The document provides details about Britain's invasion of Afghanistan in the 1830s-40s by the East India Company. It summarizes that the East India Company invaded Afghanistan with around 15,000 troops to install a puppet ruler, Shah Shuja, due to fears of Russian influence in the region. However, the invasion was a disaster as the Afghans rebelled against British rule and Shah Shuja, culminating in the annihilation of a retreating British army in 1842 during a failed retreat from Kabul in harsh winter conditions. The British then sent a Army of Retribution to avenge the losses the following year.

1. LECTURE 9
BRITAIN INVADES
AFGHANISTAN

2. THE EAST INDIA COMPANY
• ESTABLISHED BY 218 MERCHANTS UNDER ROYAL
WARRANT ELIZABETH 1 1600. LIMTED LIABILITY
MONOPOLY EAST OF CAPE GOOD HOPE
• BY 1800:
+243,000 SQ KMS OF INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT
+90 MILLION PEOPLE
+VOLUNTEER ARMY OF 238,000 OFFICERED BY BRITISH
GENTLEMEN
+LEASED 36,000 QUEEN VICTORIA’S REGIMENTS OF LINE
+HEADQUARTERS IN LONDON MERE 200, BUT THOUSANDS IN
INDIA
+A$20 BILLION REVENUE FROM TRADE + A$10 BLLION
INDEMNITIES,TRIBUTES AND TAXES UNDER THEIR
“PROTECTION”

7. East India Trading Company
Charge

8. THE RUSSIANS ARE COMING –
PERHAPS!
FOREIGN SECRETARY PALMERSTON:
“ IN PALMERSTON’S VIEW, RUSSIA WAS PURSUING
A SYSTEM OF UNIVERSAL AGGRESSION ON ALL
SIDES, PARTLY FROM THE PERSONAL CHARACTER
OF THE EMPEROR (NICHOLAS 1), PARTLY FROM
THE PERMANENT SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT”
(HENRY KISSINGER)
PRIME MINISTER PALMERSTON BOTCHED
CRIMEAN WAR 1855 - 1858

9. RUSSIANS CONTD.
• RUSSO – TURKEY WAR 1828 – 1829 GAVE RUSSIA
VICTORY; ACCESS TO DARDANELLES AND TRADE
CONCESSIONS
• “STRAITS QUESTION”: CLOSURE BY TURKEY OF
DARDANELLES TO ENEMY SHIPS IF RUSSIA WENT TO WAR
• PALERSTON’S CONTAINMENT STRATEGY OF RUSSIA IN
MIDDLE EAST, ESP. PERSIA
• ALSO RUSSIAN INROADS INTO CENTRAL ASIA
• 1837 ALLIANCE WITH DOST MOHAMMAD KHAN, EMIR OF
AFGHANISTAN
• PERSIANS WITH RUSSIAN HELP LAY SIEGE TO HERAT IN
1837 BUT LIFTED IN 1838 AFTER PALMERSTON’ S
THREATS

10. RUSSIANS CONTD.
• BRITISH INSISTED DOST MOHAMMAD BRING
HIS FOREIGN POLICY INTO LINE WITH THE
BRITISH:
1. STOP DEALING WITH THE RUSSIANS
2. ACCEPT THAT SIKH EMPIRE UNDER RANJIT
SINGH SHOULD CONTINUE TO INCLUDE THE
PASHTUN STRONGHOLD PESHAWAR –
CAPTURED 1834

11. RUSSIANS CONTD.
DOST MOHAMMAD TURNED TO RUSSIA. TOO MUCH FOR
EAST INDIA COMPANY DIRECTORS WHO ISSUED
DIRECTIVE TO G.G. LORD AUCKLAND:
“…JUDGE AS TO WHAT STEPS IT MAY BE PROPER AND
DESIRABLE FOR YOU TO TAKE TO WATCH MORE CLOSELY,
THAN HAS HITHERTO BEEN ATTEMPTED, THE PROGRESS
OF EVENTS IN AFGHANISTAN, AND TO COUNTERACT THE
PROGRESS OF RUSSIAN INFLUENCE IN A QUARTER WHICH,
FROM ITS PROXIMITY TO OUR INDIAN POSSESSIONS,
COULD NOT FAIL, IF IT WERE ONCE ESTABLISHED, TO ACT
INJURIOUSLYON THE SYSTEM OF OUR INDIAN ALLIANCES,
AND POSSIBLY TO INTERFERE EVEN WITH THE
TRANQUILITY OF OUR OWN TERRITORY”

12. RUSSIANS CONTD.
• AUCKLAND OUTLINED IN A MINUTE 12 MAY
1838, 3 POSSIBILITIES:
1.LEAVE AFGHANISTAN TO ITS FATE WITH RUSSIA
AND DEFEND A LINE ON THE INDUS
2.SAVE AFGHANISTAN BY GIVING MILITARY AND
OTHER AID TO RULERS IN KABUL AND
KANDAHAR
3.ENCORAGE RANJIT SINGH TO TAKE KABUL AND
SUPPORT HIM MILITARILY AND INSTAL BRITISH
THE PUPPET RULER, SHAH SHUJA

13. RUSSIANS CONT.
AUCKLAND CHOSE THE THIRD OPTION AND SET IN TRAIN BRITAIN’S
GREATEST MILITARY DISASTER UNTIL SINGAPORE 1942:
1. UNDERESTIMATION OF AFGHANS ABILITY TO FIGHT OFF
INVADERS
2. THEIR CLIENT RULER RANJIT SINGH WAS UNINTERESTED IN
TAKING ON DOST MOHAMMAD,SO A. DECIDED TO TAKE OVER
THE PROJECT
3. THE PROPOSED PUPPET RULER SHAH SHUJA TO REPLACE DOST
MOHAMMAD HAD BEEN OUSTED 35 YEARS EARLIER AND WAS
DESPISED BY THE AFGHANS
4. WELLINGTON (THE INVENTOR OF GUERILLA WARFARE IN SPAIN,
AGAINST NAPOLEON) STATED THAT AN INVASION OF
AFGHANISTAN WOULD BE: “… A PERENNIAL MARCH THROUGH
THAT COUNTRY”

14. WELLINGTON’S RULES OF COUNTER-
INSURGENCY WARFARE
1. UNIFIED POLITICO-MILITARY COMMAND, FOR BRITISH AND NATIVE
COMMANDERS
2. CREDIBLE PROMISE OF LAW AND ORDER FOR CIVILIANS CO-
OPERATING WITH MILITARY
3. PUNISHMENT OF TROOPS AND CIVILIANS WHO BREAK THE LAW -
SWIFT BUT NOT HARSH
4. ONLY VOLUNTEER FORCES FOR BRITISH AND NATIVES
5. OCCASIONAL OPERATIONS OF TACTICAL AUDACITY TO DEMONSTRATE
INVINCIBILITY
6. RAPIDLY BUILD INFRASTRUCTURE TO SUPPORT MILITARY AND THEN
TURN OVER TO CIVILIANS
7. COMMANDER IN CHIEF TO BE CHIEF INTELLIGENCE OFFICER RUNNING
A METICULOUS AND DETAILED SYSTEM
8. INTELLIGENCE MUST ALWAYS GIVE ADVANCE WARNING OF ENEMY’S
INTENTIONS

15. THE ARMY OF THE INDUS
• FORMED IN 1838: 15,000 UNDER BRITISH COMMAND + 6000
SHAH SHUJA’S TROOPS
• COMMANDED BY SIR JOHN KEANE: E.I.C.’S MOST SENIOR
OFFICER+WILLIAM MACNAGHTEN TO BE SENIOR BRITISH
REPRESENTATIVE IN KABUL
• ONLY ONE BRITISH ARMY LINE REGIMENT: 44TH
FOOT, ESSEX
REGIMENT. OTHERS WERE CAVALRY AND INFANTRY REGIMENTS
OF THE E.I.C.
• 40,000 CAMP FOLLOWERS: FAMILIES,SERVANTS,ANIMAL
KEEPERS,SOLDIER’S WOMEN AND HANGERS-ON
• 30,000 CAMELS TO CARRY EVERYTHING
• AVERAGE BRITISH OFFICER CARRIED: 6
SERVANTS,GLASS,CROCKERY AND SILVER DINNER SET, PORTABLE
WINE CHEST AND A BATH TUB

16. ARMY OF INDUS CONT.
• INFANTRY ARMED WITH “BROWN BESS”:
EXCELLENT FOR CLOSE QUARTER FIGHTING;
TWO SHOTS A MINUTE AND ACCURATE TO
150 YARDS
• AFGHANS ARMED WITH JEZAIL: CUSTOM-
MADE LONG RIFLE ACCURATE TO 800 YARDS
AND IDEAL FOR MOUNTAIN FIGHTING

17. ARMY OF INDUS CONT.
THE INVASION ROUTE
• DECIDED AGAINST TRADITIONAL ROUTE THROUGH KHYBER PASS
• ENTRY VIA BOLAN PASS IN BALUCHISTAN (OWNED BY THE
BALUCHIS) AND 120 KILOMETRES FROM AFGHAN BORDER
• SIND PROVINCE, LOOTED HYDERABAD,THEN NORTH ACROSS SIND
DESERT FEB 23 – MAR 11 DOWN TO ½ RATIONS AND WATER
• HEAT KILLED FINE HORSES AND FAMILY PETS
• BALUCHIS FAVORITE SPORT OF LOOTING SUPPLY CARAVANS AT
NIGHT
• 14 DAYS TO CLEAR BOLAN PASS
• REACHED QUETTA ON 6 APRIL: TROOPS ½ RATIONS AND
CIVILIANS ¼ RATIONS. RANSACKED TOWN FOR FOOD AND WATER
• CHIEFTAINS ON ROUTE WERE BRIBED TO ACCEPT SHAH SHUJA AS
“RULER” AND NOT ATTACK COLUMN

18. ARMY OF INDUS CONT.
• KANDAHAR REACHED 26 APRIL 1839. CELEBRATIONS WITH ICED
CHAMPAGNE AND WINE
• TWO MONTH WAIT FOR BAGGAGE TRAIN.
• TROOP DISCIPLINE WAVERED AND LOOTING
• SIR JOHN KEANE DECIDES TO MOVE TOWARD KABUL BUT LEAVES
BEHIND HEAVY ARTILLERY
• ON WAY FIERCELY OPPOSED AT GHAZNI. TOWN TAKEN WITH 200
CASUALTIES FOR 1200 AFGHANS KILLED, 1000 CAPTURED.
• SHAH SHUJA HAD BEHEADED 50 BEFORE HE WAS RESTRAINED
• IN KABUL 80 MILES AWAY DOST MOHAMMAD FLED WITH 2000 LOYAL
FOLLOWERS
• KABUL ENTERED AND SHAH SHUJA PLACED ON THRONE
• UP TO 10,000 CAMP FOLLOWERS DEAD AS WELL AS MANY LIVESTOCK
• MANY ACCOLADES, PROMOTIONS AND GONGS PASSED AROUND

22. KABUL 1839/40
• GREAT RELAXATION OF DISCIPLINE AND FRATERNISATION IN
KABUL
• SHAH SHUJA LEFT FOR A WARMER CLIMATE
• MACNAGHTEN’S POLITICAL OFFICERS BEGAN TO RUN THE
COUNTRY WITHOUT CONSULTING MILITARY
• SUMMER OF 1840, KABUL BECOME THE SOCIAL HUB OF THE E.I.C.
FOR WIVES AND FAMILIES
• LATE 1840 DOST MOHAMMAD SUCCESSFULLY
AMBUSHED GENERAL ROBERT “FIGHTING BOB” SALE
• BUT DOST MOHAMMAD SURRENDERS TO MACNAGHTEN, GIVEN
A “STIPEND” AND EXILED TO INDIA WITH LOYAL TROOPS
• SHUJA PROVING TO BE DESPOTIC AND CORRUPT
• BY END OF 1840 E.I.C. HEAD OFFICE SEES AFGHANISTAN AS A
FINANCIAL BLACK HOLE. ORDERS COST CUTS

25. AFGHANISTAN 1841
• MACNAGHTEN CUTS GENEROUS BRIBES TO CHIEFTAINS WITH
PREDICTABLE RESULTS
• TRIBES ATTACK SUPPLY COLUMNS FROM INDIA TO KABUL
• NOV. 1841 GEN. SALE AND 1500 “SUPERFLUOUS TROOPS”
ATTACKED BY 5000 AFGHANS
• REACHED JELLALABAD FORT 70 MILES FROM KABUL AND
BESEIGED UNTIL APRIL 1842
• OCT.1841 ARMY COMMANDER GEN SIR WILLOUGHBY COTTON
REPLACED BY MAJOR GEN. WILLIAM ELPHINSTONE (KEANE NOW
LORD KEANE OF KABUL!)
• ELPHINSTONE LAST FOUGHT AT WATERLOO AS A JUNIOR
OFFICER,60 YEARS OF AGE, NEARLY BLIND AND HAD PLEURISY
AND GOUT, AND IN GREAT DISCOMFORT IN KABUL
• ELPHINSTONE REGARDED AS PARADIGM OF INCOMPETENT
COMMAND UNTIL PERCIVAL IN SINGAPORE IN 1942

29. ARMY OF THE INDUS: ITS
ANNIHILATION
• 2 NOV 1841. SENIOR POLITICAL AGENT IN KABUL MURDERED. HIS HEAD
ON A POLE IN KABUL BAZAAR
• ELPHINSTONE DITHERS
• GARRISON CANTONMENT OVERRUN AND ALL SUPPLIES LOST EXCEPT 20
TONS OF WHEAT
• AFGHAN SNIPERS OCCUPY KABUL HEIGHTS AND FIRE ON GARRISON
• BRITISH RETAKE COLUMNS CUT DOWN BY AFGHAN CAVALRY
• DOST MOHAMMAD’S SON AKBAR KHAN LEADS REBELLION IN NORTH
AFGHANISTAN
• MACNAGHTEN INVITED BY A.K. TO PARLEY, SHOOTS HIM DEAD AND
CARRIES HIS BODY PARTS THROUGH KABUL STREETS
• DECISION MADE TO RETREAT 100 MILES FROM KABUL TO INDIAN
BORDER.
• DEAL DONE WITH AKBAR KHAN: SAFETY OF ARMY OF INDUS ON FOOT
FOR ALL ARTILLERY PIECES, ARMY’S TREASURY, AND 130 HOSTAGES
(MARRIED OFFICERS AND FAMILIES)

30. ANNIHILATION CONT.
6 JANUARY 1842
• 6000 TROOPSAND 12,000 SURVIVING CAMP
FOLLOWERS (OUT OF ORIGINAL 40,000)
MOVED OUT OF KABUL ON FOOT IN AFGHAN
WINTER IN CLOTHES THEY STOOD IN
• 10 INCHES OF SNOW
• COLUMN MOVED 5 MILES
• 1200 DIED FROM COLD AND SNIPER FIRE

31. ANNIHILATION CONT.
8 JANUARY 1842
• COLUMN ENTERS KHURD-KABUL PASS –
NARROW OPENING, HIGH SIDES,FREEZING
STREAM UNDERFOOT
• CONCENTRATED RIFLE FIRE FROM MOUNTAIN
TOPS. MANY MORE KILLED
• AKBAR OFFERS PROTECTION TO WOUNDED
OFFICERS, WOMEN AND CHILDREN. SOME
MAKE IT TO AKBAR’S CAMP BUT MANY NEVER
SEEN AGAIN EXCEPT ONE BLOODSTAINED BOY

32. ANNIHILATION CONT.
11 JANUARY 1842
• OF 18,000 WHO SET OUT 5 DAYS AGO, ONLY
6000 STILL ALIVE
• A REARGUARD OF CAVALRY WERE
ANNIHILATED BUT COLUMN SAVED
• AKBAR OFFERS NEGOTIATION. PARLEY
GROUP HEADED BY ELPHINSTONEGO TO
AKBAR’S CAMP WHERE THEY ARE
IMPRISONED

33. ANNIHILATION CONT.
13 JANUARY 1842
• AT GANDAMAK 30 MILES FROM JALLALABAD THE
18,000 NOW REDUCED TO 40 MEN FROM ESSEX
REGIMENT, A DOZEN WORKING MUSKETS, A FEW
PISTOLS AND SWORDS.
• THEY DIED IN TWO FEET OF SNOW
• 9 TAKEN PRISONER.
• 1 SURVIVOR – DR. WILLIAM BRYDON – MADE IT TO
JALLALABAD
• HUMAN BONES ARE STILL BEING FOUND NEAR THE
SURFACE AT GANDAMAK

34. BRITISH “ARMY OF RETRIBUTION”
2 JANUARY 1842
• AUCKLAND DESPATCHES 2 BRIGADES AS RELIEF FORCE
• SHAH SHUJA IS STILL KING BUT INTER-TRIBAL BLOOD
FEUDS STARTED
• AUCKLAND ORDERS HIM TO BREAK THE JALLALABAD
SIEGE
• HE IS AMBUSHED AND SHOT DEAD
• 2 BRIGADES REACH PESHAWAR AND STOP: LOW MORALE
AND INEFFECTIVE OFFICERS
• MAJOR GENERAL GEORGE POLLOCK A SEASONED
VETERAN ORDERED TO PUT TOGETHER AN “ARMY OF
RETRIBUTION”

36. ARMY OF RETRIBUTION CONT.
MARCH 1842
• AN ARMY OF 8000 PUT TOGETHER: 8
INFANTRY REGIMENTS, 3 CAVALRY, 2
BATTERIES ARTILLERY. INCL. 4 OF BRITISH
ARMY’S BEST
• TOOK THE HIGH GROUND IN KHYBER PASS
WITH MUSKETS AND ARTILLERY GRAPESHOT

37. ARMY OF RETRIBUTION CONT.
• GENERAL SALE BREAKS OUT OF JALLALABAD SIEGE 13
APRIL 1842 AFTER DINING OFF 300 CAPTURED SHEEP
& ONLY 62 CASUALTIES
• 3000 ARMY OF RETRIBUTION MARCH OUT OF
WINTER QUARTERS IN APRIL 1842 AND RACED
REMAINING 5000 TO KABUL, DESTROYING VILLAGES
AND SLAUGHTERING ANYONE IN THEIR PATH
• 15 SEPTEMBER 1842. KABUL RETAKEN AND AKBAR’S
PRISONERS RELEASED. 35 HAD DIED INCL.
ELPHINSTONE. 45 WOUNDED SURVIVORS HAD
RECEIVED NO MEDICAL TREATMENT

38. ARMY OF RETRIBUTION CONT.
REPRISALS
• PROVINCE OF KOHISTAN WHICH MANNED
MOST OF AKBAR’S ARMY WAS PUT TO THE
TORCH, ITS CAPITAL FLATTENED AND ITS
POPULATION MASSACRED
• KABUL’S MAIN BAZAAR BLOWN UP INCL.
SURROUNDING SUBURBS
• NO QUARTER GIVEN TO AFGHANS CAUGHT
BY PATROLS

39. WELLINGTON’S LAST WORDS
“IT IS EASY TO GET INTO AFGHANISTAN. THE
PROBLEM IS GETTING OUT AGAIN”
• THE BRITISH LEFT AFGHANISTAN, AND DID NOT
RETURN FOR 30 YEARS.
• THE FIRST AFGHAN WAR HAD ESTABLISHED A
PARADIGM IN THE MINDS OF THE BRITISH (AND
THE AMERICANS AND THE EUROPEANS)
IMPERIALISTS THAT AFGHANISTAN WAS A LAND
OF SAVAGES – TO BE DEALT WITH BY SAVAGERY
• THE CYCLES OF BRITISH BLOODLETTING IN
AFGHANISTAN WOULD NOT END UNTIL 1919.

40. LECTURE 10
AFGHANISTAN AND
“THE GREAT GAME”
1843 - 1878

41. “ COMMENTARY AND OPINION IS NOT SPIN.
WHAT SPIN IS, IS TAKING A SET OF
CIRCUMSTANCES
(….)AND MAKING IT NOT WHAT IT IS”
(BILL O’REILLY. “THE GREAT LIES OF HISTORY”)

42. “MURTHERIN VILLAINS, THE BLACK
NIGGERS”
• “AFGHANS ARE THUS A ‘VILLAINOUS LOT’,
‘FANATICS’, ‘RASCALS’,’FIENDS IN HUMAN
FORM’, MEAT FOR BRITISH BAYONETS – OR
‘TOASTING FORKS’ AS THE NARRATIVE
CHEERFULLY CALLS THEM. IT GETS WORSE”
(ROBERT FISK.2006. QUOTING FROM A BOOK
WRITTEN IN 1900: “TOM GRAHAM V.C. A
TALE OF THE AFGHAN WAR”)

43. 92nd
Highlanders
at Kandahar

45. THE GREAT GAME
• TERM USED BY BRITISH TO DESCRIBE
BRITAIN’S HOT AND COLD WAR
COMPETITION WITH RUSSIA
• THE RUSSIAN VERSION WAS TURNIRY TENEY
(TOURNAMENT OF SHADOWS)
• PLAYED FROM 1813-1907. RESUMED AFTER
WORLD WAR II. SOVIETS AND SATELITES VS.
U.S.A. AND ALLIES

46. GREAT GAME CONT.
• “THE SITUATION OF RUSSIA IN CENTRAL ASIA IS SIMILAR TO THAT OF
ALL CIVILIZED STATES THAT COME INTO CONTACT WITH HALF-SAVAGE
NOMADIC TRIBES WITHOUT A FIRM SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. IN SUCH
CASES , THE INTERESTS OF BORDER SECURITY AND TRADE RELATIONS
ALWAYS REQUIRE THAT THE MORE CIVILIZED STATE HAVE A CERTAIN
AUTHORITY OVER ITS NEIGHBOURS…”
(PRINCE ALEKSANDR GORCHAKOV, IN HENRY KISSINGER’S DIPLOMACY)
• RUSSIA’S AGGRESSIVE IMPERIAL EXPANSION 1855 TO 1914
• COUNTER POLICY BY PALMERSTON 1833 - THE “FORWARD POLICY”:
AIMED AT DISPLACING RUSSIAN INFLUENCE WHEREVER IT SOUGHT TO
EXPAND IN ASIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST:
• “BOTH SIDES, THE ONE THROUGH THE POSSESSION OF INTERIOR LAND
LINES, AND THE OTHER THROUGH SEA POWER, WERE ABLE TO
THREATEN THE OTHER IN EITHER DIRECTION. EVENTS IN ONE THEATRE
CANNOT THEREFORE BE UNDERSTOOD WITHOUT REFERENCE TO EVENTS
IN THE OTHER; THE AFGHAN WARS WERE ESSENTIALLY A PART OF THE
GENERAL EASTERN QUESTION” (OXFORD HISTORY OF INDIA)

47. Greater Persia at the beginning
of the Great game in 1814

52. 1874 Lake Zorkul, Pamirs
By British Army Officer

53. THE EASTERN QUESTION
• GREW OUT OF SLOW COLLAPSE OF THE OTTOMAN
EMPIRE, FROM 1774 UNTIL END OF WORLD WAR I. IN
1801, 5.2 M. SQ KILOMETRES.
• SERBIA BREAKS AWAY IN WAR OF 1804-1815. ORTHODOX
CHRISTIAN STATE
• ANOTHER, GREECE IN 1821 & GREEK WAR OF
INDEPENDENCE BRITISH PUBLIC SYMPATHY. LORD BYRON
1829. 1825 FRANCE & RUSSIA SUPPORT
GREECE.OTTOMAN WAR WITH RUSSIA 1828 FAILED
• TREATY 1829 GAVE RUSSIA COMMERCIAL ACCESS
THROUGH DARDANELLES; BLACK SEA
TERRITORY;COMMERCE IN EMPIRE.
• OTTOMANS “SICK MAN OF EUROPE”

54. EASTERN QUESTION CONT.
• 1831 EGYPT BREAKAWAY. BUT BRITAIN AND RUSSIA
SUPPORT OTTOMANS
• DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES ORTHODOX CHRISTIANS
(W. BLACK SEA TO HUNGARY).RUSSIA OCCUPIES
1853. OTTOMAN FLEET TO D’ELLES. JOINED BY
FRENCH & BRITISH. RUSSIA WITHDRAWS
• 4 POINT ULTIMATUM TO RUSSIA: GIVE UP CLAIM TO
D. PRINCIP.; DON’T CHAMPION O. CHRISTIANS; RE-
LOOK AT R’S FREE ACCESS TO DARDANELLES; RIVER
DANUBE TO BE EUROPEAN TRADE ROUTE.
• TSAR NICHOLAS 1 REFUSED. CRIMEAN WAR

55. CRIMEAN WAR
• BRITAIN, FRANCE & OTTOMANS: 1,000,000
• 350,000 DIED MANY FROM DISEASE
• RUSSIANS:700,000
• 220,000 DIED MANY FROM DISEASE
• MANY FRONTS & RUSSIAN ARMY & NAVY MANY
DEFEATS: IN POOR STATE
• 1856 PEACE:
1. MAINTAIN OTTOMAN TERRITORY
2. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES TO BRITAIN & ALLIES
3. RUSSIAN BLACK SEA FLEET DESTROYED.OTTOMAN
TAKEOVER OF BLACK SEA
4. RUSSIAN CRIMEAN ARSENAL CANCELLED

56. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR:1871
• UNITED GERMAN STATES DEFEAT FRANCE
• FRANCE WITHDRAWS FROM 4 POINT
CRIMEAN WAR EMBARGOES.
• RUSSIA RE-BUILDS BLACK SEA FLEET EG:
BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN

57. LEAGUE OF THREE EMPERORS:1875
• GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,RUSSIA
• INTERVENED IN REVOLT:HERZGOVINA,BOSNIA,BULGARIA,
• ALSO SERBIA & MONTENEGRO
• OTTOMANS RUTHLESSLY PUT THEM DOWN
• RUSSIA DECLARES WAR ON OTTOMANS:1877
• BRITAIN NEUTRAL UNTIL RUSSIA THREATENED CONSTANTINOPLE.
ALLIED WITH GERMANY & AUSTRIA BROUGHT RUSSIA TO NEGOTIATE
• TREATY OF BERLIN:
1. OTTOMANS LOST SOME TERRITORY
2. BOSNIA&HERZGOVINA - TO AUSTRO HUNGARIAN EMPIRE
3. BULGARIA SPLIT IN TWO
4. BRITAIN ACQUIRED CYPRUS FROM OTTOMANS
• RUSSIA TURNED TO CENTRAL ASIA

58. Russian chancellor
Alexander M
Gorchakov

59. Diplomatic Academy,
Moscow

60. Greek incitement of Ottoman Empire

61. The Battle of Vassilika in 1821 marked a early turning point
in the war.

63. THE GREAT GAME IN CENTRAL ASIA
• 1857: EAST INDIA COMPANY’S ARMY MUTINIED.
SUPPRESSED BY 1858 AT COST OF 52 MILLION
POUNDS & BRITISH TAKEOVER OF ADMINISTRATION.
GREAT UPHEAVAL.
• RUSSIA PUSHED AGGRESSIVELY INTO CENTRAL ASIA:
1. 1865 TASHKENT CAPTURED
2. 1865-1868. KHUDJAND(TAJK), DJIZAK &SAMARKAND
(UZB)
3. 1873 TAJIKISTAN & UZBEKISTAN TO RUSSIA
4. 1876 KHOKAND(UZB) RUSSIA 250 MILES FROM NTH
WEST FRONTIER ON INVASION ROUTE THROUGH
AFGHANISTAN

64. THE SECOND AFGHAN WAR
(1878 – 1880): PRELUDE
• EMIR SHER ALI KHAN EMIR OF AFGH (3RD
SON OF DOST M)
WANTED RUSSIA AND BRITAIN OUT.
• JULY 22 1878 GENERAL STOLETOFF DELEGATION – UNINVITED!
• 14 AUGUST BRITAIN WANTED TO SEND A DELEGATION. EMIR
REFUSED. REFUSAL IGNORED
• 24 AUGUST RUSSIAN DELEGATION LEAVES
• GENERAL SIR NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN (MUCH BLOOD ON HANDS) +
200 MILITARYMISSION TO KHYBER.
• MAJOR LOUIS CAVAGNARI + 24 TROOPERS CONFRONT AFGHAN
GENERAL
• 20 NOVEMBER1878 ULTIMATUM TO SHER ALI KHAN. IF NO
INVITATION THEN A STATE OF WAR
• RUSSIA WOULD NOT HELP. SHER ALI KHAN GOES INTO EXILE.
• SON MOHAMMAD YAQUB KHAN TAKES OVER

65. THE SECOND INVASION
• 3 FIELD FORCES MOBILISED:
– KANDAHAR FF. 265 OFF.12,599 MEN,78 GUNS
– KURRAM FF. 116 OFF. 6549 MEN,18 GUNS
– PESHAWAR VALLEYFF. 325 OFF. 15,854 MEN, 48 G
– MANY BATTLE TESTED REGIMENTS OF LINE
– 21 NOV. 1878.CLEARED MOUNTAIN PASSES
– JAN.1879 SECURED KANDAHAR & KABUL
– HEAVY AFGHAN CASUALTIES
– FEBRUARY SHER KHAN DIED IN EXILE
– YAKUB KHAN SUES FOR PEACE

66. TREATY OF GANDAMAK. 26 MAY
1879
1. YAKUB KHAN TO RULE. ANNUAL “SUBSIDY” OF
60,000 POUNDS
2. BRITAIN WOULD PROTECT AFGH. FROM FOREIGN
INVASION IE: THE RUSSIANS
3. EASTERN BOUNDARY TO BRITISH INDIA; FACILITATE
RAPID DEPLOYMENT OF TROOPS
4. BRITAIN TO MANAGE AFGH FOREIGN AFFAIRS
5. BRITAIN TO ESTABLISH PERMANENT MISSION IN
KABUL
6. DISRAELI CHEERED HIS FORWARD POLICY TRIUMPH
(EXPUNGED 1500 DEAD AT ISLANDLWANA)

67. SECOND AFGHAN WAR: ROUND 2
• 24 JULY 1879 BRITISH MISSION 75
TROOPS,MEDICAL, SECRETARY, MILITARY
ATT.
• LEADER SIR LOUIS CAVAGNARI:
“HELD THE AFGHANS IN CONTEMPT AND HIS
ARROGANCE GENERATED A GOOD DEAL OF
RESENTMENT AMONGST THE CHIEFS IN
KABUL”
• MISSION MASSACRED 3 SEPT.1879

68. SECOND AFGHAN WAR ROUND 2
CONT.
• GEN.SIR FREDERICK ROBERTS: 6600 TROOPS,
22 GUNS, 6000 CAMP FOLLOWERS 7 500
BAGGAGE ANIMALS
• 27 SEPTEMBER OUTSIDE KABUL: “CLEAR
KABUL OF ALL WOMEN & CHILDREN”
• 13 REGIMENTS OF AFGHAN TROOPS MET
ROBERTS AT KABUL + ARMED TRIBESMEN
• CLEARED HEIGHTS OF K. AND CAPTURED CITY

69. SECOND AFGHAN WAR ROUND 2
CONT.
• YAKUB KHAN EXILED & MILITARY LAW:
• 100HANGED FOR MASSACRE OF CAVAGNARI
MISSION
• BALA HISSAR FORT DESTROYED
• DEATH PENALTY ON ANYREBELS FOUND
• KABULIS HAD TO PAY A LARGE FINE
• 20,000 OCCUPATION TROOPS
• JIHAD DECLARED
• FROM OCT. GARRISONS ATTACKED
• 21 DECEMBER SHERPUR MAIN GARRISON ATTACKED
BY 100,000. GENERAL ROBERTS BROKE SIEGE 1
JANUARY 1880

70. SECOND AFGHAN WAR ROUND 2
CONT.
• PM GLADSTONE APPOINTS LORD RIPON
HELD A DURBAR TO HONOUR ABDUR
RAHMAN – NEW RULER. NEW TERMS:
• BRITISH RESIDENT REPLACED WITH MUSLIM
• AFGH DEAL WITH BRITISH ALL FOREIGN
REL.
• BRITAIN COME TO AFGH AID IF ATTACKED
• ABDUR RAHMAN GIVEN “SUBSIDY” OF
100,000 POUNDS +ARTILLERY

71. BATTLE OF MAIWAND 27 JULY 1880
• 2476 BRITISH & INDIAN TROOPS UNDER GEN. GEORGE BURROWS
MET AYUB KHAN (ABDUR’S COUSIN) AT VILLAGE OF MAIWAND
EAST OF HELMAND RIVER. - 25,000 AFGH TROOPS +5 BATTERIES
VERY LATEST ARMSTRONG 12 PDR RIFLED BREECH LOADER
• 1700 YARD ARTILLERY DUEL WITH BRITISH 9 PDR,6 PDR AND 12
PDR HOWITZERS
• LEFT FLANK OF BRITISH GUNS RAN OUT OF AMM. AFGHAN
CAVALRY ATTACKED FLANK
• “THERE WAS THIRTY DEAD AN’ WOUNDED ON GROUND WE
WOULDN’T KEEP
“NO, THERE WASN’T MORE THAN TWENTY WHEN THE FRONT BEGAN
TO GO;
“BUT, CHRIST! ALONG THE LINE O’ FLIGHT THEY CUT US UP LIKE
SHEEP,
“AN’ THAT WAS ALL WE GAINED BY DOING SO”

72. SECOND AFGHAN WAR ROUND 2
CONT.
• GEN ROBERTS ORDERED TO REDEEM BRITISH
HONOUR
• 8 AUGUST 1880: 10,000 BATTLE HARDENED
VETERANS MARCH 313 MILES IN 23 DAYS IN
110 DEGREE HEAT. FOUND KANDAHAR
GARRISON OF 4000 SITTING BEHIND 30 FT.
WALLS.
• 15 SEPTEMBER 1880 AYUB KHAN ROUTED
LOSS OF 600

73. SECOND AFGHAN WAR ROUND 2
CONT.
• ABDUR RAHMAN RULED WITH BRITISH
BLESSING UNTIL 1901
• OUTCOME FOR BRITAIN: 50,000 CASUALTIES
ON BOTH SIDES, IMMENSE COST, MANY
AFGHANS IMPOVERISHED
• BUT THEY WOULD BE BACK!!

75. British team at the site of the Battle of Ali Masjid

76. Royal Artillery fleeing from Afghan Attack in the Battle of Maiwand.

77. Afghan victors

78. 45th
Rattray’s Sikhs guard Afghan
prisoners during an advance
through the Khyber Pass

79. LECTURE 11
MORE IMPERIAL “GAMES”
AFGHANISTAN: 1881 - 1933

80. THE IRON EMIR
• ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN RULED AFGH. WITH GREAT SKILL
AND BRITISH BLESSING (1880-1901)
• RUSSIANS BELIEVED HIM TO BE THEIR CLIENT. GAVE HIM
SANCTUARY 1868-1878. GRANDSON DOST MOHAMMAD.
• ENTERED KABUL IN 1879 & WELCOMED BY 12,000
AFGHAN ARMY PLEDGING LOYALTY
• BRITAIN NEGOTIATED. NO DESIGNS ON AFGH.WANTED
INDEPENDENT STATE FRIENDLY TO BRITAIN BUT ABLE TO
DEFEND ITSELF
• BRITAIN ROUTED AYUB KHAN HIS RIVAL AT KANDAHAR
• 22 JULY 1880 DURBAR MAKING HIM EMIR
• PM GLADSTONE : ABIDE BY TREATY OF GANDAMAK &
ALIGN WITH BRITAIN = BRITISH MONEY & MILITARY AID

83. Abdul Rahman Khan in
Kabul

84. Junior Officials having food with Abdul
Rahman Khan

85. Spin: Rahman sentencing common
criminals
Reality is Rahman sentencing Hazara
refugees.

86. RUSSIAN MOVES
• 1884 RUSSIAN RECONQUEST OF C. ASIA
• FORTRESS OF GOEK TEPE (TURKMENISTAN) TAKEN
1881.6000 MASSACRED
• 1884 MERV TAKEN (130 MILES FROM AFGH. BORDER)
• BRITISH NOTE TO RUSSIANS: GO NO FURTHER OR
FACE MILITARY ACTION.
• RUSSIANS DISREGARDED AND ADVANCED AND
WIPED OUT STRATEGIC OASIS PANJDEH
• BRITISH MOBILISED 2 ARMY CORPS. RUSSIANS
ADVANCED TO AFGH. BORDER
• 1887 BRITISH/RUSSIAN PROTOCOLS SIGNED

87. THE IRON EMIR CONSOLIDATES
POWER
• UNDERSTANDING AFGH. STATE AND SOCIETY
IS TO UNDERSTAND CONCEPT OF SPACES:
1.GEOGRAPHICAL SPACE DETERMINED BY
GREAT POWERS
2.CENTRAL AUTHORITY OVER COUNTRY. AT
THIS TIME THE DURRANI DYNASTY AND
THEIR CLIENTS
3.FOCUS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY

88. IRON EMIR’S STRATEGY
1. ABOLISHED TRIBAL BOUNDARIES & CREATED PROVINCES
2. REINSTATED LOYA JURGA TO BE CONVENED IN TIME OF CRISIS
3. CREATED A ROYAL COUNCIL. ADVISORY BUT TOOTHLESS
4. DEALT HARSHLY WITH REBELLION/DISSENT EG: DEPORTATION OF PASHTUN
TRIBES
5. GENOCIDE OF HAZARAS (60% IN HAZARAJAT KILLED OR DEPORTED)
6. OPENED COUNTRY TO TECHNICIANS & INVESTORS
7. TOOK TITLE OF IMAM OF THE MILLAT : THE AFGHAN SPIRITUAL LEADER OF THE
AFGHAN UMMA. IE: SOLE INTERPRETER OF THE SHARI’A. CONTROLLED CLERGY
BY CONTROLLING ENDOWMENT REVENUE
8. BROUGHT IN BRIGHT YOUNG MEN FROM PROVINCES AS BUREAUCRATS AND
MILITARY & MARRIED THEM INTO MOHAMMADZAI GROUP OF CLANS.
LORD CURZON:
“ THERE WAS NOT IN ASIA OR IN THE WORLD A MORE FIERCE OR
UNCOMPROMISING DESPOT…”

90. THE IRON AMIR AND BRITAIN
• WESTERN BORDER SECURED BY PROTOCOL
WITH RUSSIA IN 1888
• QUESTION OF EASTERN BORDER WITH BRITISH
INDIA TO BE DETERMINED.
• SIR MORTIMER DURAND NEGOTIATED WITH
EMIR.
• 1893 AFTER SURVEY, DURAND LINE
TREATY.EMIR TO SIGN ENGLISH VERSION BUT
COULD NEITHER READ NOR WRITE ENGLISH

91. DURAND LINE TREATY
1. BADLY SURVEYED & MARKED BORDER 2640 KMS
LONG
2. ARBITRARILY SPLIT TRIBAL AREAS WITHOUT
REFERENCE TO PEOPLE
3. RECLAIMED TRIBAL AREAS FROM AFGHANISTAN &
CREATED NORTH WEST FRONTIER. DESTINED TO
BECOME GRAVEYARD OF BRITISH MILITARY
VENTURES FOR NEXT 40 YEARS EG:
• FAKIR OF SWAT
• CHAKDARA & MALAKAND
• TIRAH FIELD FORCE

96. KING HABIBULLAH KHAN
• ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN DIED ON 1 OCTOBER
1901 & WAS SUCCEEDED BY ELDEST SON
HABIBULLAH – MOTHER WAS A SLAVE IN
EMIR’S HOUSEHOLD.
• HABIBULLAH RULED WITH A DEFT HAND FOR
18 YEARS

97. HABIBULLAH’S MODERNISATIONS
1. “DESPITE BEING IN MANY WAYS AS
AUTOCRATIC AS HIS FATHER, HE PROVED
MORE POLITICALLY ASTUTE , SOCIO-
CULTURALLY OPEN-MINDED, AND
AMENABLE TO MODERN CHANGES”.
FLOWERING OF REFORMIST SENTIMENT IN
TURKEY, PERSIA, EGYPT. FOLLOWER OF
“MUSLIM GANDHI”: JAMAL-AL-DIN AL-
AFGHANI

98. HABIBULLAH’S MODERNISATIONS
1. “DESPITE BEING IN MANY WAYS AS
AUTOCRATIC AS HIS FATHER, HE PROVED
MORE POLITICALLY ASTUTE , SOCIO-
CULTURALLY OPEN-MINDED, AND
AMENABLE TO MODERN CHANGES”.
FLOWERING OF REFORMIST SENTIMENT IN
TURKEY, PERSIA, EGYPT. FOLLOWER OF
“MUSLIM GANDHI”: JAMAL-AL-DIN AL-
AFGHANI

99. • “ ALTHOUGH AGE HAS ITS NORMAL LIMITS,
IT MAY BE EXTENDED BY TWO THINGS –
THE STUDY OF HISTORY AND BY TRAVEL.
READING HISTORY BROADENS ONE’S
PERCEPTION OF THE CREATION OF THE
WORLD, WHILE TRAVEL EXTENDS ONE’S
FIELD OF VISION”
• (MAHMUD TARZI. 1914)

100. HABIBULLAH’S MODERNISATIONS
CONT. 3.
• STRONG SIBLING RIVALRIES IN RULING CLANS &
ROYAL FAMILY PARTICULARLY
• EXACERBATED BY MANY WIVES & CONCUBINES
• HABIBULAH’S CHIEF RIVAL: BROTHER SARDAR
NASRULLAH KHAN
• NASRULLAH MAIN BENEFICIARY FROM
HABIBULLAH’S ASSASSINATION 1919
• HABIBULLAH LEFT BEHIND 50 CHILDREN FROM 4
WIVES & 35 CONCUBINES

101. HABIBULLAH’S MODERNISATIONS
CONT. 4
• H. JOINED “GREAT GAME” AS INDEPENDENT PLAYER OF GREAT SKILL
• MINTO’S THROWBACK TO DISRAELI’S “FORWARD POLICY”:
1. NORTH WEST FRONRIER REMAIN AN INTER-TRIBAL BATTLEGROUND
2. BRITAIN/RUSSIA ST. PETERSBURG AGREEMENT: NTH PERSIA TO RUSSIA,
STH & STH EAST PERSIA TO BRITAIN; RUSSIA DEAL WITH AFGH
THROUGH BRITAIN
3. HABIBULLAH REFUSED& BRITAIN COVERT UNDERMINING OF RULER
4. H. BROUGHT IN TURKO-GERMANY; 100,000RIFLES,300 ARTILLERY, GOLD
BULLION
5. 1918 NEBULOUS BRITISH OFFER TO H. TO DISCUSS INDEPENDENCE. THIS
WAS A PLOY
6. 20 FEBRUARY 1919 H. ASSASSINATED ON HUNTING EXPEDITION BY
CHAMBERLAIN . IT WAS ACCEPTED THAT HE WAS INDUCED BY NEW
AMIR – AMANULLAH KHAN

103. AMIR AMANULLAH KHAN
• 3RD
SON OF H. GOVERNOR KABUL. CONTROL
AFGHAN ARMY & TREASURY
• MARRIED TO SORAYA TARZI,ONLY QUEEN OF
AFGH.
• ANTI-IMPERIALIST AGITATION ON SUB-CONT.
• SPREAD TO NTH WEST FRONTIER
• HE AGITATED TO FREE AFGH FROM HAVING
BRITAIN DECIDE AFGH FOREIGN POLICY

105. THIRD AFGHAN WAR. MAY – AUGUST
1919
• 3 MAY AFGH SENT ACROSS DURAND LINE INTO NWFP: 2
COMPANIES & 2 ARTILLERY PIECES.
• 6 MAY BRITAIN ANNOUNCES START OF 3rd AFGHAN WAR
• 50,000 AFGHAN ARMY + POTENTIAL 80,000 LASHKARI
• BRITAIN 2 CAV BRIGADES + 2 INFANTRY DIVS
• 12 MAY BRITISH PLANES BOMBED & STRAFED
• BY 6 JUNE BRITAIN MOBILISED 340,000 TROOPS
• 6 JUNE ARMISTICE

106. TREATY BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN
AND AFGHANISTAN ESTABLISHING
FRIENDLY AND COMMERCIAL
RELATIONS. 9 AUGUST 1919.

107. TREATY PROVISIONS
1. NO REPARATIONS IF AFGH PRESERVES DURAND
LINE
2. AFGH ARMY WITHDRAW 20 MILES BEHIND DURAND
LINE
3. BRITISH ARMY/AIR FORCE REMAIN ON AFGH SOIL
4. AREA WEST KHYBER PASS TO BE REDRAWN
BOUNDARY
5. AMANULLAH LOSE HIS “SUBSIDY”
6. AMN CEASE TO IMPORT WEAPONS/ AMMUNITION
7. AMN ACCEPT DURAND LINE AS THE BORDER

108. TREATY PROVISIONS CONT.
“BY THE SAID TREATY AND THIS LETTER, THEREFORE,
AFGHANISTAN IS LEFT OFFICIALLY FREE AND
INDEPENDENT IN ITS AFFAIRS, BOTH INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL. FURTHERMORE, ALL PREVIOUS TREATIES
HAVE BEEN CANCELLED BY THIS WAR”
• AMANULLAH A HERO
• SOVIET RUSSIA RECOGNISES AFGH
• US AMBIVALENT (NO RECOGNITION UNTIL 1942)
• GERMANY,ITALY,FRANCE 1921 & 1922
• GERMANY ESPECIALLY UNDER HITLER 1933

112. Avro BE2C

113. GULF BETWEEN AFGHANISTAN &
BRITAIN
• SOVIET PEOPLE’S COMMISSARIAT FOREIGN
AFFAIRS, 1920s:
“… BUT WE RENDER ALL POSSIBLE ASSISTANCE TO
THE REFORMIST ENDEAVOURS OF THE
PROGRESSIVE-MINDED AMIR. IN EVERY
CONCEIVABLE WAY YOU MUST AVOID THE
FATAL MISTAKE OF PLANTING COMMUNISM IN
THAT COUNTRY…NOT FOR A MINUTE ARE WE
INCLINED TO IMPOSE UPON YOUR PEOPLE A
PROGRAMME WHICH IS ALIEN TO IT AT THIS
STAGE OF ITS DEVELOPMENT”

114. AFGHN VS BRITAIN CONT.
• CONSTANT TURMOIL ON NW FRONTIER
• 1919-1939 BRITAIN FOUGHT 9 CAMPAIGNS ON
NWF
• AMANULLAH & MINISTER TARZI BEGAN
MODERNISATION “… IN A TRADITIONAL,
ISLAMIC ETHNO-TRIBAL SOCIETY, WHERE IN THE
PASHTUN AREAS THE CLERGY ESPOUSED IDEAS
IN LINE WITH THE ULTRA-CONSERVATIVE
DEOBANDI SCHOOL OF ISLAM”

115. AMANULLAH/TARZI REFORMS
• FOUR STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES:
1.LEGAL SYSTEM OF CONSTITUTIONAL
MONARCHY
2.ISLAMIC BUT LIBERAL PROCESS OUT OF
FEUDAL HISTORY
3.MODERN PROFESSIONAL ARMY/AIR FORCE
4.INTEGRATE TRIBES/CULTURES INTO NATION
STATE

116. AMANULLAH/TARZI REFORMS CONT.
• REFORMS DID NOT GET PAST KABUL
• OPPOSITION OF MULLAHS – THE “INTELLECTUAL”FORCE
IN THE PROVINCIAL CULTURES. 9 MONTH REBELLION
WHICH BROKE FAITH OF AFGH PEOPLE
• CORRUPTION IN CIVIL GOVT.
• ARMY GEN. MOHAMMAD NADIR WANTS TO RULE
• ARMED REBELLION IN 1928
• EXPULSION OF ROYAL FAMILY
• CESSATION OF WOMEN’S EDUCATION
• RE-INTRODUCTION OF PURDAH
• RE-INTRODUCE SHARI’A
• RETURN ULAMA TO POWER

117. AMANULLAH ABDICATES
14 JANUARY 1929
• BROTHER ENAYATULLAH TAKES CROWN &
LASTS 3 DAYS. REBELS LED BY WARLORD
BACHA-YE-SAQAO SUPPORTED BY BRITISH
• AMANULLAH ESCAPES TO INDIA IN ROLLS
ROYCE CARRYING HIS PET CANARY
• HIS WAS THE FATE OF MANY WOULD-BE 20TH
CENTURY RULERS OF AFGHANISTAN

118. LECTURE 12
THE LAST KINGS
AFGHANISTAN: 1929-1946

119. AFGHANISTAN RULED BY
HABIBULLAH KALKANI (“THE BANDIT
KING”)
• AMIR AMANULLAH KHAN. TAJIK FROM
KALAKAN VILLAGE. A.K.A. BACHE SAQQAO
(SON OF A WATERCARRIER). RENAMED
HIMSELF HABIBULLAH KALKANI (THE BANDIT
KING). SENT TO MADRASSA; BURNED DOWN
MULLAH’S HOUSE & FLED SOUTH. REMAINED
ILLITERATE ALL HIS LIFE
• 1919 JOINED ARMY; DESERTED BACK TO
KALAKAN & SET UP GANG OF BANDITS

120. HABIBULLAH KALKANI CONT.
• 1928. RIOTS FOMENTED BY CLERICS
• KALKANI LEADS A TRIBAL GROUP OF TAJIKS &
GHILZAI IN A LASHKAR. COORDINATED WITH
ATTACKERS FROM SOUTH, TOOK KABUL
• ULTIMATUM TO AMANULLAH’S SUCCESSOR
INAYATULLAH 14 JANUARY 1929: SURRENDER OR
FIGHT FOR KABUL. INAYATULLAH SURRENDERED.
• 17 JANUARY 1929 KALKANI CROWNED: HABIBULLAH
KHADEM- E DIN –E RASULALLAH (THE SERVANT OF
THE RELIGION OF THE MESSENGER OF GOD)

121. HABIBULLAH KALKANI CONT.
• TO PLEASE CLERICS UNRAVELLED AMANULLAH’S
REFORMS:
1.ALL MEN & WOMEN WERE TO DRESS IN
TRADITIONAL CLOTHES & DISPOSE OF WESTERN
CLOTHES.
2.FLOWERS IN THE PRESIDENTIAL PALACE WERE
UPROOTED & VEGETABLES PLANTED IN THEIR
PLACE.
3.ALL WOMENS’ SCHOOLS & WESTERN CENTRES
OF LEARNING WERE SHUT DOWN

122. HABIBULLAH KALKANI CONT.
• BRITAIN BLAMED FOR SUPPORTING KALKANI TO GET RID OF AMANULLAH
• EUROPEANS FLED KABUL
• CIVIL WAR IN AFGHANISTAN
• BRITAIN TURNS TO ROYAL FAMILY MEMBER, MOHAMMAD NADIR SHAH, IN
EXILE ON RIVIERA
• NADIR ULTIMATUM TO KALKANI: SUBMIT TO LOYA JURGA TO DETERMINE
LEADERSHIP OR FACE ANOTHER WAR
• 750,000 LOOTED FROM TREASURY BY KALKANI PAID FOR SOME TRIBAL
SUPPORT. MONEY SOON RAN OUT & SUPPORT DISAPPEARED
• NADIR SHAH WITH 12,000 TRIBAL LASHKARS OF HIS OWN RE-TOOK KABUL ON
15 OCTOBER 1929. BUT NO MONEY TO PAY THEM SO ALLOWED TIME
HONOURED TRADITION OF LOOTING KABUL
• ON 3 NOVEMBER 1929 KALKANI AND 13 COMMANDERS BROUGHT TO KABUL,
STONED TO DEATH AND HUNG UP ON KABUL’S OUTSKIRTS
• NADIRI DYNASTY WAS BORN IN OCTOBER 1929 BUT AFGHANISTAN WAS A
FAILED STATE STRUGGLING FOR SURVIVAL IN THE GREAT DEPRESSION

126. -

127. GREAT DEPRESSION IN AFGHANISTAN
1929
• 70% AT SUBSISTENCE LEVEL. WHEN ADDED TO
DEPRIVATION IN CITIES FROM CIVIL WAR, 80% AFGHANS
BELOW POVERTY LINE - 2 POUNDS STERLING PER YEAR.
• STORED WEALTH (GOLD & SILVER BULLION) FLED THE
COUNTRY – JOINED SUB-CONTINENT’S BULLION EXPORTS
TO BRITAIN TO SHORE UP THEIR ECONOMY (STILL ON
GOLD STANDARD)
• DISREPAIR OF ROADS ADDED TO EXPORT WOES
• DROUGHT & FAMINE IN RURAL AREAS
• MOUNTAIN BARRIERS PREVENTED COORDINATION OF
ECONOMIC AID
• REST OF BRITISH INDIA IN GRIP OF DEPRESSION

129. Afghan King Amanullah (1920-1929),
taken from an ISAF helicopter.

130. NADIR MOHAMMAD SHAH
• LOYA JURGA OF SEPTEMBER 1930: 286 ELDERS CONFIRM
NADIR SHAH AS AMIR: PASHTUN SADOZAI MOTHER OF
BARAKZAI BRANCH OF DURRANIS
• 1931 PROMULGATED A NEW CONSTITUTION:
1. AFGHANISTAN RULED BY LAW OF SHARI’A (HANAFI /
SUNNI)
2. ESTABLISH MILITARY ACADEMY
3. ESTABLISH ARMAMENTS FACTORY
4. CONTINUE AMANULLAH’S FOREIGN POLICIES
5. ESTABLISH MODERN EDUCATION
6. COUNCIL OF STATE LOYAL TO NADIR AND GOVERNMENT

131. NADIR SHAH CONT.
• STEER MIDDLE COURSE BETWEEN CONSERVATIVES &
PROGRESSIVES
• NEEDED TO REBUILD ECONOMY: TURNED TO AFGH
ONLY ENTREPRENEUR, ABDUL MAJID ZABULI
• EARLY INITIATIVE TO SET UP AFGHAN NATIONAL
BANK OPPOSED BY JUSTICE MINISTRY –
MONEYLENDING AGAINST SHARI’A. BUT MONEY
FLOWED INTO AFGH AND REVIVED ECONOMY UNTIL
1936
• BY 1934 30 AFGH JOINT STOCK COMPANIES
• ESTABLISHED CARPET AND KARAKUL INDUSTRIES

132. NADIR SHAH CONT.
• MADE CLEAR AFGH WOULD BE NEUTRAL IN “GREAT GAME” – BUT!!
• 1930: FRIENDSHIP TREATY WITH JAPAN
• 1931:BRITAIN GAVE 180,000 POUNDS STERLING IN AID,10,000 RIFLES &
5 MILLION ROUNDS AMMUNITION
• 1931: SOVIET UNION OPENED TRADE; SIGNED “TREATY OF MUTUAL
NEUTRALITY & NON-AGGRESSION”;ALLOWED COMINTERN AGENTS TO
MOVE AROUND CITIES & RECRUIT AFGHANS
• 1933: CLOSE DIPLOMATIC TIES WITH NAZI GERMANY; ESTABLISHED NAZI
PARTY FOREIGN AFFAIRS BUREAU – WOULD RECRUIT ARABS LATER FOR
SS UNITS; INDUSTRIAL ADVICE; MILITARY HELP FOR AFGH ARMY
(PARADED IN GERMAN ARMY UNIFORMS); GERMAN EXPATRIATES
LARGEST GROUP IN KABUL
• 1934:GRUDGING U.S. RECOGNITION OF AFGHANISTAN
• 1941: AT BRITAIN’S BEHEST GERMANS ASKED TO LEAVE KABUL
• 1942: YENISEI RIVER AGREEMENT TO CARVE UP USSR AND CENTRAL
ASIA AS LIEBENSRAUM & AND JAPANESE EMPIRE.

133. NADIR SHAH CONT.
• SHUT DOWN RED SHIRTS & OTHER YOUNG
AFGHANS WITH PROGRESSIVE IDEAS.
• CLERICS GIVEN POSITIONS OF POWER, IMAMS
PUT ON GOVT. PAYROLL, & ABLE TO DENOUNCE
“UNISLAMIC” IDEAS IF DID NOT CONFORM
WITH THEIR WORLD VIEW.
• NADIR SHAH ASSASSINATED 8 NOV.1933, 19
YEAR OLD STUDENT AVENGING DEATH OF
FATHER. ASSASSSINS WHOLE FAMILY AND
SOCIAL NETWORK EXECUTED.

135. Nadir Shah and Mohammed Shah

137. ZAHIR SHAH: 1933-1973
• ROYAL CLAN HAD 5 BROTHERS FROM
DIFFERENT WIVES. THEY HAD 12 SONS AND
17 DAUGHTERS.
• ZAHIR SHAH WAS 19 YEARS, ONLY
SURVIVING SON OF NADIR
• 1930 MARRIED A COUSIN. DID NOT KNOW
HIS PEOPLE. WAS INTROVERTED & SOFT
• UNCLE HASHIM RUTHLESS & DOMINATING
WAS PRIME MINISTER

140. Pakistan, 1973

141. CHAPTER 13
THE COLD WAR
AFGHANISTAN: 1947-1963

142. SARDAR SHAH MAHMUD KHAN
• SARDAR SHAH MAHMUD KHAN WAS UNCLE
TO INEFFECTUAL ZAHIR & UNCLE TO
MOHAMMAD DAOUD KHAN WHO WOULD
BE PRIME MINISTER FROM 1953.
• DISSENT WITHIN AFGHANISTAN AND NEW
NATION - WEST PAKISTAN (1947) – ON
EASTERN BORDER WHICH WOULD CHANGE
AFGH FOREIGN POLICY FOREVER

143. SARDAR SHAH CONT.
• MAJOR INTERNAL PROBLEMS:
1. GOVT MINISTERS RULED FIEFDOMS BASED ON GRAFT
2. CORRUPTION EVERYWHERE
3. PRISONS FULL OF POLITICALS
4. 40 OF 120 PARLIAMENT WERE EDUCATED & INTERESTED
IN REFORM
5. “ AN UNLETTERED GENERAL POPULATION , SUBJECT TO
THE TRADITIONAL INFLUENCES OF MALIK & MULLAH,
RESPONSIVE ONLY TO THE LOCAL CONCERNS OF THEIR
PARTICULAR QAWM, AND UTTERLY IMPERVIOUS TO THE
SECULAR ISSUES THAT LAY BEYOND THESE DEMANDS”

144. SARDAR SHAH CONT.
• AFGHAN ECONOMY IN POOR SHAPE – 54% OF
GDP AT SUBSISTENCE LEVEL
• CENTRAL GOVT IN KABUL RESENTED IN
REGIONS. RIOTS IN KANDAHAR WHEN ROAD
IMPROVEMENTS BEGUN
• AFGH ONLY ENTREPRENEUR ABDUL MAJID
ZABULI TO U.S. TO BUY ARMAMENTS REJECTED
BY WASHINGTON
• PRIME MINISTER JOB HANDED TO ANOTHER
ROYAL FAMILY MEMBER MOHAMMAD DAOUD
KHAN ON 17 JULY 1953

150. MOHAMMAD DAOUD KHAN (1953 –
1963)
• SEPTEMBER 1953 A FOUR YEAR TRADE AGREEMENT WITH U.S.S.R.
& SOVIET BLOC GAVE AFGH A CORNUCOPIA:
(IN U.S. $)
3.5 M. FOR GRAIN SILOS, FLOUR MILL, BAKERY
1.2 M.FOR OIL PIPELINE & STORAGE AMU-DAR
2.1 M ASPHALT & ROAD MAKING FOR KABUL
5.0 M CEMENT PLANTS
A 100 BED HOSPITAL IN KABUL
15 BUSES FOR KABUL’S NEWLY PAVED STREETS
• 1956 U.S. GOVERNMENT RESPONDED WITH LARGESSE:
WHEAT TO PUT IN SOVIET SILOS
EDUCATION FACILITIES & PROGRAMS AFGH CHILDREN
STUDY GRANTS FOR AFGHANS TO U.S. TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS

151. DAOUD KHAN CONT.
• 1955 U.S.S.R. AGREEMENT:
BUILD KANDAHAR-HERAT HIGHWAY
+ALL WEATHER ROAD KABUL-SOVIET BORDER
+VIA SALANG PASS TUNNEL (INVASION ROUTE)
+CZECHSLOVAKIA: $3M. IN MILITARY AID
+U.S.S.R. $53 M.: TANKSAIRCRAFT,MUNITIONS, & 4 MILITARY AIRFIELDS.
+ 1958-1978 U.S.S.R. SPENT $1240 MILITARY AID
+1958-1978 U.S.S.R. TRAINED 3725 AFGH MILITARY & 6000 TECHNICIANS IN
SOVIET UNION
+EXCHANGE PROGRAMS FOR OFFICIALS, MANAGERS,SPORT & CULTURAL
+U.S.S.R. COMPREHENSIVELY INFILTRATED AFGHAN ELITE:
“AFGHAN STUDENTS IN USSR FOR KGB RECRUITMENT…THESE STUDENTS
WERE SWIFTLY PROMOTED TO IMPORTANT POLICY – MAKING AND
POLICY IMPLEMENTATION POSITIONS”

152. DAOUD KHAN CONT.
• FIVE YEAR DEVELOPMENT PLAN (1956 -1961):
RELIED ON SOFT U.S.S.R. LOANS, WAS INFLATIONARY,
AND KEPT DOWN SAVINGS.
• AS SOVIET SATELLITE DAOUD SHAPED UP TO U.S.
ORIENTED PAKISTAN: “PASHTUNISTAN QUESTION”. 1947
N.W. FRONTIER PEOPLE - JOIN EITHER PAKISTAN OR
INDIA! AFGHANISTAN CLAIMED PASHTUNS IN
NWFRONTIER AS AFGHANS
• 1961 PAKISTAN BLOCKADED AFGHANISTAN. U.S.S.R.
URGED RECONCILIATION & U.S. WANTED DAOUD GONE
• PAKISTAN PROMOTING PASHTUNS . AYUB KHAN
PRESIDENT IN 1958 – 1969. TAREEN TRIBE LEADER IN
ABBOTTABAD.

153. DAOUD KHAN CONT.
• BROUGHT SOCIAL REFORMS:
1.1959 ABOLISHED COMPULSORY VEIL
2.1962 500 WOMEN IN EXECUTIVE GOVT.
3.BIG INCREASES IN SCHOOL ENROLMENTS
4.TRIBAL CHIEFS AND IMAMS PUSHED INTO
BACKGROUND & SOME IMPRISONED
• 1963 MAJOR ECONOMIC CRISIS AFTER
CONFRONTATION WITH PAKISTAN
• KING FORCED DAOUD KHAN TO RESIGN

158. THE GREAT GAME IS RE-STARTED
• COMPARED WITH USSR THE U.S. & WEST
RESPONSE IN THE NEW “GREAT GAME” WAS
MODEST:
+ 1956-1979 U.S. $529 M. U.S. KABUL
UNIVERSITY TO TRAIN ENGINEERS &
TECHNICIANS LINKED TO U.S. UNIVERSITIES
+ FRENCH TRAINED DOCTORS & LAWYERS
+ GERMANS TRAINED LAW ENFORCEMENT

159. “GREAT GAME” CONT.
THE LARGESSE FROM ALL PLAYERS OF THE
“GAME” DID LITTLE FOR THE AVERAGE
AFGHAN:
• YEAR GROSS DOMESTIC PROD.
PER HEAD ($ CONST.U.S.)
1953 26.1
1958 30.3
1963 35.7

160. “GREAT GAME” CONT.
• INDIA HAD AN AVERAGE GDP PER HEAD, 1952-
1958 $61.1
• CLEARLY THE LARGESE FROM THE “GAME”
COMPLETELY BYPASSED AVERAGE AFGHAN TO
BENEFIT A SMALL ELITE
• WHEN ELITE GRADUATED THEY STAYED
OVERSEAS
• THE AVERAGE AFGHAN LIVED AT THE
SUBSISTENCE LEVEL – WITH ONLY HIS TRIBE TO
CALL FOR HELP AND HIS IMAM FOR SOLACE.

161. Building the the Salang Pass Tunnel

162. Afghan Government Spending and Revenue During the
Soviet Intervention

171. BEGINNINGS OF DEMOCRATIC
GOVERNMENT
• AIM OF U.S. DIPLOMACY IN 1960s WAS “NATION BUILDING” TO
WITHSTAND COMMUNISM:
“ IN MOST PARTS OF THE WORLD THE STATE HAS PRECEDED THE NATION;
IT WAS AND OFTEN REMAINS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT IN FORMING IT.
POLITICAL PARTIES, WHERE THEY EXIST, REFLECT FIXED, USUALLY
COMMUNAL, IDENTITIES; MINORITIES AND MAJORITIES TEND TO BE
PERMANENT. IN SUCH SOCIETIES, THE POLITICAL PROCESS IS ABOUT
DOMINATION, NOT ALTERATION IN OFFICE, WHICH TAKES PLACE, IF AT
ALL, BY COUPS RATHER THAN CONSTITUTIONAL PROCEDURES. THE
CONCEPT OF A LOYAL OPPOSITION – THE ESSENCE OF MODERN
DEMOCRACY – RARELY PREVAILS. MUCH MORE FREQUENTLY,
OPPOSITION IS VIEWED AS A THREAT TO NATIONAL COHESION,
EQUATED TO TREASON, AND RUTHLESSLY SUPPRESSED”
(HENRY KISSINGER)
• 1963 SAW THE FIRST FLOWERING OF DEMOCRACY IN AFGHANISTAN

172. CHAPTER 14
THE FIRST FLOWERING OF
DEMOCRACY
1963 - 1978

173. “ THE FATHER OF MODERN SOCIOLOGY, MAX
WEBER, POINTED OUT THAT GOVERNMENTS
DRAW THEIR LEGITIMACY FROM THREE BASIC
SOURCES: TRADITIONAL, RELIGIOUS AND LEGAL.
THE FIRST TWO ARE SELF-EXPLANATORY; BY
‘LEGAL’ WEBER MEANT WESTERN-STYLE
DEMOCRACIES BASED ON POPULAR
REPRESENTATION AND THE RULE OF LAW. AND
IN THIS SENSE, POLITICAL FAILURE IN
AFGHANISTAN WAS BAKED INTO THE CAKE IN
THE 2001 BONN PROCESS”

174. THE CONSTITUTION OF
AFGHANISTAN 1964
• WRITTEN WITH 11 TITLES SUB-DIVIDED INTO 128 ARTICLES:
1. THE STATE
2. THE KING
3. THE BASIC RIGHTS & DUTIES OF THE PEOPLE
4. THE SHURA (PARLIAMENT)
5. THE LOYA JIRGA (GREAT COUNCIL)
6. THE GOVERNMENT
7. THE JUDICIARY
8. THE ADMINISTRATION
9. STATE OF EMERGENCY
10.AMENDMENT
11.TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

180. ARTICLE 69
• “EXCEPTING THE CONDITIONS FOR WHICH
SPECIFIC PROVISIONS HAVE BEEN MADE IN THIS
CONSTITUTION, A LAW IS A RESOLUTION
PASSED ON BOTH HOUSES AND SIGNED BY THE
KING. IN THE AREA WHERE NO SUCH LAW
EXISTS, THE PROVISIONS OF THE HANAFI
JURISPRUDENCE OF THE SHARIAAT OF ISLAM
SHALL BE CONSIDERED AS LAW”
( THE LEGAL CONUNDRUM IN NEW ISLAMIC
DEMOCRACIES)

182. A few centuries old mosque. Hanafi rite, one of
four schools of jurisprudence in Sunni Islam

184. DIFFICULTIES OF CONSTITUTION
1. 90% OF VOTERS ILLITERATE & ONLY 16 % WENT TO
POLLS. AT VILAGE LEVEL CONSTITUTION SEEN AS
CREATION OF KABUL INTELECTUALS. THEY ONLY
UNDERSTOOD THE VILLAGE ELDER.
2. PRIME MINISTER & CABINET NOT SHURA MEMBERS
WHO COULD BLOCK LEGISLATION.
3. STREET DEMONSTRATION BY A REFORM GROUP IN
OCTOBER 1965 LED TO SHOOTING OF 3
DEMONSTRATORS.
REFORMER DR. MOHAMMAD HASHIM MAIWANDAL
ELECTED AS PRIME MINISTER. HEAD OF PROGRESSIVE
DEMOCRATIC PARTY OF AFGHANISTAN: ISLAM AS THE
BACKBONE, DEMOCRACY, NATIONALISM & SOCIALISM.

185. MOHAMMAD HASHIM MAIWANDAL
• HIS PARTY DREW LEFT WING ELEMENTS TO IT
• COURTED MOSCOW – MARXIST MINISTER OF JUSTICE
• KING ZAHIR SHAH SAW MAIWANDAL AS THREAT TO
HIS AUTHORITY. SENT SECRET POLICE TO INTIMIDATE
PARTY
• MAIWANDAL RESIGNED OCTOBER 1967 DUE TO ILL
HEALTH
• IN OCTOBER 1973 HE WAS KICKED TO DEATH IN
CUSTODY FOR NOT SIGNING A CONFESSION
• MODERATE P.M. ABDULLAH YAQTA SUCCESSOR –
LASTED 1 MONTH IN OFFICE

187. MOHAMMAD NUR AHMAD ETEMADI
NOV. 1967 – JUNE 1971
• DESTINED TO BE EXECUTED BY AFGHAN
COMMUNISTS AFTER TAKEOVER IN 1979
• MOHAMMAD DAOUD KHAN DISILLUSIONED WITH
DEMOCRACY. ETEMADI CULTIVATED HIM (MIN FOR
TRIBAL AFFAIRS)
• KHAN’S FACTION USED CABINET INFORMATION TO
SABOTAGE INITIATIVES
• KING’S FACTION ALSO STYMIED REFORMS. MOST
MINISTERS LOOKED FOR ROYAL INSTRUCTIONS
• ETEMADI RESIGNED JUNE 1971 REPLACED BY ABDUL
ZAHIR TO DEC. 1972. DAOUD KHAN COUP ENDED
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVT.

188. Abdul Zahir

190. EVALUATION OF DEMOCRACY 1964 -
1972
1962 1972
POPULATION(M) 23.0 27.0
FEMALE LIFE EXPECT 31.5 YRS 35.9 YRS
MALE LIFE EXPECT 33.7 YRS 36.2 YRS
DOM. GOVT EXP.(M$) 749 1947
FOR.AID PORTION(M$) 404 1343
• WITH A CONSTITUTION AND TRAPPINGS OF DEMOCRACY AFGHAN
HUGE SOVIET & US SPENDING. CORRUPTION LIMITED TO OFFICIALS
DEALING WITH SOV. & US. FEW AFGH ENGINEERS & TECHNICIANS ( SEE
CATO INSTITUTE REPORT)
• ESTABLISHED WASTA – TRIBAL CONECTIONS FOR PERSONAL GAIN
• “HOWEVER, JUST BEFORE THE COMMUNIST COUPD’ETAT OF 1978, THE
ECONOMY AND SOCIAL INDICATORS RELATIVE TO AFGHANISTAN WERE
THE WORST IN THE WORLD” (“AFGHANISTAN:A MODERN HISTORY”)

191. Salang Pass

192. US largest project

193. Cash goes to Talaban for protection

194. Canadian Aid project failed to bring
irrigation

195. One of 156 Russian aid project buildings.

197. RIVAL COUP PLOTTERS
• THE MISERABLE FAILURE OF THE DEMOCRATIC PROCESS,
& COLD WAR RIVALRY POLARISED INTO TWO GROUPS:
1. THE ISLAMISTS WHO CONTROLLED STUDENT POLITICS IN
THE COUNTRY. STRONG SUPPORT IN PARLIAMENT &
MILITARY. IN 1968 FORMED JAMIAT-I-ISLAMI (SOCIETY OF
ISLAM)
2. MARXIST – LEANING GROUPS: MOHAMMAD DAOUD
KHAN ACCEPTED BY MOSCOW AS A POLITICAL LEADER&
BACKED BY SOVIET TRAINED OFFICER CORPS; DR
MAIWANDAL, HOPING FOR A COMEEBACK; PARCHAMI
FACTION OF ORTHODOX MARXIST PDPA WANTED
COMMUNIST TAKEOVER

200. the exiled Peshawar-based leader of
Jamiat-i-Islami,

204. PRESIDENT DAOUD KHAN OF
REPUBLIC OF AFGHANISTAN. 1973-
1978• 17 JULY 1973 DAOUD LAUNCHED COUP WHILE KING ZAHIR SHAH OVERSEAS FOR
MEDICAL TREATMENT, ENDING MONARCHY.
• 50 MAN CENTRAL COMMITTEE TO HELP PRESIDENT RULE. 6 AVOWED MARXISTS
AND OTHER PDPA MEMBERS STACKED MINISTIRES, BUREAUCRACY AND OFFICER
CORPS
• DAOUD TO BREZHNEV IN 1974 RECEIVED A COOL RECEPTION, BUT GOT $428
MILLION IN AID
• DAOUD TURNED AGAINST PDPASACKING MANY FROM GOVT POSITIONS
• BUT STILL A LARGE NUMBER OF SOVIET TRAINED GRADUATES, TECHNICIANS,
CONSTRUCTION WORKERS, & 174 PROJECTS DEPENDENT ON SOVIET GOODWILL
• DAOUD LAUNCHED REIGN OF TERROR ON JAMIAT-I-ISLAMIWHO WERE ACTIVE
DISSIDENTS. THEY WERE RECRUITED BY ISI, PAKISTAN, FOR FUTURE ANTI-
COMMUNIST OPERATIONS
• ON 27 APRIL 1978 SOVIET TRAINED MILITARY & PDPA LAUNCHED THE “SAUR
REVOLUTION” WHICH BROUGHT THE SOVIETISATION OF AFGHANISTAN
• DAOUD AND MOST OF HIS FAMILY WERE KILLED