This document summarizes research on dwarfing fruit plants through the use of dwarfing rootstocks and other techniques. It discusses the principles and physiology of dwarfism, and various methods to achieve dwarfism including dwarfing rootstocks, bioregulators, incompatible scions, viral infection, pruning and training, and genetic engineering. It also presents findings from research studies on the effects of different rootstocks on tree growth and yield of various fruit crops such as apple, mango, and citrus. The document provides detailed information on dwarfing mechanisms and strategies to produce compact dwarf trees with desirable horticultural characteristics.
“Advances in breeding of mango ”
Advances breeding of Mango, breeding of mango, mutation breeding og mango ,breeding of mango by gangaram rana ppt , breeding of mango in igkv
“Advances in breeding of mango ”
Advances breeding of Mango, breeding of mango, mutation breeding og mango ,breeding of mango by gangaram rana ppt , breeding of mango in igkv
“Advances in breeding of grapes ”
Advances breeding of Grape, breeding of grape, mutation breeding of grape, biotechnology breeding of grape ppt, breeding of grape by gangaram rana, Advances breeding of Grape in igkv ,
Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality fruits. The canopy management, particularly its components like tree training and pruning, affects the quantity of sunlight intercepted by trees, as tree shape determines the presentation of leaf area to incoming radiation.
Since litchi originated in China and it has been under cultivation there for more than 2200 years, more than 200 litchi varieties exist in China.
The variation in climatic factors, sometimes leads to greater fluctuation in yield of a litchi orchard.
Therefore, a right variety should be selected for plantation at a particular area though, all the litchi varieties have a wide range of adaptability; yield, fruit quality and acceptability may be region or location specific.
Advancing knowledge in litchi tree architecture, growth physiology, possibility of using
growth retardants has enabled farmers to adopt closer planting and maintaining
reachable canopy. This system is popularly known as the High Density Planting (HDP).
It enables profitable cropping, high regular yields and improved farm management practices,
leading to higher productivity. Today new orchards of litchis are being attempted to plant in
this system with a view to produce higher fruit yield and increased profitably. Use of growth
retardants which restricts tree growth and encourages early flower induction, have also been
found helpful for these high-density planting systems.
High density planting technique is a modern method of litchi cultivation involving
planting of litchi trees densely, allowing small or dwarf trees with modified canopy for better
light interception and distribution and ease of mechanised field operations. Control of pests
and diseases, weeds and pruning of tree canopy can be carried out by machine. Irrigation and
fertigation are automatically controlled. Such system produces precocious cropping, high and
regular yields of good quality fruits and low labour requirement to meet ever rising production
costs. Merit of HDP over Normal Planting
Increasing pressure on land owing to diversion of orchard lands to various other obvious
reasons as well as rising energy and land-costs, together with mounting demand for fruits have
made it imperative to achieve higher productivity of litchi from limited space. One should be
very conscious in case of high density litchi because closer spacing may bring negative impact
in growers’ fields if the complete package of high density has not been properly understood
and followed.
The normal planting distance in litchi has been 9-10 m. Such orchard takes 10-15 years
to provide economic returns depending upon the cultivar, and cultural practices. Due to poor
early returns and clash between the cultural requirements of the intercrop with main crop, litchi
orcharding so far is done by large farmers who can afford tall treesComponents of High Density Planting
There are four major components of high density planting system. These are:
1. Planting Density: Even though a small canopy with a high number of well-illuminated
leaves is efficient in photosynthesis but it is very poor in light interception, which leads
to low potential yield per hectare. Light interception could be improved by increasing
tree density. An optimum tree density is the level of density which is required to facilitate
optimum light distribution and interception leading to high photosynthesis. As a result,
yield per hectare is maximized. An optimum light interception is a factor of plant form,
planting density, tree arrangement and leaf response to light for photosynthesis. Optimum
light interception can be defined as a level of light intercepted by an orchard system
above or below which, the economic yield will be reduced.
“Advances in breeding of aonla ”
“Advances in breeding of aonla , breeding method of aonla ppt, new breeding method of aonla by gangaram rana, “Advances in breeding of aonla igkv , mutation breeding of aonla
A biotic factor effecting on eucalyptus AftabSultan2
A-biotic stress on Eucalyptus plants and management
now a days we do not focus on the plant regarding non living fectors
non living fectors pre dispose a plant to different diseases
and plant will be died
“Advances in breeding of grapes ”
Advances breeding of Grape, breeding of grape, mutation breeding of grape, biotechnology breeding of grape ppt, breeding of grape by gangaram rana, Advances breeding of Grape in igkv ,
Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality fruits. The canopy management, particularly its components like tree training and pruning, affects the quantity of sunlight intercepted by trees, as tree shape determines the presentation of leaf area to incoming radiation.
Since litchi originated in China and it has been under cultivation there for more than 2200 years, more than 200 litchi varieties exist in China.
The variation in climatic factors, sometimes leads to greater fluctuation in yield of a litchi orchard.
Therefore, a right variety should be selected for plantation at a particular area though, all the litchi varieties have a wide range of adaptability; yield, fruit quality and acceptability may be region or location specific.
Advancing knowledge in litchi tree architecture, growth physiology, possibility of using
growth retardants has enabled farmers to adopt closer planting and maintaining
reachable canopy. This system is popularly known as the High Density Planting (HDP).
It enables profitable cropping, high regular yields and improved farm management practices,
leading to higher productivity. Today new orchards of litchis are being attempted to plant in
this system with a view to produce higher fruit yield and increased profitably. Use of growth
retardants which restricts tree growth and encourages early flower induction, have also been
found helpful for these high-density planting systems.
High density planting technique is a modern method of litchi cultivation involving
planting of litchi trees densely, allowing small or dwarf trees with modified canopy for better
light interception and distribution and ease of mechanised field operations. Control of pests
and diseases, weeds and pruning of tree canopy can be carried out by machine. Irrigation and
fertigation are automatically controlled. Such system produces precocious cropping, high and
regular yields of good quality fruits and low labour requirement to meet ever rising production
costs. Merit of HDP over Normal Planting
Increasing pressure on land owing to diversion of orchard lands to various other obvious
reasons as well as rising energy and land-costs, together with mounting demand for fruits have
made it imperative to achieve higher productivity of litchi from limited space. One should be
very conscious in case of high density litchi because closer spacing may bring negative impact
in growers’ fields if the complete package of high density has not been properly understood
and followed.
The normal planting distance in litchi has been 9-10 m. Such orchard takes 10-15 years
to provide economic returns depending upon the cultivar, and cultural practices. Due to poor
early returns and clash between the cultural requirements of the intercrop with main crop, litchi
orcharding so far is done by large farmers who can afford tall treesComponents of High Density Planting
There are four major components of high density planting system. These are:
1. Planting Density: Even though a small canopy with a high number of well-illuminated
leaves is efficient in photosynthesis but it is very poor in light interception, which leads
to low potential yield per hectare. Light interception could be improved by increasing
tree density. An optimum tree density is the level of density which is required to facilitate
optimum light distribution and interception leading to high photosynthesis. As a result,
yield per hectare is maximized. An optimum light interception is a factor of plant form,
planting density, tree arrangement and leaf response to light for photosynthesis. Optimum
light interception can be defined as a level of light intercepted by an orchard system
above or below which, the economic yield will be reduced.
“Advances in breeding of aonla ”
“Advances in breeding of aonla , breeding method of aonla ppt, new breeding method of aonla by gangaram rana, “Advances in breeding of aonla igkv , mutation breeding of aonla
A biotic factor effecting on eucalyptus AftabSultan2
A-biotic stress on Eucalyptus plants and management
now a days we do not focus on the plant regarding non living fectors
non living fectors pre dispose a plant to different diseases
and plant will be died
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION FOR INCREASING FRUIT TREE PRODUCTIVITYParshant Bakshi
Plant propagation is the art & science of multiplying plants by sexual or asexual means and preserving their unique qualities Or the method of production of more than one plant from the mother plant or the tissue over a specific time period.
Methods
a. Sexual methods : Propagation by seeds
b. Asexual methods /Vegetative
Cuttings
Layering
Grafting
Budding
Tissue culture; micropropagation
Due to varying climate change abiotic stresses play a major role in imparting crop loss. The understanding the mechanisms of complex abiotic stresses is a main constrain in the crop breeding. Wind is such a complex stress causing variable number of stresses including both mechanical and air flow. It can also cause direct and indirect effects causing severe crop losses.
Plant tissue culture is used widely in the plant since , forestry and in horticulture .
Plant tissue culture relies on the fact that many plant cells have the ability to regenerate a whole plant .
Tissue culture of Strawberry provides an alternative and novel possibility of enhancing the production of planting materials, including virus-free plants for large-scale planting.
Tissue culture of strawberry could also make a significant contribution in improving the qualitative and quantitative characters of the plant.
ABSTRACT- The shape of yam tubers is highly variable within and between varieties. Both genetic and environmental
factors, such as soil structure play significant role in determining tuber shape. This variable nature of yam tubers makes
the development of machines for tuber harvesting difficult. For effective mechanisation of yam harvesting, selection of
cultivars with good tuber shape need to be made. As a preliminary investigation, the variability of the diameter to length
ratios in three variants of the white yam was studied. The three varieties of the Dioscorea rotundata (Amola, Ekpe and
Obiaoturugo), exhibited varying tuber shapes both within and between varieties. The tuber shape repeatability coefficients
for the varieties were found to be 96% for “Amola”, 50% for “Ekpe” and 13.4% for “Obiaoturugo”. Tuber shape in the
white yam is genetic and thus can be maintained from year to year and across locations. It is therefore possible to transfer
the genes for shape between varieties. The development of yam varieties with appropriate tuber shapes which can be
harvested mechanically is possible.
Key-words- White Yam, Dioscorea rotundata, Tuber shape, Variability and Stability
Similar to Advances in dwarfism of fruit plants (20)
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
2. Master Seminar
Advances in dwarfism of fruit
plants
Warang Omkar Sunil
M.Sc (Hort.) Fruit Science
Course Instructor
Dr. B. R. Salvi
Chairman & Research guide
Dr. P. M. Haldankar
Department of Horticulture,
College of Agriculture, Dapoli
4. Introduction
• Dwarfing is an alteration in the normal growth
pattern.
• A dwarf plant is that which is smaller than normal
size at full maturity and possess other
characteristics like precocity, canopy architecture
and time of flowering and altered fruit size.
5. Principle
•To make the best use of vertical and
horizontal space per unit time and to harness
maximum possible returns per unit of inputs
and natural resources.
6. Physiology of dwarfism
• Mechanism - involves anatomical, physiological and biochemical
changes.
• Auxins are produced by shoot tips and translocated basipetaly
downwards to the roots through phloem.
• Dwarfing rootstock controls tree Size-by controlling the auxin passing
through the bark of the rootstock.
• large number of vessels and twice as many xylem fibers are produced in
vigorous rootstocks than dwarfing ones (Beakbane et al., 1974).
• A greater number of non-functioning phloem has been found in
rootstock with thick bark (M9) than those with thin bark i.e MM106 or
M7 ( Chu and Simons, 1984).
7. Methods to achieve dwarfism
• Dwarfness can be achieved by various ways such as:-
1. Use of dwarfing root stock/interstock or use of dwarfing scion
2. Use of bioregulators
3. Use of incompatible root stock
4. Induction of viral infection
5. Pruning and training
6. Nutrients
7. Phenols
8. In vitro techniques
9. Genetic engineering
10. Ringing or girdling
11. Others
8. Use of dwarfing root stock/interstock
• Use of vigour controlling root stocks is one method used to promote early
fruit bearing, reduce vigour and increased yield.
• Various studies suggested a correlation between early flowering and
smaller tree size (Costes and Garcia, 2007).
• Apple dwarfing rootstocks induce two most important effects i.e precocity
and reduction in tree size (Lauri et al., 2006).
9. Correlations for predicting dwarfing capacity of
rootstocks
• Percentage of live tissues of root cross section.
• Bark : wood ratio
• Percentage of ray tissues in root cross section
• High stomatal density on leaves
• Bark is the key factor as it reduces translocation of auxins, sugars and
other compounds.
• Genes exert their effect on dwarfness.
10. Physiological processes of root stock inducing
dwarfness
1. Anatomy of Dwarfing rootstock:-
• Smaller xylem vessels and less xylem fibers
• Have a higher percentage of living tissues than lignified cells
• Higher percentage of bark and wood ray tissues
2. Nutrition:-
More carbohydrates are directed to fruiting structure and less to
tree frame by dwarfing rootstock.
11. 3. Hydraulic conductivity:-
• Reduced root hydraulic conductance helps to induce dwarfism
(Nardini et al; 2006).
4. Translocation of water and minerals:-
• Less effective in uptake of nutrients and water
• Partial blockage at graft union affects water and nutrients
translocation e.g. Reduction in translocation of P and Ca (Bukovac et
al., 1958).
12. 5. Phytohormones:-
• Less auxin flow take place through bark of dwarf rootstock
• Lower concentration of IAA and ABA are observed in dwarfing
rootstock while vigorous rootstock showed higher cytokinin
concentration in root pressure exudate and shoot xylem sap.
• Lack of ability to produce soluble sugars result in reduced
growth e.g starch hydrolysis.
• NAA suppress the conversion while IAA promotes it that is why
NAA cause dwarfing.
13. 6. Bark of the rootstock:-
• Thicker the bark lesser the height as auxins get destroyed by several
enzymes.
• e.g.- dwarfed avocado trees had 22.7 % of bark compared to 12.9 % in
tall ones.
• Greater thickness in the bark of dwarf trees is associated with a higher
degradation of auxins by IIA oxidase, peroxidase and phenolic
compounds present in the bark (Lockhard and Schneider, 1981).
14. 7. Reduced root system of dwarfing rootstocks:-
• dwarf rootstocks have small and limited root systems.
• More dwarfing a rootstock the smaller is its root system.
• e.g.- M9 has limited root system compared to seedling rootstock
(Fernandez et al., 1995).
8. Depletion of solutes in xylem sap of scions by dwarfing rootstock:-
• It has been observed that dwarfing root stocks and inter stocks lead to
depletion of xylem sap with respect to N, P, K, Ca and Mg (Jones
1976).
15. 9. Dwarfing root stocks induce restricted canopy development of scion
variety:-
• Induce wider crotch angles to lateral branches and spreading habit in
scions. Horizontal branches show both decreased vegetative growth
and enhanced flowering and fruiting (Crabbe, 1984).
• Reduce the growth of both vertical and horizontal branches and
effects being greater on vertical branches (Webster, 1995).
16. 10. Precocious and heavy fruiting at the expense of vegetative
growth:-
• Trees on dwarfing root stocks show a higher ratio of fruit yield to
vegetative growth than those on vigorous root stocks.
11. Reduced carbohydrates transport from leaves to root:-
• Dwarfing rootstock have been found to block the transport of
carbohydrates from leaves to roots.
17. Some important dwarfing rootstocks of
fruit crops
1. Apple :- M27, M9, EMLA 26.
2. Pear:- Quince C
3. Peach:- Siberian C, St. Julien X, P. besseyi and Rubira.
4. Plum:- St. Julien A, St. Julien K, Pixy.
5. Cherry:- Giesela series, Stockton Morello, Oppenheim, Charger.
6. Mango:- Olour, Vellaikolumban
7. Citrus:- Trifoliate Orange, Flying Dragon
8. Guava:- Pusa Srijan, P. friedrichesthalianum
9. Ber:- Jhar ber
18. Use of bioregulators
• A wide varieties of growth regulators re being used to regulate the
growth rate of the fruit trees.
• Paclobutrazol:-It inhibit the GA synthesis and thereby retards growth,
shorten elongation and reduced internodal length.
• Dwarfing mechanism due to PBZ is based upon:-
i. Shorter internodes due to less GA in tissues
ii. Reduces ABA levels in shoot tips (Kurian et al; 1993).
iii. Reduces the levels of cytokinins (Kurian et al; 1993).
iv. Enhances the total phenolic content of terminal buds (Kurian et al;
1993).
20. Bioregulator Concentration Crop Effect Recommended
by -
PBZ 15 mg / liter Plum,
pear,
apricot
Reduced
shoot
length
Grochowska
and Hodun
(1997)
TIBA 3.5 mg / liter Plum,
sour
cherry
Reduced
shoot
length
Grochowska
and Hodun
(1997)
PBZ 2.5 – 5 g/l Mango Reduced
50% of tree
volume
Iyer and Kurian
(1993)
PBZ 500-1000 ppm Satsuma
mandarin
Inhibits
vegetative
growth
Okuda et al.
(1996)
21. Use of incompatible rootstock
• Dawrfness can be imparted by the use of incompatible scion and
rootstock.
Crop name Root stock Scientist
Ber Jhar Verma et al., 2000
Pear Quince Francesscatto et
al.,2007
22. Induction of viral infection
• Inducing viral infection
• It is not commercially adopted.
• Eg. Citrus, Apple.
Symptoms of Citrus Exocortis viriods on Citrus plants
23. Pruning and training
• Slow growing trees responds more to pruning.
• A compact and bushy tree achieved by removal of apical portion.
• Limitation:- grape, apple and some other temperate crops.
• Of the various training systems being followed in apple e.g. spindle bush and single
vertical axis raised on M9, M7 and M4 root stocks has been found promising for
HDP w.r.t size control and higher yield per unit land area (Gyuro, 1978).
Spindle Bush system Vertical axis system
25. Phenols
• Phenols reduce vegetative growth by inhibiting mitosis,
cell division, cell elongation and increase IAA oxidation.
• Some phenols also inhibit translocation of sugar and
auxin or act by regulating polar auxin transport.
• Eg. Coumarin, phloridzin
26. In vitro techniques
• Seeds are subjected to different level of BA (Benzyl
adenine) and TDZ (Thidiazuron).
• The plants produced with TDZ and BA were slower in
growth and dwarf in size than non-treated plants
(Khattak et al., 2004).
27. Genetic engineering
• DNA coding of sorbitol- 6 –phosphate dehydrogense (S6PDH) which is
the key enzyme in sorbitol biosynthesis introduced into Japanese
persimmon induced dwarfism. The physiological mechanism behind this
dwarfing effect has been attributed to accumulation of sorbitol which
might have caused an osmotic imbalance between cytosol and vacuole
(Deguchi et al., 2004).
• Various genes have been identified in fruit crops that can induce
dwarfism eg. Ipt (isopentenyl transferase), OSHI, rolA etc.
• In apple reduction in stem length and node number was achieved
through over expression of gaai gene isolated from Arabidopsis (Zhu et
al., 2008).
28. Ringing or Girdling
• With the removal of bark the flow of carbohydrates down to the roots
restricted and, therefore carbohydrates accumulate above the girdle
producing differential effect on root development. This in turn, leads to
differential effect on shoot growth.
• Cutting and Lyne (1993), supported the hypothesis that less cytokinins
and gibberellins above the girdle are likely to reduce meristematic
activity and cell elongation, leading to reduction in vegetative growth.
29. Others
• Proteins, tengu- su inducer (TENGU) excreted by bacterial phytoplasm
inhibits auxin related pathways there by affecting plant development
(Hoshia et al., 2009).
• Down regulation of GA synthesizing genes.
• Dwarfing through mutations:-
Gamma irradiation applied twice induced dwarfism in Irwin cv. of
mango seedlings and the survival percentage was 65% (Yitzu and
Loonshung, 2000).
31. Table no. 1. Tree growth of four apple cultivars on several rootstocks at
12 year old
Cultivar Rootstock Tree girth Tree Crown
Height Spread
Jonathan M7 40. 5 4.4 4. 8
M9 23.2 2. 6 2. 8
M26 34. 4 3. 6 3. 8
MM106 46. 7 4. 6 5. 6
M. prunifolia 53. 0 4. 9 6. 5
Starking
Delicious
M7 40. 5 4. 4 5. 0
M9 25. 2 3.5 3. 6
M26 44.5 4. 9 5. 4
MM106 48. 3 5. 4 6. 5
M. prunifolia 58. 8 4. 7 7. 0
Golden
Delicious
M7 47.3 5.0 5. 8
M9 29. 3 3. 4 3. 4
M26 43. 0 4. 6 4. 8
MM106 54. 3 4. 9 6. l
M. prunifolia 59. 3 4. 8 6. 6
Fuji M9 26.7 2. 8 3. 2
M26 53. 0 4.7 6.0
MM106 59.0 4. 6 6.0
M. prunifolia 64. 8 5. 0 7.2
Shichiro Tsuchiya (1979) Morioka, JapanDwarfing Rootstocks of Apple
32. treatments Pooled
mean of
height (m)
Plant volume (m3) Pooled over
the years
mean(m3)
% reduction in
volume
2003 2004 2005 2006
Ratna/
vellaikolumban
3.6 289.0 293.3 270.6 320.7 285.9 24.9
Ratna/
Mixed rootstock
3.7 360.8 334.5 329.5 498.0 380.8
Alphonso/
Vellaikolumban
3.8 306.1 303.1 270.7 414.2 323.5 39.1
Alphonso/
Mixed rootstock
4.7 582.6 465.4 483.3 593.9 531.3
Kesar/
Vellaikolumban
4.6 512.4 397.2 406.1 599.5 478.8 26.4
Kesar/
Mixed rootstock
4.6 679.5 569.0 576.0 781.4 651.5
SE± 0.17 57.3 48.2 50.0 76.5 27.9
C.D (p=0.05) 0.5 169.0 142.2 147.4 225.7 78.4
Table:2-comparative performance of mango varieties grafted on
vellaikolumban and mixed rootstock (11 year old trees)
Gawankar et al. (2010), Dapoli
33. Table no. 3- Effect of rootstocks on growth and vigour of new
apple varieties
Variety Plant girth (cm) Plant height (cm) Plant spread (cm)
M-9 MM-106 M-9 MM-106 M-9 MM-106
Lal Ambri 17.99 17.44 194.14 216.30 178.97 172.18
Sunheri 16.99 17.08 195.91 212.92 171.62 168.05
Shireen 14.90 15.91 196.32 208.09 172.15 166.07
Fidrous 15.01 13.75 193.04 204.68 168.90 163.34
Akbar 15.90 14.82 192.24 209.33 170.77 168.81
CD @ 5% Rootstock 0.48 0.51 0.29
Variety 0.76 0.81 0.47
Rootstock x Variety 1.08 1.14 0.66
Rift et al., 2008, Kashmir
34. Rootstock Origin CA (m2) Growth rate(cm2
TCA/month)
Vellaikulumban Sri Lanka 4.16 4.91
Chandrakaran Cochin, India 4.54 4.76
Saigon unknown 4.62 5.42
Pico Philippines 5.52 5.34
Elephant tusk Thailand 6.38 6.70
Phoenix Australia 6.67 7.51
Neil Australia 6.83 5.63
kurukan India/Sri Lanka 7.52 7.42
caraboa Philippines 6.54 6.45
Orange Indonesia 7.12 10.33
LSD 0.05 0.19 0.51
Table no. 4: Field evaluation of different rootstocks for growth of
‘Kensington Pride’ mango (4 year old trees)
Canopy Area (CA),
trunk cross sectional area (TCA)
Smith et al., 2008, Australia
35. Table no. 5. Effect of different rootstocks on growth parameters of the
Ber (cv. Seb) plants during 1993-94 (5 year old plants)
Rootstocks Plant height
(m)
Spread of plant (m) Trunk diameter (cm)
E W N S Below union Above union
Z.nummularia 1.85 2.0 2.40 3.7 5.2
Z. spinachristi 2.05 2.6 2.75 6.1 6.5
Z. mauritiana 2.20 2.9 3.05 7.0 7.3
Z. rotundifolia 2.34 3.4 3.50 7.4 7.8
CD at 5% 0.46 0.31 0.23 2.01 1.32
Prasad & Bankar (2006), Jodhpur, Rajasthan
36. Table no. 6:- Effects of interstock type, interstock length and grafting point height on
vegetative growth of apple ‘‘Annurca Rossa del Sud’’ cultivar.
Treatments Circumference of
rootstock (cm)
Circumference of
scion (cm)
Plant height (cm) Canopy Volume
(m³)
Graft combinations
CV/M27/SR 21.9 19.9 280.2 8.9
CV/M9/SR 29.4 26.2 356.1 21.7
CV/SR 55.4 45.9 483.5 45.8
Interstock length
10 cm 28.9 25.1 342.7 19.3
20 cm 22.4 21.0 293.6 11.2
Grafting point height
10 cm 33.5 28.2 351.5 21.1
20 cm 29.7 21.7 351.0 21.7
Di Vaio et al. (2008), South Italy
37. Table no. 7- Rootstock/ interstock effects on number of different axillary
annual shoot types grown by Royal Gala apple trees in their second year
of development (8 year 0ld trees)
Treatment Vegetative extension
shoots
Vegetative spurs
MM.106 21.7±1.0 a 18.2± a
MM. 106/MM.106 18.3±1.5 ab 16.4± ab
MM. 106/M.9 13.5± 1.9 b 16.4±ab
M. 9/MM.106 6.2± 1.3 c 10.6± b
M. 9 5.8± o.7 c 11.7± b
M. 9/M.9 6.6± 1.o c 9.9± 2.2 b
Seleznyova et al., 2008, New Zealand
38. Table no. 8- Irrigation water uptake in fully grown Golden Delicious apple trees on semi
dwarfing MM 106, local Hashabi and dwarfing M9 rootstocks
Rootstock Month Monthly total (mm) Sap
flow
Hashabi June 189
July 208
August 208
Total 606
M9 June 155
July 163
August 158
Total 476
MM106 June 225
July 227
August 231
Total 682
Cohen & Naor., 2002, Israel
39. Table no. 9:- Total soluble sugars concentration (% dry mass) in the
scion, graft union, rootstock and rootstock shank of ‘Rainier’ sweet
cherry trees on ‘Gi 5’ and ‘Colt’ rootstocks
Rainier X Gi5 Rainier X Colt
Scion 2.71 1.58
Graft union 1.92 2.23
Rootstock 1.44 2.39
Rootstock shank 1.66 2.35
‘Gi 5’ (Prunus cerasus L. X Prunus canescens L., dwarfing)
‘Colt’ (Prunus avium X Prunus pseudocerasus L., vigorous)
M.A. Olmstead et al. (2010), East Lansing, Mich.
40. Table no. 10:- TCA, hydraulic conductance of roots and entire tree of
Crimson Lady peach trees on Nemagaurd and KP-146-144 rootstocks
Rootstock Trunk cross
sectional area
(cm2)
Hydraulic
conductance of
roots
Hydraulic
conductance of
entire tree
Nemagaurd 4.05 6.56 X 10-5 AL 5.23 X 10-5 AL
KP-146-144 0.90 2.49 X 10-5 AL 2.29 X 10-5 AL
Basile et al. (2003), USA
Nemagaurd:- vigorous rootstock
KP-146-144:- Dwarf rootstock
41. Table no. 11:- Mean comparisons of canopy size, height and yield per canopy volume
of Commune clementine grafted on Pomeroy trifoliate orange infected with a single
viroid
Treatment Canopy volume
(m3)
Height (m) Annual yield
(kg/m3)Viroid Isolate
Control 20.68 3.40 3.91
CEVd CEVd-117 15.55 3.09 2.72
CEVd-129 15.21 3.20 3.06
CBL Vd CVd-Ia-117 18.64 3.26 3.60
CVd-Ib 18.83 3.29 4.12
HSVd CVd-IIa-117 20.30 3.31 4.51
CVd-IIb 19.45 3.33 3.48
CVd-IIc 17.35 3.21 3.49
CVd-III CVd-IIIa 15.29 3.05 3.29
CVd-IIIb 14.51 3.02 4.74
CVd-IIIc 12.69 2.88 4.93
CVd-IIId 12.62 2.77 3.61
CVd-IV CVd-IV-Ca 22.85 3.35 3.71
Vernière et al.(2004), France
42. Cultivars Plant
height
(cm)
Leaf no. Stem girth
(cm)
Phenols
(mg/g.)
ABA
(mg/g.)
IAA
(mg/g.)
Bappakai 39.6 17.6 3.30 9.46 10.60 8.46
Muvandan 42.4 24.2 3.20 22.46 13.68 15.48
Olour 31.0 24.0 3.04 31.92 22.40 8.98
Mylepelian 33.6 17.2 2.80 14.78 20.81 8.98
Chandrakiran 23.0 9.4 2.20 39.60 26.94 11.09
Kurukan 25.1 13.2 1.80 50.24 28.97 7.90
Vellaikolamban 17.0 7.4 1.80 59.10 43.19 11.42
CD 5% 3.51 4.75 0.11 4.96 5.69 3.41
SEM 1.31 2.26 0.05 2.41 3.04 1.63
Table no. 12:- Endogenous Hormones and Phenols in Rootstock Seedlings of Mango
Cultivars and their Relationship with Seedling Vigour
Murti and upreti (2003), Banglore
43. Name of the
cultivar
BA conc.
(µM)
Shoot length
(cm)
No. of roots Root length
(cm)
Survival (%)
Golden
Delicious
0 8.1 7.3 1.8 100
20 4.8 4.6 3.6 60
40 3.9 2.6 2.6 30
60 2.7 2.0 1.5 3
USDA 4-20 0 7.9 7.5 1.9 100
20 4.5 3.6 3.0 50
40 3.0 2.7 2.7 20
60 1.0 1.0 1.3 2
LIberty 0 8.0 7.8 1.8 100
20 3.5 3.0 2.8 50
40 2.1 1.6 1.8 25
60 0 0 0 0
Table no. 13:- Growth and survival percentage of Ex-in vitro apple
cultivars plantlets in green house (6 weeks studies)
Khattak et al. (2007), Peshawar, Pakistan
44. Table no. 14:- Mean trunk cross-sectional area (TCA) and tree canopy volume for cv.
Jonagold/M.9 apple trees in different training systems (5 years)
Training system TCA (cm2) Canopy volume
(m3)
Slender Spindle 9.41 1.7
Verticle Axis 11.96 3.0
Hytec 14.85 4.13
Low-Super Spindle 8.74 2.50
High-Super spindle 7.17 1.45
SS – (4,761 trees/ha)
VA – (2,857 trees/ha)
HT – (1,904 trees/ha)
L-Super S – (5,000 trees/ha)
H-Super S – (10,000/trees/ha) Ozkan et al. (2012), Turkey
45. Table no.15:- Effect of the training system on trunk cross-sectional area,
the canopy volume and crop load in the apple cultivar ‘Braeburn’
grafted on M9 rootstock (5 years)
Training System TCA (cm2) Canopy volume
(m3)
Crop load
(Number of fruit
of cm²/TCA)
Slender Spindle 30.2 2.33 2.39
Solen 24.6 1.80 2.24
Verticle Axis 31.6 3.81 3.07
Gandev et al. (2016), Bulgeria
46. Table no. 16:- Comparison of trunk cross-sectional area, crown volume and yield
efficiency per TCSA among training systems of ‘Topaz’ apple trees after 5 years.
Treatment TCSA (cm2) Crown volume
(m3)
Yield efficiency
per TCSA
(kg.cm−2)
SS-WP 26.70 3.161 2.813
SS-WP+SP 29.26 3.590 2.661
MS-WP 29.23 2.924 2.461
MS-WP+SP 29.25 2.908 2.423
TCSA = trunk cross sectional area
CV = crown volume
SS = slender spindle
WP = winter pruning
SP = summer pruning
MS = modified slender spindle
Sus et al. (2017), Czech Republic
47. Table no. 17:- Influence of training system on tree height, trunk cross sectional area,
canopy volume and yield efficiency of Ziraat sweet cherry (4 years).
Training
system
Tree height
(cm)
TCSA (cm2) Canopy
volume (m3)
Yield
efficiency
(kg cm¯²)
SB 243.4 44.65 2.59 0.32
SL 254.6 49.80 3.18 0.28
VCL 257.2 38.76 3.06 0.39
S.B: Spanish bush
S.L.: Steep leader
V.C.L.: Vogel central leader
Aglar et al. (2016), Turkey.
48. Table no. 18:- Effects of HDP and two training methods on ‘Jonica’ dwarf apple trees
grown in Sub Carpathian region (8 years old tree)
Rootstock Training system Trees/ha Trunk cross
sectional
area(cm2)
M. 9 Slender spindle 2700 34.94 a
2050 30.21 a
Vertical axis 3834 20.29 b
2700 24.94 b
P 22 Slender spindle 2700 14.68 c
2052 15.87 c
Vertical axis 3834 10.81 c
2700 13.38 c
Adam and Augustyn, 2003, Poland
49. Table:19- Effects of methods and rates of paclobutrazol on tree height, volume, and
shoot length of 'Tommy Atkins' mango 3 months after treatment application.
Treatments Height of trees (m) Tree volume (m3) Length of new
shoots (cm)
Soil drench
0 (control) 5.64 a 98.55 a 26.50 a
2.75 g a.i/ tree 5.24 b 90.06 b 23.09 b
5.50 g a.i/ tree 5.31 ab 90.07 b 23.24 b
8.25 g a.i/ tree 5.22 b 86.53 bc 22.99 b
Foliar application
0 (control) 5.62 a 95.99 a 26.02 a
2.75 g a.i/ tree 5.30 ab 89.96 b 23.16 b
5.50 g a.i/ tree 5.30 ab 87.85 bc 23.13 b
8.25 g a.i/ tree 5.19 b 85.78 c 22.96 b
SED 0.05 1,65 0.64
Teferi et al., 2004, New Zealand
50. Thrust Areas
• Understanding the physiology of dwarfing rootstocks and their effect on scion
vigour.
• Commercializing the use of incompatible rootstocks and use of viral infections
for dwarfing
• Need to develop dwarf rootstocks for evergreen subtropical fruit crops for
HDP.
• Need to develop dwarf rootstocks which does not affect the fruit quality of
scion cultivar.
• Opportunities will also exist to modify the root growth of crops for which no
dwarfing rootstocks exist presently.
• Screening of dwarf cultivars for dwarfing genes in fruit plants eg. S6PDH,
GID1c from brachytic dwarf peach.
51. Conclusion
• Dwarfing in fruit crops can be achieved through various approaches like use of dwarfing
rootstock, root pruning, training, use of growth retardants, control of nutrient elements
etc.
• Paclobutrazol are most effective and widely used growth retardant.
• Dwarfing rootstock plays important role in controlling tree size and induce precocious
bearing in fruit plants.
• Pruning practices like tip pruning, pinching, removal of apical buds, heading back, etc.
control the tree size.
• Ringing and girdling control the tree size by restricting the flow of carbohydrates and
auxins to the roots.
• Recently genetic engineering has widen the gene pool which can be manipulated to
induce dwarfism and harvest maximum benefits in horticultural crops.