The document provides a comprehensive overview of writing, emphasizing its role in communicating thoughts through symbols and organized structures. It details the characteristics and differences between academic and non-academic writing, highlighting the importance of clarity, purpose, audience, and evidence-based arguments in academic contexts. Various types of academic writing, including descriptive, analytical, persuasive, and critical writing, are discussed along with their specific purposes, structures, and required features.

2.  Writing is the process of using symbols
(letters of the alphabet, punctuation and
spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas
in a readable form.
 It is a method of representing language in
visual or tactile form.
 Writing systems use sets of symbols to
represent the sounds of speech, and may
also have symbols for such things as
punctuation and numerals.

3.  1. Clarity
If what you are writing is not understood by the audience,
there is no point in writing it.
In everything you write, purpose, audience and scope
should be clear.
Purpose tells you’re your reader why they are reading.
Audience tells a reader who you are writing for.
Scope determines what topics you will cover.

4.  2. Simplicity
Writing relies on simplicity of topic and delivery.
 3. Brevity
Trim down the words until you used every word
you need to, and not a syllable more.
 4. Conciseness
Writing must be concise and clear.

5.  5. Structure
A clear beginning, middle and an end.
 6. Choice of words
The words that you use determine your style.
What is more important is to be able to use the
right words that convey the exact meaning.

6.  7. Audience
The most important element of your writing!
You need to constantly keep your audience in
mind.
 8. Punctuation
An important principle of writing.
These are needed to make writing meaningful.

7.  Academic writing

8.  Academic writing is a particular style of writing that you
need to use when writing formal essays and other
assessments for your course. To produce a good piece
of work that attains a good grade, it’s essential that you
use an academic writing style.
 Academic writing is generally quite formal, objective
(impersonal) and technical. It is formal by avoiding
casual or conversational language, such as contractions
or informal vocabulary. It is impersonal and objective by
avoiding direct reference to people or feelings, and
instead emphasizing objects, facts and ideas. It is
technical by using vocabulary specific to the discipline.

9.  Students, professors, and researchers in every
discipline use academic writing to convey ideas, make
arguments, and engage in scholarly conversation.
Academic writing is characterized by evidence-based
arguments, precise word choice, logical organization,
and an impersonal tone.
 It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and
does not require the use of long sentences and
complicated vocabulary.
 Each subject discipline will have certain writing
conventions, vocabulary and types of discourse that you
will become familiar with over the course of your
degree. However, there are some general
characteristics of academic writing that are relevant
across all disciplines.

10. Most academic disciplines employ their own unique
stylistic conventions. However, all academic writing shares
certain characteristics.
 Clear and limited focus. The focus of an academic
paper — the argument or research question — is
established early by the thesis statement. Every
paragraph and sentence of the paper connects back to
that primary focus. While the paper may include
background or contextual information, all content serves
the purpose of supporting the thesis statement.

11.  Logical structure. All academic writing follows a
logical, straightforward structure. In its simplest form,
academic writing includes an introduction, body
paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction provides
background information, lays out the scope and
direction of the essay, and states the thesis. The body
paragraphs support the thesis statement, with each
body paragraph elaborating on one supporting point.
The conclusion refers back to the thesis, summarizes
the main points, and highlights the implications of the
paper’s findings. Each sentence and paragraph logically
connects to the next in order to present a clear
argument.

12.  Evidence-based arguments. Academic writing
requires well-informed arguments. Statements must be
supported by evidence, whether from scholarly sources
(as in a research paper) or quotations from a primary
text (as in a literary analysis essay). The use of
evidence gives credibility to an argument.
 Impersonal tone. The goal of academic writing is to
convey a logical argument from an objective standpoint.
Academic writing avoids emotional, inflammatory, or
otherwise biased language. Whether you personally
agree or disagree with an idea, it must be presented
accurately and objectively in your paper.

13.  Non-academic writing may be considered that writing
which is personal, emotional, impressionistic, or
subjective in nature. It is informal and intended for a lay
audience, often without research or sources involved.
Such writing is often found in personal journal entries,
reader response writing, memoirs, any kind of
autobiographical writing, and letters, e-mails, and text
messages. Examples include letters, blog posts,
newspaper and magazine articles, and fiction.

14. What are some similarities and differences of
academic and non-academic writing?
 Academic writing is generally formal and written
for a scholarly purpose; examples of academic
writing include class essays, dissertations, and
reports. Non-academic writing is less formal
and not necessarily intended for an educated
audience, and it's often more emotional or
opinionated; examples of such include letters,
blog posts, even fiction novels.

15. Academic and non-academic writing usually differ in
format, purpose, and tone.
Popular forms of academic writing include essays,
themes, research studies, and similar structured pieces.
Academic writing includes an introduction, an overview of
the topics discussed within the writing piece, and a
conclusion which wraps up any final thoughts. In scientific
fields, including social sciences, writing is often in the form
of research papers, and may include an abstract which
summarizes the thesis and findings of the research which
it discusses. Non-academic writing does not need to
cohere to these standards of layout, and may take any
format.

16.  The purpose of academic writing is usually to inform the
reader, providing non-biased facts and backing up
claims with evidence. In the field of literature, an
academic may write an essay based on a theory, but
shows how the theory can be proven with evidence from
the literature he/she discusses. The purpose of non-
academic writing may be to entertain its audience or to
persuade the reader.

17.  Finally, the tone differs. In academic writing, the tone
should be formal and professional. There are guidelines
such as keeping the writing in 3rd person and
eliminating contractions. Again, the writer attempts to
present a point without bias or opinion. In non-academic
writing, the tone may be informal. Non-academic writing
does not have to cohere to the guidelines of formal
writing and may include humor, opinion, or other
elements not present in most academic writing.
 Although these guidelines are not concrete, and depend
largely on subjective differences, academic and non-
academic writing usually differ in format, purpose, and
tone.

18. Academic writing is, of course, any formal written work
produced in an academic setting.
While academic writing comes in many forms, the following
are some of the most common.
 Literary Analysis. A literary analysis essay examines,
evaluates, and makes an argument about a literary
work. As its name suggests, a literary analysis essay
goes beyond mere summarization. It requires
careful close reading of one or multiple texts and often
focuses on a specific characteristic, theme or motif.

19.  Research Paper. A research paper utilizes outside
information to support a thesis or make an argument.
Research papers are written in all disciplines and may
be evaluative, analytical, or critical in nature. Common
research sources include data, primary sources (e.g.
historical records), and secondary sources (e.g. peer-
reviewed scholarly articles). Writing a research paper
involves synthesizing this external information with your
own ideas.
 Dissertation. A dissertation (or thesis) is a document
submitted at the conclusion of a Ph.D. program. The
dissertation is a book-length summarization of the
doctoral candidate’s research.

20.  A writer’s style is a reflection of his or her personality,
unique voice, and way of approaching the audience and
readers.
 However, every piece writers write is for a specific
purpose—for example, writers may want to explain how
something works or persuade people to agree with their
point of view. While there are as many writers’ styles as
there are writers, there are only four general purposes
that lead someone to write a piece, and these are
known as the four styles, or types, of writing. Knowing
all four different types and their usages is important for
any writer.

21.  The four main types of academic writing are descriptive,
analytical, persuasive and critical. Each of these types
of writing has specific language features and purposes.
In many academic texts you will need to use more than
one type. For example, in an empirical thesis:
 you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where
there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research
 the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarize the
methods used to collect and analyze information
 the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you
report on the data you collected
 the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your
findings back to your research questions, and also persuasive, as
you propose your interpretations of the findings.

22.  The four main types of academic writing are descriptive,
analytical, persuasive and critical. Each of these types
of writing has specific language features and purposes.
In many academic texts you will need to use more than
one type. For example, in an empirical thesis:
 you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where
there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research
 the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarize the
methods used to collect and analyze information
 the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you
report on the data you collected
 the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your
findings back to your research questions, and also persuasive, as
you propose your interpretations of the findings.

23.  The four main types of academic writing are descriptive,
analytical, persuasive and critical. Each of these types
of writing has specific language features and purposes.
In many academic texts you will need to use more than
one type. For example, in an empirical thesis:
 you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where
there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research
 the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarize the
methods used to collect and analyze information
 the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you
report on the data you collected
 the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your
findings back to your research questions, and also persuasive, as
you propose your interpretations of the findings.

24. The simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. Its
purpose is to provide facts or information. An example
would be a summary of an article or a report of the results
of an experiment.
The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive
assignment include: identify, report, record, summarize and
define.
Descriptive writing focuses on communicating the details
of a character, event, or place.
Descriptive writing's main purpose is to describe. It is a
style of writing that focuses on describing a character, an
event, or a place in great detail. It can be poetic when the
author takes the time to be very specific in his or her
descriptions.

25.  In good descriptive writing, the author will not just say:
“The vampire killed his lover.”
 He or she will change the sentence, focusing on more
details and descriptions, like: “The bloody, red-eyed
vampire sunk his rust-colored teeth into the soft skin of
his lover and ended her life."
 It is often poetic in nature
 It describes places, people, events, situations, or
locations in a highly-detailed manner.
 The author visualizes what he or she sees, hears,
tastes, smells, and feels.

26.  Poetry
 Journal or diary writing
 Nature writing
 Descriptive passages in fiction
Example
 The iPhone 6 is unexpectedly light. While size of its screen is bigger than those
of the iPhones that came before, it is thinner, and its smooth, rounded body is
made of aluminum, stainless steel, and glass. The casing comes in whitish
silver, gold, or a color the company calls “space gray,” the color of the lead of a
pencil, with darker gray accents.
 This is an example because it describes aspects of the phone. It includes
details such as the size, weight, and material.
Non-example:
 So you just brought home a shiny new smartphone with a smooth glass screen
the size of your palm. The first thing you will want to do when purchasing a new
cell is buy a case. Cracking your screen is an awful feeling, and protection is
inexpensive when you compare it to the costs of a new phone.
 Even though this example uses adjectives, you can tell that this is not an
example of descriptive writing because the purpose is not to describe the
phone—it’s to persuade you to buy a case.

27.  It’s rare for a university-level text to be purely
descriptive. Most academic writing is also analytical.
Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but you
also re-organize the facts and information you describe
into categories, groups, parts, types or relationships.
 Sometimes, these categories or relationships are
already part of the discipline, sometimes you will create
them specifically for your text. For example, if you’re
comparing two theories, you might break your
comparison into several parts, for example: how each
theory deals with social context, how each theory deals
with language learning, and how each theory can be
used in practice.

28.  The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment
include: analyze, compare, contrast, relate, examine.
 To make your writing more analytical:
 spend plenty of time planning. Brainstorm the facts and
ideas, and try different ways of grouping them,
according to patterns, parts, similarities and differences.
You could use colour-coding, flow charts, tree diagrams
or tables.
 create a name for the relationships and categories you
find. For example, advantages and disadvantages.
 build each section and paragraph around one of the
analytical categories.

29.  make the structure of your paper clear to your reader,
by using topic sentences and a clear introduction.

30.  In most academic writing, you are required to go at least
one step further than analytical writing, to persuasive
writing. Persuasive writing has all the features of
analytical writing (that is, information plus re-organizing
the information), with the addition of your own point of
view. Most essays are persuasive, and there is a
persuasive element in at least the discussion and
conclusion of a research article.
 Points of view in academic writing can include an
argument, a recommendation, interpretation of findings
or evaluation of the work of others. In persuasive
writing, each claim you make needs to be supported by
some evidence, for example a reference to research
findings or published sources.

31.  The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment
include: argue, evaluate, discuss, take a position.
 To help reach your own point of view on the facts or
ideas:
 read some other researchers' points of view on the
topic. Who do you feel is the most convincing?
 look for patterns in the data or references. Where is the
evidence strongest?
 list several different interpretations. What are the real-
life implications of each one? Which ones are likely to
be most useful or beneficial? Which ones have some
problems?
 discuss the facts and ideas with someone else. Do you
agree with their point of view?
 To develop your argument:

32.  list the different reasons for your point of view
 think about the different types and sources of evidence
which you can use to support your point of view
 consider different ways that your point of view is similar
to, and different from, the points of view of other
researchers
 look for various ways to break your point of view into
parts. For example, cost effectiveness, environmental
sustainability, scope of real-world application.
 To present your argument, make sure:
 your text develops a coherent argument where all the
individual claims work together to support your overall
point of view.

33.  your reasoning for each claim is clear to the reader
 your assumptions are valid
 you have evidence for every claim you make
 you use evidence that is convincing and directly
relevant.

34.  Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and
advanced undergraduate writing. It has all the features of
persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one
other point of view. While persuasive writing requires you to
have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical
writing requires you to consider at least two points of view,
including your own.
 For example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation
or argument and then evaluate the merits of the argument, or
give your own alternative interpretation.
 Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of
a journal article, or a literature review that identifies the
strengths and weaknesses of existing research. The kinds of
instructions for critical writing include: critique, debate,
disagree, evaluate.

35.  You need to:
 accurately summarize all or part of the work. This could
include identifying the main interpretations, assumptions or
methodology.
 have an opinion about the work. Appropriate types of opinion
could include pointing out some problems with it, proposing
an alternative approach that would be better, and/or
defending the work against the critiques of others
 provide evidence for your point of view. Depending on the
specific assignment and the discipline, different types of
evidence may be appropriate, such as logical reasoning,
reference to authoritative sources and/or research data.

36.  Critical writing requires strong writing skills. You need to
thoroughly understand the topic and the issues. You need to
develop an essay structure and paragraph structure that
allows you to analyze different interpretations and develop
your own argument, supported by evidence.

37.  When you talk, you say your words and sentences
once, and that’s it –you cant go back and change what
your listener has already heard. But when you write, you
have plenty of time and plenty of chances to work on
your words before your reader sees them.
 Good writing takes time –time for thinking, time for
making changes and time for polishing details. To be as
good as it can be, a piece of writing should go through a
number of stages before it is finished.

38.  1a Gathering Ideas
1a(1) Getting the First Idea
Getting the first idea takes time and patience.
Usually, an instructor assigns a general topic, or you will be
ask to find a topic by yourself.
Think about your topic for a few minutes before you begin
to write.
Methods of getting ideas:
• Questions for finding ideas
• Freewritng

39. • A writing journal
• Brainstorming
1a(2) Limiting the Ideas and Making It Precise
You have to decide exactly what you are going write about
your subject and how you are going to limit it.
1a(3) Building on the First Idea
Depending on the type of writing, the time it takes to build
up ideas can be ten minutes or a month.
Talking with a friend, classmate, or relative about your
topic is very useful.

40.  1b Planning
Once you have the topic, ideas, and details in mind and in
your notes, you must then decide how you are going to pull
all this material together. You must face questions like:
• How many paragraphs do I need?
• In what order shall I put the ideas?
• What is the best of paragraph for the purpose I have in
mind?
• What details go with what main points?

41.  1c Writing and Rewriting
1c(1)The first draft
The main point of a first draft is to get your ideas down in
words, sentences and paragraphs without worrying too
much about them.
• Try to write the first draft straight through.
• Finish it.
• Don’t get stuck on a difficult phrase or complex idea.
• Don’t worry about spelling or other problems you may
have.

42.  You have to revise the first draft.
First draft revision questions
• Does the writing as a whole make sense?
• Did I leave anything out?
• Should things be in a different order?
• Should I build up or explain anything more?
• Should I leave out any part?
• Can I write a stronger beginning or ending?
Mark up your first draft with necessary changes.

43.  1c(2) The second draft
Make a fresh copy of your first draft so that you can
easily read the revised version.
Reread this second draft.
Second draft revision questions
• Can I rewrite any sentences to make them clear?
• Are my most important phrases and statements in the
most important places in sentences and paragraphs?
• Are there any mistakes in grammar, sentence structure,
punctuation or spelling?

44.  1c(3) Writing with word processors
Word processing makes revision much simpler, as you
can quickly see the effects of the changes you make and
you need not retype entire essay or writing.

45.  1d Preparing the Final Copy
 1d(1) Typing or writing for legibility
Make your final copy neat and easy to read. This copy is
what you submit, what someone will judge you on. On your
rough draft make whatever mess you want; on the final
copy make your best impression.
 1d(2) Proofreading for mistakes
Proofreading is reading the final copy to detect and correct
the mistakes. Proofreaders are expected to be consistently
accurate because they occupy the last stage of writing
before publication. The final copy

46. Should have relatively few mistakes. The writer should
read through it with care to make sure he/she didn’t miss
anything or make corrections accurately. If the writer needs
only a few small things to be corrected, the writer can
correct them neatly by drawing a single ink line through the
words that are to be left out or using a good ink or
typewriter eraser and erase those neatly. The writer can
use a small caret if he/she has to add words. A single
slanted line’/’separates words that should have space
between them. If many errors need corrections, the writer
needs to recopy for a corrected, clear copy.

47.  You have overhauled your story. It’s time to fine tune
your manuscript line by line. Check for repetition, clarity,
grammar, spelling and punctuation. Editing is an
extremely detailed process and its best when performed
by a professional. You can hire your own editor or
utilized the editing services available through LifeRich
Publishing. Nobody wants to read a book that is full of
mistakes, and they certainly won’t buy a book that is
riddled with them.

48. 1d(3) Learning from comments
A teacher reads your and make comments so
that you can improve your writing. He or she
shows you where you went wrong, where you
could better develop your points, where your
paper really succeeds.