adopted for reclaiming waterlogged and salt affected areas are,
surface drainage, subsurface drainage, vertical drainage and biological drainage. The drainage
measures can be categorized as structural and non structural.
Structural measures
The structural measures for draining soils are summarized as follows:
* surface drainage
* subsurface drainage ( also referred to as ground water or tile drainage)
* mole drainage
* vertical drainage
(i) Surface drainage
Surface drainage is described as “the removal of excess water from the soil surface in time to
prevent damage to crops and to keep from ponding on the soil surface, or, in surface drains
that are crossed by farm equipment without causing soil erosion” Surface drainage is a
suitable technique where excess water from precipitation can not infiltrate into the soil and
move through the soil to a drain, or can not move freely over the soil surface to a natural
channel. The parallel ditch system is the most efficient surface drainage system to use with
mechanized agriculture.
(ii) Sub- surface drainage
Sub-surface drainage (SSD) is the removal of excess soil water in time to prevent damage to
the crops because of a high ground water table. Subsurface field drains can be either open

4. 4
ditches or pipe drains. Pipe drains are installed underground at depths varying from 1 to 3 m.
Excess ground water enters the perforated field drain and flows by gravity to the open or
closed collector drain.
(iii) Vertical drainage
In this method tube wells are to be drilled to lower the ground water table where adequate
permeability of soil between the crop root zone and aquifer are available. Vertical drainage is
useful where pumped water is qualitatively fit for irrigation through direct application or
conjunctive use. Vertical drainage has been extensively done for lowering of the water table
and augmentation of canal supply. The pilot project JTP (Jagadhri Tubewell Project -Haryana
/ Punjab ) aimed to lower the water table which had risen due to seepage from western
Yamuna canal in fifties and sixties.
(a) Multiple well point drainage system
This system consists of mainly a number of well points connected to each other through a
horizontal pipeline to be pumped centrally. The depth of the well points is kept well above
the fresh water-saline interface to prevent mixing up. This system has been tried in Faridkot
(Punjab) by installing a battery of 24 wells each about 6m deep.
b) Vertical pipe or chimney drainage
Poorly permeable vertisols on the Deccan plateau in central India have been drained
successfully using vertical chimney drains. The chimney drains intercept water seeping
through the horizontally occurring permeable and of weathered rock located between poorly
permeable clay soils are difficult to drain even by subsurface drainage due to low infiltration
rate.
(iv) Mole drainage
Mole drains are unlined circular soil channels, which function like pipe drains. Mole drainage
is an inexpensive and effective method of drainage which is widely used in the clay soils of
temperate regions such as United Kingdom, northern Europe and in New Zealand. It is
generally confined to soils having clay content of about 30 – 35%. Their disadvantage is their
restricted life (5 to 10 years), but, providing benefit-cost ratios are favourable, a short life can
be acceptable. Mole drains are formed with a mole plough which comprises a cylindrical foot
attached to a narrow leg, followed by a slightly larger diameter cylindrical expander. Mole
drains are commonly installed at depths between 0.4 and 0.7 m with drain spacings range
between 2 to 5 m. Common length of mole drains vary from 20 to 100 m long depending on
the grade. Mole drains are installed using a mole plough, pulled by a powerful tractor
(drawbar pull 40-60 KN).
Non-structural Measures (Bio-drainage)
Plantation of high water consuming trees for withdrawal of ground water is termed bio-
drainage. In dry arid regions, the plantation provides bio-mass and acts as shelter belt in light soil
areas such as in IGNP command area against shifting sands and dunes. The bio-mass also provides
natural mulch. Study and experiment conducted on IGNP on an area of 31000 ha by planting
Eucalyptus and other similar species have shown effective results in lowering of water table.
Envelope Materials for Sub Surface Drainage
An envelope is defined as the material placed around pipe drains to perform one or more of
the following functions:
 Filter function: to prevent or restrict soil particles from entering the pipe where they may settle
and eventually clog the pipe.
 Hydraulic function: to constitute a medium of good permeability around the pipe and thus
reduce entrance resistance;

5. 5
 Bedding function: to provide all-round support to the pipe in order to prevent damage due to
the soil load. Note that large diameter plastic pipe is embedded in gravel especially for this
purpose.
The first two functions provide a safeguard against the two main hazards of poor drain line
performance: siltation and high flow resistance in the vicinity of the drain.
Movement of soil particles in weakly structured and unstable soils in the vicinity of subsurface
drain pipes can lead to clogging of unprotected pipes. Sedimentation of drain pipes can be avoided or
reduced by using suitable envelope material. Ineffective subsurface drain performance as a result of
clogging has been a problem in many countries. There are generally two types of drain clogging. One
type is related to clogging caused chemically and biologically, e.g. iron and manganese ochre
described by Broughton et al (1977). The second is associated with blockage of the drainpipe by soil
particles that have entered and settled in the pipe. Clogging of the envelope has become an
increased problem with the introduction of synthetic envelope materials. To overcome this problem,
envelope materials are used to protect the drainpipes in soils where a drain clogging potential has
been diagnosed. The envelope requirement is evaluated by determining the degree of sedimentation
in the drain (Legace and Skaggs, 1982) as follows:
* Envelope is not required when the sedimentation depth in the drain is less than 10 mm
* Envelope is advised when the sedimentation depth is between 10 and 30 mm.
* Envelope is strongly recommended if the sedimentation depth is more than 30 mm.
Broughton (1993) suggests that in humid and sub-humid climatic zones, soils without dispersion
problems do not require envelopes when the clay content is greater than 30 per cent. Research has
shown that the type of clay soils may be an issue in determining the need for drain envelope A
minimum flow velocity of about 0.35 m/s is needed for self-cleaning of a drainpipe.
The Envelope materials are mainly classified as : (i) Inorganic envelope materials i.e. Gravel and
sand; (ii)Organic envelope materials i.e. hay, straw, sawdust, jute fibers, corncobs etc. (iii) Fiber-
glass and (iv)Synthetic envelope materials i.e. polyester, polyethylene (PE) or Polypropylene PP)
fibers or filaments etc. Though sand and gravels are the most reliable material for envelopes, but it is
more expensive than a lot of available synthetic envelope materials. Of all the organic filter and
envelope materials, organic soils are most commonly used. The life of organic filter materials is limited
due to their decomposition and decay. Fiber-glass filters are manufactured from glass products and
are commercially available in rolls for various size drains and trench widths. There are currently
several types of this material available, varying in thickness from paper thin to about 25 mm. Lime-
borosilicate glass is the only type of glass suitable for use in underground filters. Fiber-glass filters, or
mats as they are often called, are a non woven fabric and the size of openings varies from point to
point within the material. Synthetic envelope materials are made of polyester, polyethylene (PE) or
polypropylene (PP) fibers or filaments. A list of types of synthetic envelope materials is presented in
Table-4. The most widely accepted types of envelope materials used in agricultural drainage are non-
woven needle punched, spunbounded and knitted sock fabrics. The most widely accepted types of
envelope materials used in agricultural drainage are non-woven needle punched, spun bounded and
knitted sock fabrics.
Table -4 : Classification of synthetic envelope materials
Process Envelope materials
Knitted Standard, interlocked and pile
Woven Monofilament, multifilament and slit film
Non-woven Spunbonded : filaments
Needle-punched: filaments or fibre
Chemical bonded: fibers
Wet laid bonded: filaments
Composite Woven with needle-punched staple fibers

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Multi-layer non wovens
Non-woven incorporating a woven scrim
Woven with calendered surface
The cost of the sub surface drainage (SSD) envelope materials varies from 25 to 30 % of the
total cost of the SSD systems depending upon the type of the commonly used synthetic envelope
materials. In vertisols, the initial cost of SSD technology with envelope is high due to closer drain
spacing.
Selection Criteria for Drain Envelopes
Besides considering costs and local availability, the following technical consideration should
be taken into account:
(i) a relatively thick (1-2 cm when compressed) permeable envelope, with good filtering
properties (e.g. gravel or a good synthetic substitute) should be used where pipes are
installed in weak structured, easily dispersed soil, or where this type of soil is used for
backfill around the pipe. This applies to most silty and fine sandy loams, silty sand and
unstable sodic soils;
(ii) a (cheap) thin synthetic fabric, woven or non-woven, may be used where the envelope
functions mainly as a screen but these should only be used on corrugated pipes (e.g.
installation in, or backfill with, very permeable sandy soil). With smooth plastics, tile and
concrete pipes the use of such an envelope may lead to high entry resistances;
(iii) in situations in which the flow to the drain is likely to be very high (wide spacings and/or
high drainage rate), good envelopes are both technically and economically justified.
Indian Experiences in Drainage Technology
In India, the performance of SSD systems with different envelope materials were evaluated in
fields under Rajasthan Agriculture Drainage Research Project (RAJAD), Central Soil Salinity
Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal and under Haryana Operational Pilot Project (HOPP) and AICRP
on Agricultural Drainage. CSSIR and RAJAD studies were carried out mainly for sandy and sandy
loam soils(Bhattacharya et al. 2010). These studies revealed that SSD systems had resulted in
control of soil salinity/alkalinity effectively and significant increase in yields (about 50 to 75%) of
important crops (i.e. paddy, wheat, cotton). Studies on envelope materials under above AICRP were
carried out for problematic coastal black soil. However, limited studies of SSD system in vertisols
under semi arid climate were carried out. Since drainage problems/ measures are location and site
specific and their suitability has to be studied under different agro-climatic region. Studies on
performance of surface and SSD systems including mole drainage in heavy clay soils (vertisols)
were carried out at CIAE, Bhopal (M.P.) and at Water Management Research Center, Parbhani
(Maharashtra). An abridged information on land drainage works with their outcome, carried out in
India for controlling waterlogging and land reclamation measures is given in Table-5.
CSSRI, Karnal
To evaluate the performance of drain envelope materials for their suitability in the installation
of SSD system, a study was conducted in the laboratory. The soil of Karnal region (sandy loam soil
having clay 9.9, silt 34.6 and sand 55.5 per cent) had a weak structure due to high sand content.
Three drain envelope materials i.e. polypropylene band (PPB) of 3.2 mm thickness, geotextile
propylene bands (GPB 186) and GPB 187 whose O90 values were 450, 230 ( 1.9 mm thick) and
225μm (1.7 mm thick) respectively were tested in lab using permeability meters. Based on
hydraulic considerations, PPB performed better followed by GPB 187. The ratio of hydraulic gradient
over soil column and over the drain envelope was 0.98, 1.09, and 1.27 in case of PPB, GPB 186 and
GPB 187, respectively which indicated lesser mechanical function i.e. clogging effect of PPB. The
performance of other six geotextile drain envelope with opening pore size (O90 values) 320,
359,355,366,866 and 366 μm and thickness of 3.2, 2.8, 2.1, 1.8, 5.4 and 3..3 mm respectively were
tested in laboratory. The hydraulic performance of all the enveloping materials was good without any
risk of blocking the envelopes .The performance of the four geotextile envelopes having effective
opening sizes (O90 values) of 325, 329,359 and 360 μm and thickness of 3.1, 6.0, 9.0, 3.3 and 3.4
mm respectively were tested in laboratory using Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (UPVC) for sandy

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loam soil of Hanumangarh ( Rajasthan). The performance of all the drain envelope materials was
found to be good and these can be accepted for SSD system installation.
Table 5: Summary of land drainage endeavours and their outcome in India
Sl.
No
Place Drainage type Major Conclusion Reporting
Year
1. Ludhiana, Punjab Tile and open Maize yield increased 1967
2.. Digod, Rajasthan Mole and Tile Moling was cheaper 1972
3. Pant Nagar, Uttaranchal Tile Surface runoff reduced 1972
4. Karnal, Haryana Tile and open Open drain is unsuitable in
alkali soil
1972
5. IARI, New Delhi Open Increased sorghum and wheat
yield
1975
6. Indore, M.P. Tile Crop yield increased 1975
7. Sample, Haryana Tile and open Crop yield increased 1979
8. Bidaj, Gujarat Open Improved salinity and
waterlogging
1981
9. Kailana Khas, Haryana Open Increased crop yield good salt-
water regime
1982
10. Parbhani, Maharashtra Tile Increased net profit 1982
11. Karumady, Kerala Tile Increased rice yiled 1993
12. Golewala, Punjab Multiple well
point system
Permitted conjunctive use of
groundwater
1995
13. Barna, M.P. Open Increased crop yield 1995
14. Machilipatnam, A.P. Tile Increased crop yield 1995
15. Kota, Rajasthan Tile and open Projected B:C ratio 2.5. 1995
16. Midnapore, West Bengal Open Increased crop yield 1996
17. Mornai, Assam Tile controlled water table and
increased crop yield
1996
18. Dankuni basin, West
Bengal
Raised bed-
pond
Salvaged waterlogged land for
crop production
1999
19. Central Institute of
Agricultural Engineering,
(CIAE) M.P.
Surface and
Sub Surface
Drainage
controlled water table and
increased soybean crop yield
Increased crop yields of Maize
and Pigeon Pea
2003
2007
20. CIAE, Bhopal M.P. Mole Drainage Increased soybean crop yield 2005
The performance of synthetic envelope materials (voluminous propylene with thickness of
3.3 - 3.6 mm and O90 values of 266 – 400 μm ) were evaluated using SSD system installed with
UPVC corrugated perforated pipes (Drain sizes 80 – 100 mm, length 150 – 350m, drain depth 1.6 m
and drain spacing 60 m and drain slope 0.1% ) in fields of Block 3 and block 14 under Haryana
Operational Pilot Project (HOPP) of Gohana area for sandy loam water logged soils. The
performance of these synthetic envelope materials was observed to be Moderate to good in Block No.
3 and good in Block No. 14. The entrance resistance of the drainage system varied from 0.83 to 1.36
day/m with average value less than ).5 day/m. About 25 cm drop in water table in 2 days after the
rains was observed indicating good performance of the system. The synthetic filter materials namely
PP band, typar and nylon sleeve so far tried in sandy loam soils of Haryana gave very good to
moderate performance. The Indian made geotextiles (90/3) and coir was found to give moderate
performance in sandy loam soil of Gujrat, and the nylon netting gave poor performance. Gravel filter
was also found to perform moderately in sandy loam to clay loam soils of Gujrat. These soils had 50%
sand, 30% silt and 20% clay content.The filter action of this range of gravel filter found to be
inadequate with choking of 33-70 per cent of drain capacity in about 5 years time.

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Rajasthan Agriculture Drainage Research Project (RAJAD) Studies
The Rajasthan Agricultural Drainage Research Project (RAJAD) was introduced in 1992 to combat
the problems of salinity and waterlogging in the CCA, using the horizontal subsurface drainage (SSD)
technology. During 1992-95, experimental test sites were established on 2,100 ha of land to assess
the effectiveness of SSD for salinity control and develop the design criteria for the project. Installation
of SSD at these sites was carried out by rubber tired excavators by an imported trenchless drain
laying plow equipped with a laser grade control system. Based on the design criteria developed,
more than 10,000 ha of SSD were installed from 1996-1998, using imported drain-laying
equipment.The SSD System has been monitored to found to have major positive impacts in alleviating
soil salinity and waterlogging. The technology has been found cost effective.
Water table monitoring at 250 ha locations in the drainage blocks from 1992-1996 indicated that
during the crop seasons, nearly 65 percent of the study area had average water table depth within 1
m of the ground surface. About 30 percent of the area had a water table within 2 m. The soil salinity
survey in these drainage blocks, on an 8.5 ha grid showed that about 36 percent of the area was
saline (ECe > 4 dS/m) or saline-sodic (ECe > 4 dS/m and SAR>15). Based on studies on various
drain envelope materials under field conditions following recommendations were made :
. Gravel envelopes do not appear to be effective and are not a practical option for RAJAD in
areas where drain pipe envelope are needed. Synthetic fabric envelopes with polyester or a mixture
containing polyester and up to 50 percent polyethylene fibres should be used.
 Envelopes with characteristics similar to SAPP 240 are found to be most effective in
preventing sediment movement into the drain pipes.
 Installation by the trenchless drain laying plow reduces sedimentation deposit in drain pipes
by nearly half compared to installation by backhoe excavation. Considerable cost savings
should result from plow installation.
 Drain pipes laid at more than 0.4% grade should above the drain appear to impact the
sediment movement in the pipe.
Before taking up the large scale sub-surface drainage installation, a number of smaller
representative areas- 50 to 180 ha in size were identified to conduct pilot experiments to develop the
design criteria and identify suitable installations technology. The total pilot experimental area was
1400 ha distributed in ten locations. The results from all the pilot study sites were synthesized for
undertaking the sub-surface drainage work in the remaining area of the RAJAD project ( the target
having been reduced from 20,000 ha to about 16,000 ha). Different drainage machinery, filter types
(without filter also) drain depth and spacing and layouts were used and adopted to complete the
installation by the year 2000. The installation programme included providing suitable structures,
outlets, deepening and re-sectioning of the existing open drain network, providing new open drains
and some other constructional activities.
AICRP on Agricultural Drainage (ICAR)
All India Co-ordinated Research Project (AICRP) on “Agricultural Drainage under Actual
Farming Conditions on Watershed Basis” was started by ICAR with Co-ordinating center at IARI, New
Delhi. The Scheme was having cooperating centers in many states such as Punjab, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala etc. The main objectives of the project include, evaluation
of suitable drainage design criteria for surface and sub-surface drainage (SSD) systems including
evaluation of drain envelope materials, assessment of the effectiveness of SSD system in the
performance of crop growth and yield, assessment of status of water quality, waterlogging and
strategies for reclamation of salt affected soils, assessment of the socio-economic benefits to the
users of SSD technology etc. The field studies on SSD system using inorganic and organic envelope
materials mainly at three center i.e. PAU, Ludhiyana, Punjab, ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala Agril. University, Alleppey. The findings of the conducted field studies on drain envelope
materials are briefly presented here.
The performance of sand and gravel envelope material was evaluated through filed
experiments on SSD system laid with three drain spacings of 40, 60, and 80 m at 1.8 m depth and
0.2 % slope using perforated PVC pipes on 100 mm diameter under sodic sandy loam soil. The SSD
system worked well and the performance of the sand and gravel envelope was observed to be good.
The sand and gravel envelope material was also used in the SSD system laid using clay tile drains

9. 9
with three drain spacings of 10m, 15 m and 35 m, installed on 3.2 ha for paddy crop in black soils at
Agricultural Research Station, Machilipatnam in Coastal Andhra. The SSD system performed well
indicating suitability of sand and gravel envelopes.
At KAU, Kerala center of this AICRP, the effectiveness of inorganic and organic envelope
materials was evaluated through filed experiments on SSD system using tile drains of 40 m length
and spaced at 15 m. The study area is located in Kari lands of Kuttanad in Kerala. The site is
characterized as black , organic, acid-sulphate soils of high salinity soil, toxicity and shallow water
table. Following treatments were carried out using envelope materials:
Treatment-1 : Sea sand all round the drain,
Treatment-2 : Sea sand around the drain joints only
Treatment-3 : River sand all round the drain,
Treatment-4 : River sand around the drain joints only
Treatment-5 : Paddy straw around the drain joints only,
Treatment-6 : Coconut coir fiber around the drain joints only
Treatment-7 : No envelope material
During field experimentation, the crop performance as well as hydraulic parameters show no
significant difference among the treatments. This indicated that no envelope material is required for
acid-saline soils of Kuttanad, Kerala for laying out SSD system. This may be attributed to the nature
of the area.
Water Management Research Centre, Parbhani (Maharashtra)
A long term SSD experiment was started in 1994 at WMRC, Parbhani on deep black soil
having clay 52 (Bhattacharya and Michael 2010). As far as drainage material is concerned, the clay
tile is required minimum drain out period as compared to PVC corrugated perforated pipe and Rigid
PVC perforated pipes. A long term SSD experiment was started in 1994 at Water Management
Research Centre, Parbhani on deep black soil having clay 52% and field capacity 36%. The drain
materials used were (1) clay tile of 100mm diameter (2) 80 mm diameter PVC corrugated perforated
pipe and (3) PVC rigid pipe with perforations of 63 mm diameter with the combination of gravel,
coarse sand, fine sand and geo textile as envelope materials. The SSD system were installed at 1.3
m depth. The main treatments were three drain spacings ( D1 = 25 m , D2 = 50 m and D3 = 75 m).
Lysimetric tank (16 Nos) of size 5x1.8 and 1.5 m deep were constructed for this experiment. As far
as drainage material is concerned, the clay tile s required minimum drain out period as compared to
PVC corrugated perforated pipe and Rigid PVC perforated pipes. The performance of sand and
gravel envelope was observed to be better than geo-textile envelop material. The field experiment
was conducted for soybean crop followed by wheat crop in Rabi season. As regards grain yield of
soybean and wheat, the yields were at par for all three drain spacing treatments.
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE), Bhopal
Survey conducted for assessing drainage problems in Madhya Pradesh, revealed that water
logging problem exists mainly in three major canal command areas in Madhya Pradesh viz. Chambal
, Tawa and Barna having CCA 0.2.83 Mha, 0.247 Mha and 0.065 Mha respectively. At present, 14.06
% , 1.20 % and 0.90 % of command areas are affected due to waterlogging in Chambal, Tava and
Barna respectively (Ramadhar Singh et.al. 2001). The Ken, Ken- Betwa Link Project, is to provide
irrigation to the tune of 0.127 million hectares in the Raisen and Vidisha districts of Madhya Pradesh
by utilising 659 million cubic meters of water annually. As the project irrigation efficiency has been
considered to be 55%, a sizeable quantum of recharge would be available to ground water which will
raise the water levels depending on physiographic and hydro geological features of the region. Thus
making drainage a dire necessity. The analysis of ground water levels in relation to physiographic
and hydro geological features of the region indicate a probable rise in water table in certain areas of
the command on implementation of the proposed Ken-Betwa Link Project . In order to control and
prevent the rise of water table to hazardous levels in the command, it is necessary to evolve certain
practical and meaningful integrated strategies.
The soil texture at CIAE farm is heavy clay(vertisols) with 51.0-54.7% clay content. High
intensity erratic rainfall during Kharif season combined with poor physical properties of vertisols
leads to rise in temporary water table (20 - 40 cm) in crop root zone affecting their growth.
Therefore, field studies on surface drainage and SSD (tile drainage and mole drainage ) were

10. 10
carried out for soybean crop at CIAE, Bhopal. Drainage systems were designed and field
experiments on surface drainage system were conducted for soybean. The feasibility trials of mole
drainage for soybean in vertisols were carried out. For soybean crop surface drainage resulted in
35-40% increase in yield over control and the SSD system resulted in 50-54 % increase over
control. The mole drainage has resulted in increase of soybean crop yield by 65% over the
control. Field experiment were planned and carried out to evaluate the performance of surface
and SSD systems with and without filter materials for maize and pigeon pea crops consecutively
during kharif seasons of the year 2005 to 2009. The maize crop yield increased by 40%, 54.8%
, 59.5% and 40% over the control ( 3.543 t/ha) under SSD with filter, SSD ( chimney with filter),
combination of surface and SSD with filter and SSD without filter systems respectively installed at
20 m drain spacing. The pigeon pea crop yield increased by 41%, 50.1% , 64.2% and 39%%
over the control (1.314 t/ha) under SSD with filter, SSD (chimney with filter), combination of
surface and SSD with filter and SSD without filter systems respectively.
Laboratory testing set up for performance evaluation of drain envelope/filter materials using
upward flow circular permeameters was designed and developed. The components of the test set up
include four units of upward flow permeameters, two water head loss measurement units, and one
variable head water supply system. Hydraulic conductivities of vertisols and drain materials were
measured using the drain material testing setup The hydraulic performance of inorganic (sand and
gravel), organic (coconut coir fiber, paddy straw) and synthetic (nylon netting fabric and non-woven
geotextile fabric) envelope materials in vertisols were evaluated using developed permeameter based
test set-up. The study revealed that in heavy clay soils (vertisols), the use of envelope materials is
suggested for increasing the sub surface flow through pipe drainage and effective drainage of
temporary waterlogged areas. The hydraulic performance of coconut coir fiber and non-woven geo-
textile fabric is on par.
Equipment/ Machinery or Surface Drainage
In land forming and constructing surface ditches three types of operations namely digging, hauling,
and placing are performed. Digging of drains is normally done in off-season to provide employment.
Tractors with back hoe front-end loader, dragline ; excavators, ditchers, etc. are generally used for
drainage construction. For open ditch construction the selection of equipment depends largely on
moisture conditions and type of soil..
Tractor Drawn Ditcher
It is used for making ditches for irrigation and drainage. It consists of two curved wings with cutting
blades, front cutting point, tie bars for adjusting wingspan, and hitch assembly with 3-point linkages.
The ditcher is operated by tractor and controlled by hydraulic system. The ditcher penetrates in the
soil due to its own weight and suction of the cutting point. Upon drawing the ditcher in the fie1d, it
opens the soil in the shape of ditch with either 'V' bottom or flat bottom. The depth and width of the
ditch is adjusted from the operators seat. Earthen channels because of their low cost and ease of
construction are widely used for conveyance of irrigation water. For small holdings V ditcher can be
used for making channels (T=40 cm & d= 25 cm). Tractor drawn V ditcher can be used (T=120 cm
and d=40 cm) at faster rate @ 1.2 km/h.
Rotary Ditcher
Rotary ditcher is used for making ditches for irrigation and drainage. It consists of a rotary cutter
operated by PTO shaft of the tractor, gear box, 3-point linkage, hitch system, frame, body, deflector
and ditch former. The machine is operated by tractor. Rotary cutter is main component of the ditcher
and it consists of drum fitted with cutting knives or cutters. The rotary cutter excavates soil, which is
uniformly distributed to one side. The deflection of the soil can be adjusted by the deflector. Ditch
former, having trapezoidal shape fitted in the rear, form the ditch. The specifications are given below:
Top width of the ditch (mm) : 740-915; Depth of the ditch (mm) : 460-560
Base width of the ditch (mm) : 180-250; Power requirement (hp) : 40- 70, tractor
Tractor Drawn Channel Former
It is used for making channels and beds at regular intervals for irrigation. The channel former consists
of two inner blades, two outer blades, hitch frame, mainframe and shovel. The front portions of the

11. 11
two inner blades are joined together and form an angle of 300 in between them. At the junction of
these two inner blades a cultivator shovel is fixed to penetrate into the soil. The inner blades can be
mounted 50 to 100 mm lower than the outer blades and form a furrow at a lower depth than the
surface of the bed for the flow of irrigation water. The two outer blades are placed one on each side of
the inner blades and at an angle of 600 to the direction of the travel. The soil collected from the furrow
is formed as bund on both the sides of the irrigation furrow. The power requirement for channel former
is 35-45 hp tractor and its field capacity is 1.2 - 1.4 ha/day.
Tractor Drawn Bed-Furrow Former
It is used for forming alternate beds and channels. The beds are suitable for planting crops like
sorghum, maize, cotton. This bed and furrow system is ideal for efficient irrigation and drainage water
management The tractor drawn bed-furrow former requires 35 hp tractor and consists of mild steel
angle iron frame; three point linkage, lifting pin, furrow former, bed former and stiffeners. The bed and
furrow formers are made of mild steel sheet and bent in required shape. The stiffeners are used to
strengthen the fortners. The implement is operated in the tilled soil.The performance results are given
below :
Width of coverage (mm) : 2250 (3-furrows at 750 mm centre distance)
Depth of cut (mm) : 140
Operating speed (km/h) : 3.2
Field capacity (ha/h) : 0.75-1.00
Machinery for Subsurface Drainage
General Many types of mechanical equipment are available for installing subsurface pipe drains.
These include the general groupings of (1) backhoes, (2) trenchers and (3) trenchless plows.
Backhoes have been discussed earlier; other groupings are discussed in following sections.
Maintaining proper grade is the single most important component of installation of a surface drainage
system. Most trenching machines are equipped with features for maintaining a uniform grade and
many are now fitted with automatic laser grade control systems. Trenchers were one of the first
agricultural operations to use laser beam technology, which provides increased productivity while
maintaining laying accuracy.
Trenching Machines
Trenching machines, which can operate continuously, are of two basic types (1) a wheel excavator on
which digging blade buckets that cut and carry the soil are attached, and (2) endless chain normally
operating on a slanting boom. These trenchers are manufactured in various sizes depending upon the
size of the pipe to be laid and the difficulty of excavation. Trench widths may vary from as little as 240
mm to as wide as 650 mm with maximum trenching depths of from 1.8 m to 5.5 m.
Wheel trenchers
Rotating, hydraulically powered, circular digging wheel trenchers have been used extensively in
America and Europe for many years for the installation of subsurface field tile drains. In recent years
many of these machines have been converted from track to pneumatic tired propulsion and adapted
for laser grade control to achieve greater mobility and accuracy of excavation. The digging wheel
used for trenching for agricultural purposes is about 2.5 to 3.0 m in diameter and can dig a trench to a
maximum depth of 1.8 m. With wheel excavators soil is carried to the top of the wheel and then
dropped onto a moving conveyor belt, which carries it to the spoil bank along the side of the trench.
Wheel machines generally have a more limited depth capability than do the endless-chain types.
Chain trenchers
The endless-chain trenchers are generally more versatile than the wheel trencher with greater depth
capability and are thus used on a greater variety of agricultural, utility and civil construction projects.
Chain trenchers are nearly always mounted on tracks and therefore have limited mobility but are
capable of working in more difficult terrain and moisture conditions. The endless-chain type trencher
may have a slanting boom (usually 600 boom to ground angle) as shown in Fig. 3.
Trenchless plows
The most recent of subsurface drainage innovations is the development of trenchless plows which are
capable of inserting continuous perforated corrugated plastic drainage title into the ground. These
machines have the potential for rapid installation on large jobs and may be more economical than

12. 12
trenching type machines (Fig. 4). Trenchless machines are ideally suited for installing corrugated
plastic drainage tubing and are capable of placing tubing up to 200 mm in diameter to depths of up to
2.5m . They can be used in stony soils. They have less stoppage for repairs than trenchers.
Fig. 3: Endless- chain slanted boom trencher
Fig. 4: Drain tube plow
Experience in Western Europe and North America has shown that, for drain depths up to some 1.3 to
1.4 m, the cost of trenchless drain installation is lower than trencher installation, mainly because of a
higher speed. In the Netherlands, with drain depths of mostly 1.0 to 1.2 m and pipe diameters of up to
0.08 m, the difference is 15 to 25%. Soil resistance is higher in fine-textured soils than in course-
textured ones. Because of the high speeds, depth regulation by laser is the only practical method for
trenchless machines.
Laser beam grade control equipment
Since the late 1960’s, laser beam equipment for grade control has become available commercially.
One system consists of a tripod command post with a 3600 rotating low-power laser beam that can be
set to give a level or sloping plane of reference. A second major component is the detector, which is
placed on the trenching machine. It picks up the beam and automatically keeps the machine on the
same slope as the plane produced by the laser beam. The area covered by the circle of the beam at
one setup is about 70 ha. The laser beam is accurate to about 5 mm in 300 m distance. A system of
electrically controlled valves and cylinders keeps the trencher automatically on grade. The laser
system has been adapted to many other earth-moving machines, such as the blade grader, scraper,
bulldozer, drain-tube plough, etc. The maximum safe operating distance between the laser and
receiver is 300 m.
Mole Plough for Mole Drains
Mole drains are unlined circular soil channels, which function like pipe drains. Mole drainage is an
inexpensive and effective method of drainage which is widely used in the clay soils of temperate
regions such as United Kingdom, northern Europe and in New Zealand. It is generally confined to
soils having clay content of about 35 – 40%. Their disadvantage is their restricted life (5 to 10 years),
but, providing benefit-cost ratios are favourable, a short life can be acceptable. Mole drains are
formed with a mole plough (Fig.5), which comprises a cylindrical foot attached to a narrow leg,
followed by a slightly larger diameter cylindrical expander. The foot and expander form the drainage
channel and the leg generates the slot with associated soil fissures, which extend from the surface
down into the channel. The leg fissures are vertical and formed at an angle of approximately 450 to
the direction of travel. A Mole Plough suitable for tractors from 80 to 200 H.P. which forms a 100 mm
diameter drain tunnel, subsoils or lays water pipe at a depth adjustable from 300 mm to 500 mm. The
mole drain spacings range between 2.0 and 3.5 m. Common length of mole drains vary from 20m to

13. 13
100m but can go upto 500 m long depending on the grade, which may range from nearly level to 5 per
cent. Mole plough dimensions, as commonly used in the United kingdom and New Zealand, are given
below :
Common mole plough dimensions
Foot Diameter
(mm)
Expander
Diamater (mm)
Leg Thickness
(mm)
Side length of leg
(mm)
United Kingdom 75 85-100 25 200
New Zealand 50 75 16 200
Fig. 5: Cracking and fissuring of heavy soils formed by Mole plough
Vertisols/clay soils offer good prospects of production when adequately drained since they
suffer from flooding, surface ponding and/or waterlogging due to poor soil physical properties.
Studies on effectiveness of different SSD systems using filter materials had been carried out world
wide mainly for weakly structured soils (i.e. sandy loam and silty loam soils) in humid and sub-humid
climate. Limited studies on performance of SSD system in sandy clay and silty loam soils of semi-
arid region were carried out especially in Egypt and United Kingdom. In India limited studies on
performance evaluation of SSD system with different drain envelope materials at field scale had
been carried out mainly at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal under Haryana Operational
Pilot Project(HOPP), Rajasthan Agriculture Development Project (RAJAD), and AICRP on Agricultural
Drainage. These studies were carried out mainly for sandy loam, silty loam soils and problematic
coastal black soil. These studies revealed that SSD systems had resulted in control of soil
salinity/alkalinity effectively and significant increase in yields (about 50 to 75%) of important crops
(i.e. paddy, wheat, cotton). Planning and execution of proper drainage systems should be made
essential component of on-going rural development programmes and watershed development
programme through Policy formulation. State and Central Govt. should provide financial assistance
to resource poor farmers, as SSD requires high initial investment .Agricultural drainage is neglected
activity in Indian farming. Awareness about the benefits of the drainage technology in the farmers
need to be brought through demonstration and training programs.
Advances in Subsurface Drainage Advances in drainage design
Based on large number of studies conducted at CSSRI and elsewhere in India, guidelines have been
prepared to design a subsurface drainage system under different agro-climatic conditions of India
(Gupta et al., 2002; Table 6).
Table 6. Guidelines for drainage design under various agro-climatic conditions in India
Drainage coefficient (mm/day) Drain depth (m) Drain spacing (m)
Climatic conditions Range
(mm/day)
Optimum
value (mm)
Outlet
condition
Depth of
drains
Optimum
depth (m)
Soil textureSpacing
of drains
Arid 1-2 1 Gravity 0.9-1.2 1.1 Light 100-150
Semiarid 1-3 2 Pumped 1.2-1.8 1.5 Medium 50-100
Subhumid 2-5 3 Heavy/
Vertisols
30-50

14. 14
Advances in construction technology
Tremendous achievements have been made in the construction technology. Initially, most pilot areas
in India were laid out using manual labour. Here, both the digging of trenches and assembling the
system were accomplished using manual labour. On the contrary, most large projects world over have
been implemented by mechanical means since limited time is available to construct the systems.
Studies in India revealed that the cost of the system installed through fully mechanical means
depends to a large extent on the area to be covered under drainage and synchronization of various
activities to avoid logistic problems. Besides, the initial investments on the import of the machinery are
quite high. Recent experience with semi-mechanical means has been quite encouraging. In this
technique, locally available machines are used to dig the trenches while the system is assembled
manually. This strategy helped to reduce the time to lay the system avoiding many difficulties
encountered in fully mechanical laying. The later technology would help to keep a balance between
mechanization and employment generation. As such, the projects would have a better chance of
funding by national and international organizations.
Guidelines for monitoring and evaluation
Guidelines for monitoring and evaluation have been defined for the realistic assessment of design,
quality of construction and the efficiency of the system (Table 7).
Table 7. The data and frequency of their measurement
Data Frequency of measurement
Discharge of individual laterals Daily in the first season, weekly lateron
Discharge from the whole area Continuously with stage level recorder
Water table midway between drains Daily in the first season and then weekly
Water level on the drains and
w.t. 0.5 away from the drain
Two drains each with different filter materials for one season
Soil salinity 1st year twice, then once in a year, up to 120 cm depth;
preferable layers 0-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-90, 90-120 cm.
Quality of drainage effluent Weekly in the first year and then monthly
Crop yields Every season for at least 5 years
Drainage installation and land
development cost
Keep regular records during installation
Cost of crop production and returns Every season
Reuse of drainage effluent for irrigation
Subsurface drainage projects have been criticized mainly on the basis of environmental degradation
that would be caused through disposal of drainage effluents. This question has been addressed to a
great extent in the studies conducted under various agro-climatic conditions. The salient observations
that emerged from these studies are as follows:
 The quality of the drainage effluent gets improved over the years and after few years the quality
is substantially good than at the beginning.
 Subsurface drainage effluent is a good source of water for irrigation either alone or in
combination with canal water.
 Evaporation tanks could be used to dispose of drainage effluent in land locked areas. These
tanks could also be used for brackish water aquaculture.
Socio-economic Impacts
So far technical issues were discussed with a focus on its impact on agricultural productivity. Realizing
that social issues must not take a back seat to the technology component, socio-economic impacts of
the projects were monitored both in terms of benefits and limitations. Some of the socio-economic
impacts such as poverty alleviation and reduced disparity, employment generation, increase in land
value (Fig. 6), opportunities for regional industrialization, reduction in gender disparity, reduced
migration from rural areas to urban centers were documented. The increase in land value alone was
sufficient to play a catalytic role in the adoption of this technology. To illustrate some of these issues it
was assessed that about 303 man-days would be required to cover a ha of land when the lateral drain

15. 15
spacing of the system is 25 m. For a drain spacing of 100 m, the requirement will reduce to about 128
man-days/ha. If the digging of drains is done through machines and the system is laid manually, then
the requirement could be about half of the requirement (65-150 man-days) compared to a fully
manually laid system. Considering employment opportunities in agricultural operations following
reclamation, it has been estimated that a man could get employment for a year upon reclamation of
about 3-5 ha of agricultural land. Moreover, out of the total investment on subsurface drainage, nearly
60% is attributed to materials produced in the industrial sector (Table 8). This distribution of cost is
ample evidence that large-scale application of this technology would boost the industrial sector and
rural based industries in the region. As such one can anticipate more opportunities for employment
generation as well as overall infrastructure development of the region.
Table 8. Sector wise distribution of investments on subsurface drainage
Sector % of the total investment
Industrial 60
Landless 20
Agriculture 20
Fig. 6 Land value as affected by subsurface drainage
Socio-economic Impediments
It should be realized that people’s participation in development interventions is not like turning on a
light switch. It is a time consuming and often-frustrating process requiring determination, patience,
compassion and understanding. Often conflicting needs and demands of the farming community are
difficult to be reconciled. For example, within a block drainage requirement of the stakeholders are
different due to location of the fields, topographical differences and due to different crops grown. A
rice-growing farmer resents drainage while others prefer to drain following rainfall. Some progress on
this front could be made when in a part of the project, individual controls were provided. Sometimes
you need to experiment till a successful socially compatible solution is found. For example, three
models were experimented to hand over the drainage blocks after institutional support was withdrawn.
In the first case, drainage infrastructure was handed over to Village Panchayat as per lease
agreement. Since, there was no pumping after the handover, this model could not generate
confidence. In the second model, drainage blocks were handed over to FDSs with common sump
constructed on the common property. The response was lukewarm and slowly the pumping activity
came to a halt. No body in the society took responsibility of this state of affairs. The third model was
also based on FDSs but with an identified farmer as its president with the block sump located in his
field. The society members were free to approach him for pumping by contributing in terms of diesel.
This model has consistently worked well over a period of more than 7 years. Notwithstanding the
limitations and criticism by few farmers of this model, currently it seems to be the best bet for
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
Before drainage
Afterdrainage
Landvalue(Rs/ha)
Konanki
Uppu
Segwa
Segwa
Islampur

16. 16
encouraging pumping in the drainage blocks. Technically, some progress still needs to be made in
applying non- intrusive and non-destructive techniques for maintenance of the systems. Attracting
capable and financially sound contractors is still a problem since private demand for drainage has yet
to be generated.
Prospects of Subsurface Drainage
During the past 30 years, a firm foundation for subsurface drainage has been laid. Capacity build-up
has been in tune with the present requirement. Planners, government officers and farming
communities have been sensitized to the need of drainage. Drainage Master Plans of several states
have already been formulated. Government provides a subsidy of Rs. 20000 or half of the costs of
land drainage whichever is less. With the percolation of local technical know how, private
entrepreneurs could be attracted to contribute to land drainage. Trench digging machines are already
in place in every nook and corner of the country. These could be used as a part of the hybrid
technology of constructing drainage systems. Developing a drainage ripe environment needs
continuing attention and support of the government. It is believed that there would be a large spurt in
drainage activities in the next 2-3 decades because it is the only ray of hope to ensure sustainability of
irrigated agriculture on which sustains hopes of food and nutritional security of the country.
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