This document examines the effect of education on contraceptive and condom use among sexually experienced unmarried men in India using data from the 2005-06 National Family Health Survey. The study finds that education has a positive effect on contraceptive as well as condom use, but that the interaction of education and awareness provides key explanations for safe sexual practices. The findings could help policymakers focus on both education and awareness to improve safe sexual practices in India where sex education remains controversial.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
This document summarizes three studies that evaluated the effectiveness of peer-led versus teacher-led sex education for adolescents. Study 1 was a systematic review that found peer-led interventions were more accepted by adolescents and better improved sexual knowledge, but both approaches had limited effects on behavior. Study 2 evaluated an HIV prevention program in Mexican schools and found it did not reduce risk behavior. Study 3 evaluated a 3-year peer education program in Mongolian schools and found it improved knowledge, attitudes and self-efficacy regarding safe sex practices among students. In conclusion, peer-led interventions showed potential but longer term programs are needed to effectively promote safer sexual behaviors in adolescents.
An Assessment of Birth Control Measures Among Women in Reproductive Age of Ka...ijtsrd
This study aimed to assess the impact of age on attitudes of married women regarding family planning and birth control measures in Kashmir. A sample of 400 married women aged 18-50 years was selected through random sampling. Data was collected using a family planning attitude scale and questionnaire. The results showed that the majority of women across all age groups had a medium level of concern about adoption of family planning measures. A medium level of concern was also observed regarding population problems, family planning, birth control, fertility control, abortion as a birth control method, and contraceptive methods. The level of concern was generally consistent across the different age groups.
The negative impacts of adolescent sexuality problems among secondary school ...lukeman Joseph Ade shittu
This study was conducted to focus on the negative health outcomes related to sexual behaviour in adolescents and young adults attending public school in the Oworonshoki region of Lagos, Nigeria, Africa. Since, there is a relative dearth of knowledge on adolescents who face unique and challenging economics, health and education problems in our society. Data on the socio-demographic characteristics, prevalence and knowledge towards STD including HIV/AIDS, prevalence of sexual abuse practice/sexual behaviour, family planning awareness and acceptance including abortion practice were sorted out using self structured questionnaires and administered to 60% of student’s population using a stratified random sampling technique. 55.8% lived with both parents. While, 50.3% of the mothers had basic secondary school qualifications, 72.4% of them are traders. 61.5% had sex education were from misinformed friends/peers while 51% had no basic knowledge about sexual behavioral practice and attitude towards STDs/AIDS (HIV). STD has a prevalence of 34 and 41% of boys used condoms for preventing STI/HIV transmission and unwanted pregnancies. One out of every five sexually active teenagers has experienced forced sex, especially among the circumcised girls who were more sexually active than the uncircumcised girls. 60% of girls between ages of 12 and 18 years had more than one unsafe abortion with severe vaginal bleeding (haemorrhage) as the chief complication. However, 65% of the girls did abortion for fear of leaving school and financial hardship as the reasons.
Branch vital, angela condom use among african-american women-nfmij-6-1-09William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
Determinants of higher fertility rates in igunga district, tanzania does wom...Alexander Decker
This study investigated the relationship between women's empowerment and fertility rates in Igunga District, Tanzania, which has high fertility rates. 120 women were surveyed using questionnaires on their empowerment, measured by indicators like participation in economic and family size decisions, mobility, and coercive control, and their fertility, measured by age-specific fertility rates and total fertility rates. Results showed women in the area had low levels of empowerment on these indicators. Regression analysis found lower levels of empowerment, along with demographic and cultural factors like men's dominance, were responsible for the higher fertility rates in the area. The study recommends interventions to address cultural factors and increase women's empowerment to potentially lower fertility rates.
This document summarizes a study on women's perceptions and use of non-permanent contraceptive methods for birth spacing in Uttar Pradesh, India. The study used semi-structured interviews of 42 women to investigate perceptions, enabling factors, and barriers related to injectable contraceptives and IUDs. Key findings included that women had a desire to space births but faced barriers like side effects, son preference, limited mobility and decision making, and religious beliefs prohibiting some methods. Understanding these issues could help develop culturally appropriate family planning programs and policies in the region.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
This document summarizes three studies that evaluated the effectiveness of peer-led versus teacher-led sex education for adolescents. Study 1 was a systematic review that found peer-led interventions were more accepted by adolescents and better improved sexual knowledge, but both approaches had limited effects on behavior. Study 2 evaluated an HIV prevention program in Mexican schools and found it did not reduce risk behavior. Study 3 evaluated a 3-year peer education program in Mongolian schools and found it improved knowledge, attitudes and self-efficacy regarding safe sex practices among students. In conclusion, peer-led interventions showed potential but longer term programs are needed to effectively promote safer sexual behaviors in adolescents.
An Assessment of Birth Control Measures Among Women in Reproductive Age of Ka...ijtsrd
This study aimed to assess the impact of age on attitudes of married women regarding family planning and birth control measures in Kashmir. A sample of 400 married women aged 18-50 years was selected through random sampling. Data was collected using a family planning attitude scale and questionnaire. The results showed that the majority of women across all age groups had a medium level of concern about adoption of family planning measures. A medium level of concern was also observed regarding population problems, family planning, birth control, fertility control, abortion as a birth control method, and contraceptive methods. The level of concern was generally consistent across the different age groups.
The negative impacts of adolescent sexuality problems among secondary school ...lukeman Joseph Ade shittu
This study was conducted to focus on the negative health outcomes related to sexual behaviour in adolescents and young adults attending public school in the Oworonshoki region of Lagos, Nigeria, Africa. Since, there is a relative dearth of knowledge on adolescents who face unique and challenging economics, health and education problems in our society. Data on the socio-demographic characteristics, prevalence and knowledge towards STD including HIV/AIDS, prevalence of sexual abuse practice/sexual behaviour, family planning awareness and acceptance including abortion practice were sorted out using self structured questionnaires and administered to 60% of student’s population using a stratified random sampling technique. 55.8% lived with both parents. While, 50.3% of the mothers had basic secondary school qualifications, 72.4% of them are traders. 61.5% had sex education were from misinformed friends/peers while 51% had no basic knowledge about sexual behavioral practice and attitude towards STDs/AIDS (HIV). STD has a prevalence of 34 and 41% of boys used condoms for preventing STI/HIV transmission and unwanted pregnancies. One out of every five sexually active teenagers has experienced forced sex, especially among the circumcised girls who were more sexually active than the uncircumcised girls. 60% of girls between ages of 12 and 18 years had more than one unsafe abortion with severe vaginal bleeding (haemorrhage) as the chief complication. However, 65% of the girls did abortion for fear of leaving school and financial hardship as the reasons.
Branch vital, angela condom use among african-american women-nfmij-6-1-09William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. Kritsonis has served as an elementary school teacher, elementary and middle school principal, superintendent of schools, director of student teaching and field experiences, professor, author, consultant, and journal editor. Dr. Kritsonis has considerable experience in chairing PhD dissertations and master thesis and has supervised practicums for teacher candidates, curriculum supervisors, central office personnel, principals, and superintendents. He also has experience in teaching in doctoral and masters programs in elementary and secondary education as well as educational leadership and supervision. He has earned the rank as professor at three universities in two states, including successful post-tenure reviews.
Determinants of higher fertility rates in igunga district, tanzania does wom...Alexander Decker
This study investigated the relationship between women's empowerment and fertility rates in Igunga District, Tanzania, which has high fertility rates. 120 women were surveyed using questionnaires on their empowerment, measured by indicators like participation in economic and family size decisions, mobility, and coercive control, and their fertility, measured by age-specific fertility rates and total fertility rates. Results showed women in the area had low levels of empowerment on these indicators. Regression analysis found lower levels of empowerment, along with demographic and cultural factors like men's dominance, were responsible for the higher fertility rates in the area. The study recommends interventions to address cultural factors and increase women's empowerment to potentially lower fertility rates.
This document summarizes a study on women's perceptions and use of non-permanent contraceptive methods for birth spacing in Uttar Pradesh, India. The study used semi-structured interviews of 42 women to investigate perceptions, enabling factors, and barriers related to injectable contraceptives and IUDs. Key findings included that women had a desire to space births but faced barriers like side effects, son preference, limited mobility and decision making, and religious beliefs prohibiting some methods. Understanding these issues could help develop culturally appropriate family planning programs and policies in the region.
Prevalence of and Socio-Demographic Factors Related with Overweightsajjalp
The objective of the study is to determine the prevalence of overweight and to describe the socio-demographic factors
related with overweight. A cross-sectional survey was conducted at women’s college Kathmandu, Nepal from January to April
2019 using a convenient sampling technique to select the subjects. The study was conducted among 202 female students aged 18
to 23 years with the self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire comprises questions on socio-demographic factors
related to the weight status. The height and weight of subjects were self-reported to calculate the body mass index (BMI) and to
group them into overweight, normal weight, and underweight according to the guidelines of the world health organization. The
prevalence rate of overweight among the female students was 12.9% (CI: 8.4 – 17.8, p<0.05). The average BMI for overweight
students is 26.4 ± 0.973 kg/m2 with 95% confidence interval: 26- 26.79, p < 0.05. Most of the students are conscious about their
health. The socio-demographic factors behind overweight among the female students were physical inactivity, unhealthy food
consumption pattern, and moderate average family monthly income
This study assessed awareness levels about immunization programs among low socioeconomic families in rural West Bengal. A survey was conducted covering 590 children aged 1-5 years. The results showed that mothers had higher awareness than other family members. Factors like education level, caste, occupation, family size and distance from health centers influenced immunization rates. Full immunization was higher for males (56%) compared to females (23%). Children supported by integrated child development services had significantly higher full immunization (75%) than non-supported children (30%). The study concluded immunization awareness among rural families needs to be improved, especially for females and disadvantaged groups.
Consequences of female genital mutilation on girls’ schooling in tarime, tanz...Alexander Decker
The document discusses a study on the consequences of female genital mutilation (FGM) on girls' schooling in Tanzania. It finds that uncircumcised girls face various problems, including isolation, stigmatization, lack of support for their education, and risks of forced circumcision and forced marriage. The girls used several coping strategies, such as seeking support from relatives, religious institutions, schools, and the government. However, there were no reliable mechanisms in place to help the girls deal with these FGM-related problems and support their education. The study recommends that the government develop policies to protect uncircumcised girls and support them financially so they can continue their schooling.
Socio-Economic Effect of HIV/AIDS on Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Nyami...paperpublications3
Since the first case of HIV/AIDS was reported in Kenya in 1984 the numbers of those infected have risen and many people have since died or are living with the HIV/AIDS since the epidemic started in 1980s in the drug injecting people and the homosexuals. These deaths have resulted in Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVC). This was a descriptive cross-sectional study, with one of the objective of finding out the socio-economic effect of HIV/AIDS on Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Nyamira district. A sample of 384 people participated in the study. The people were through simple random selected from Bonyegwe sublocation of Nyamusi division. Semi-structured interview schedules were used in data collection from the households. To remove ambiguity, the research tools were pre-tested to both HIV/AIDS organizations and householders not in the sample population but with similar characteristics. The research tools were refined and used on the actual sample population. Text, graphs, figures and tables were used in data presentation. The study indicates that those people who had not attained any level of formal education were (17%). The study revealed that householders (40%) had higher proportion of secondary education as compared with members of HIV/AIDS organizations (37%). Most of the members of HIV/AIDS organizations (89%) indicated that farming is their main source of income and a cushion for food security as compared with householders (63%). The ministry of health should strengthen provision of PMTCT services at the ANC clinic so that we prevent more cases of orphans and vulnerable children. The study suggests that in future all mothers who test positive for HIV virus should be put on treatment in order to reduce defaulters at the same time reach sustainable coverage in the provision of HIV/AIDS services to the orphans and vulnerable children in the society.
Reaching Health Messages to Women in India: Evidences from District Level Hea...inventionjournals
Change in behavior is a process that depends on many factors. Mass media plays an effective role
in creating awareness and influencing beliefs, attitude and practices. Since it is an effective instrument in
guiding social norms, it is an equally important factor for behavioral change. The main objectives of this paper
are to examine the extent of reach of messages and it also examines the major source of the health messages for
women in select states. For the present study data of District Level Household Survey, 2007-08 (DLHS3) has
been analyzed. In DLHS 3 data was collected from 720,320 households from 34 states and union territories of
India (excluding Nagaland). DLHS 3 interviewed 643,944 married women aged 15-49. For the present study
simple cross tab analyses has been done. To have a better insight into communication of different health
messages, health information index has been calculated. There is a significant rural-urban, caste and religion
differential in reach and accessibility of health messages through mass media. Health professionals and friends/
relatives are the major sources to receive health messages. Electronic media is the third largest source for
health information but it is also influenced by background characteristics like place of residence, education of
women, economic states etc
The document summarizes a study on the prevalence of domestic violence among second trimester pregnant women admitted to a maternity hospital in Baghdad, Iraq. The study found that 39.7% of the 800 pregnant women experienced domestic violence. There were statistically significant associations between domestic violence and socioeconomic factors of both the women and their husbands, including age, education level, employment, and family income. The highest rates of physical violence involved throwing objects or punching, while the most common forms of psychological abuse involved name-calling or restricting contact with family and friends.
Abstract—Obesity is the major global nutrition concern. Modernisation and urbanisation have led to changes in dietary and lifestyle factors which are contributing to the increased prevalence of overweight and obesity.
Objective: To find out various life style risk factors for obesity among school children of affluent families aged 10-18 years in Jaipur city.
Methods: A cross-sectional study in ten randomly selected schools of Jaipur city with tuition fee > 18000 ₹/year was conducted from July 2012 to April 2013. 1610 students of class V to XII were included and their detailed life style history with anthropometric measurements was recorded after their informed written consent. Indian Academy of Pediatrics' growth Monitoring Guidelines for children from birth to 18 years was followed for defining and classifying obesity.
Result: 364 (22.61%) participants were found obese/overweight. Watching television during meals, frequency of main meals outside home per month, frequency of snacks outside home per week and duration of television/ computer watching per day were found significant predictors of overweight/ obesity on binary multivariate logistic regression method.
Conclusion: The present study highlights childhood overweight/obesity is an emerging health problem (22.61%) and lifestyle factors are important risk for it.
Role of gender in contraceptive use among currently married women in uttar pr...Alexander Decker
The document summarizes a study on the role of gender preference on contraceptive use among married women in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, India. Some key findings:
1. Son preference is strongly reflected in the desire for more children among women without sons. 83% of such women in UP and 87% in Bihar want more children.
2. Contraceptive use is much lower among women without sons - only 18% in UP and 6% in Bihar of such women use contraception.
3. Logistic regression found that women with more sons are significantly more likely to use contraception compared to those with more daughters, indicating son preference impacts family planning acceptance.
Impact of Peer Educational Programme and Gender on Biology Students’ Knowledg...iosrjce
The document summarizes a study that examined the impact of a peer education program and gender on biology students' knowledge of HIV/AIDS concepts in selected secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. It found that a peer education instructional strategy had a significant positive effect on students' knowledge, while gender did not have a significant main effect. The interaction between treatment and gender also did not have a significant effect on knowledge. The study recommends the adoption of peer education programs by biology teachers and curriculum planners.
This document discusses gender safety in various contexts such as public spaces, transportation, healthcare, and the workplace. It defines gender and emphasizes the importance of gender analysis to ensure policies, practices, and projects consider differences between women and men. This helps address women's unique experiences and needs to achieve objectives without unintentionally worsening their situation. The document also highlights the value placed on gender safety internationally and provides several examples of initiatives to improve consideration of gender perspectives in various sectors.
—In many cultures in India, womanhood is defined through motherhood and infertile women usually carry the blame for the couple inability to conceive. A childless woman is stigmatized and sometimes not allowed to participate in various auspicious ceremonies, particularly those involving childbirth. The present study was undertaken in S.M.S. Medical College, Jaipur, Rajasthan to find out the factors contributing to infertility and the health seeking behavior of infertile women. A hospital based observational study was carried out in year 2017 on eligible women attending OPD of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Mahila Chikitsalaya, S.M.S. Medical College Jaipur. A total 1000 eligible women were recruited using systematic random sampling and interviewed using a predesigned and pretested questionnaire. A total of 119 women (11.9%) were found to be infertile. Age of women, caste, residence, education status of women, occupation, family size and socioeconomic status were found to be significantly associated with infertility (P<0.05). Lower age of women, OBC caste, urban residence, less family size, lesser education status of women, housewives and middle socioeconomic status were found to have significantly more infertile females than their counterparts. Age of women, type of family and religion were not found to be associated with infertility (P >0.05). Improving awareness about infertility and its management could help reduce the burden and its social implications.
An additional year of schooling is associated with a 0.107 higher probability of not having a chronic illness for adults in Mongolia. For males it's 0.114 and for females it's 0.100. A mother's additional year of schooling increases the probability her child does not have health complaints by 0.031. However, a father's schooling has no impact on a child's health. While education is linked to better health outcomes, the causal mechanisms are still being investigated.
Adolescent hiv indian perspective-current and future scope - dr. baxiIndian Health Journal
The document discusses adolescent HIV in India. It notes that while adolescents aged 15-24 years make up 25% of India's population, they account for 31% of AIDS cases. HIV prevalence is 0.04% among those aged 15-19 and 0.18% among those aged 20-24. Factors like gender inequality, lack of education, poverty, and early marriage make many female adolescents particularly vulnerable to HIV. Efforts are needed to provide adolescents with correct information on sexuality and HIV, promote safer sex practices, empower female youth, and involve NGOs in HIV prevention programs targeting this group.
Este documento fornece uma introdução ao ambiente gráfico KDE no Linux, explicando:
1) Os principais elementos da área de trabalho como a barra de menu, ícones e menu principal.
2) Como executar programas, abrir arquivos e pastas.
3) Os conceitos básicos de janelas e como manipular arquivos e pastas usando o navegador Konqueror.
Este documento discute como os governos podem melhorar o acesso público às informações e serviços governamentais por meio da tecnologia da web. Aborda tópicos como participação cidadã, dados governamentais abertos, interoperabilidade, fornecimento de serviços em múltiplos canais e identificação eletrônica. O documento reconhece os desafios ambientais, políticos, legais e culturais enfrentados pelos governos ao implementar iniciativas de e-governo e propõe que o W3C ofere
Bill Schick - Engagement beyond the facebook likethepulsenetwork
The document discusses an engagement campaign by MESH Interactive Agency that achieved higher than industry standard open and click-through rates for emails. The campaign also significantly increased the number of Twitter connections and Facebook fans for the client. The document promotes MESH Interactive Agency and provides examples of their work designing social microsites to boost engagement.
This document discusses health inequities in the United States driven by gender, race, socioeconomic factors and the environment. It analyzes HIV prevalence, risk behaviors, and service utilization data from various sources to assess health inequities among populations in greatest need. Specific data on the District of Columbia shows HIV prevalence is highest among black males, and linkage to and retention in care varies by race.
Prevalence of and Socio-Demographic Factors Related with Overweightsajjalp
The objective of the study is to determine the prevalence of overweight and to describe the socio-demographic factors
related with overweight. A cross-sectional survey was conducted at women’s college Kathmandu, Nepal from January to April
2019 using a convenient sampling technique to select the subjects. The study was conducted among 202 female students aged 18
to 23 years with the self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire comprises questions on socio-demographic factors
related to the weight status. The height and weight of subjects were self-reported to calculate the body mass index (BMI) and to
group them into overweight, normal weight, and underweight according to the guidelines of the world health organization. The
prevalence rate of overweight among the female students was 12.9% (CI: 8.4 – 17.8, p<0.05). The average BMI for overweight
students is 26.4 ± 0.973 kg/m2 with 95% confidence interval: 26- 26.79, p < 0.05. Most of the students are conscious about their
health. The socio-demographic factors behind overweight among the female students were physical inactivity, unhealthy food
consumption pattern, and moderate average family monthly income
This study assessed awareness levels about immunization programs among low socioeconomic families in rural West Bengal. A survey was conducted covering 590 children aged 1-5 years. The results showed that mothers had higher awareness than other family members. Factors like education level, caste, occupation, family size and distance from health centers influenced immunization rates. Full immunization was higher for males (56%) compared to females (23%). Children supported by integrated child development services had significantly higher full immunization (75%) than non-supported children (30%). The study concluded immunization awareness among rural families needs to be improved, especially for females and disadvantaged groups.
Consequences of female genital mutilation on girls’ schooling in tarime, tanz...Alexander Decker
The document discusses a study on the consequences of female genital mutilation (FGM) on girls' schooling in Tanzania. It finds that uncircumcised girls face various problems, including isolation, stigmatization, lack of support for their education, and risks of forced circumcision and forced marriage. The girls used several coping strategies, such as seeking support from relatives, religious institutions, schools, and the government. However, there were no reliable mechanisms in place to help the girls deal with these FGM-related problems and support their education. The study recommends that the government develop policies to protect uncircumcised girls and support them financially so they can continue their schooling.
Socio-Economic Effect of HIV/AIDS on Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Nyami...paperpublications3
Since the first case of HIV/AIDS was reported in Kenya in 1984 the numbers of those infected have risen and many people have since died or are living with the HIV/AIDS since the epidemic started in 1980s in the drug injecting people and the homosexuals. These deaths have resulted in Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVC). This was a descriptive cross-sectional study, with one of the objective of finding out the socio-economic effect of HIV/AIDS on Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Nyamira district. A sample of 384 people participated in the study. The people were through simple random selected from Bonyegwe sublocation of Nyamusi division. Semi-structured interview schedules were used in data collection from the households. To remove ambiguity, the research tools were pre-tested to both HIV/AIDS organizations and householders not in the sample population but with similar characteristics. The research tools were refined and used on the actual sample population. Text, graphs, figures and tables were used in data presentation. The study indicates that those people who had not attained any level of formal education were (17%). The study revealed that householders (40%) had higher proportion of secondary education as compared with members of HIV/AIDS organizations (37%). Most of the members of HIV/AIDS organizations (89%) indicated that farming is their main source of income and a cushion for food security as compared with householders (63%). The ministry of health should strengthen provision of PMTCT services at the ANC clinic so that we prevent more cases of orphans and vulnerable children. The study suggests that in future all mothers who test positive for HIV virus should be put on treatment in order to reduce defaulters at the same time reach sustainable coverage in the provision of HIV/AIDS services to the orphans and vulnerable children in the society.
Reaching Health Messages to Women in India: Evidences from District Level Hea...inventionjournals
Change in behavior is a process that depends on many factors. Mass media plays an effective role
in creating awareness and influencing beliefs, attitude and practices. Since it is an effective instrument in
guiding social norms, it is an equally important factor for behavioral change. The main objectives of this paper
are to examine the extent of reach of messages and it also examines the major source of the health messages for
women in select states. For the present study data of District Level Household Survey, 2007-08 (DLHS3) has
been analyzed. In DLHS 3 data was collected from 720,320 households from 34 states and union territories of
India (excluding Nagaland). DLHS 3 interviewed 643,944 married women aged 15-49. For the present study
simple cross tab analyses has been done. To have a better insight into communication of different health
messages, health information index has been calculated. There is a significant rural-urban, caste and religion
differential in reach and accessibility of health messages through mass media. Health professionals and friends/
relatives are the major sources to receive health messages. Electronic media is the third largest source for
health information but it is also influenced by background characteristics like place of residence, education of
women, economic states etc
The document summarizes a study on the prevalence of domestic violence among second trimester pregnant women admitted to a maternity hospital in Baghdad, Iraq. The study found that 39.7% of the 800 pregnant women experienced domestic violence. There were statistically significant associations between domestic violence and socioeconomic factors of both the women and their husbands, including age, education level, employment, and family income. The highest rates of physical violence involved throwing objects or punching, while the most common forms of psychological abuse involved name-calling or restricting contact with family and friends.
Abstract—Obesity is the major global nutrition concern. Modernisation and urbanisation have led to changes in dietary and lifestyle factors which are contributing to the increased prevalence of overweight and obesity.
Objective: To find out various life style risk factors for obesity among school children of affluent families aged 10-18 years in Jaipur city.
Methods: A cross-sectional study in ten randomly selected schools of Jaipur city with tuition fee > 18000 ₹/year was conducted from July 2012 to April 2013. 1610 students of class V to XII were included and their detailed life style history with anthropometric measurements was recorded after their informed written consent. Indian Academy of Pediatrics' growth Monitoring Guidelines for children from birth to 18 years was followed for defining and classifying obesity.
Result: 364 (22.61%) participants were found obese/overweight. Watching television during meals, frequency of main meals outside home per month, frequency of snacks outside home per week and duration of television/ computer watching per day were found significant predictors of overweight/ obesity on binary multivariate logistic regression method.
Conclusion: The present study highlights childhood overweight/obesity is an emerging health problem (22.61%) and lifestyle factors are important risk for it.
Role of gender in contraceptive use among currently married women in uttar pr...Alexander Decker
The document summarizes a study on the role of gender preference on contraceptive use among married women in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, India. Some key findings:
1. Son preference is strongly reflected in the desire for more children among women without sons. 83% of such women in UP and 87% in Bihar want more children.
2. Contraceptive use is much lower among women without sons - only 18% in UP and 6% in Bihar of such women use contraception.
3. Logistic regression found that women with more sons are significantly more likely to use contraception compared to those with more daughters, indicating son preference impacts family planning acceptance.
Impact of Peer Educational Programme and Gender on Biology Students’ Knowledg...iosrjce
The document summarizes a study that examined the impact of a peer education program and gender on biology students' knowledge of HIV/AIDS concepts in selected secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. It found that a peer education instructional strategy had a significant positive effect on students' knowledge, while gender did not have a significant main effect. The interaction between treatment and gender also did not have a significant effect on knowledge. The study recommends the adoption of peer education programs by biology teachers and curriculum planners.
This document discusses gender safety in various contexts such as public spaces, transportation, healthcare, and the workplace. It defines gender and emphasizes the importance of gender analysis to ensure policies, practices, and projects consider differences between women and men. This helps address women's unique experiences and needs to achieve objectives without unintentionally worsening their situation. The document also highlights the value placed on gender safety internationally and provides several examples of initiatives to improve consideration of gender perspectives in various sectors.
—In many cultures in India, womanhood is defined through motherhood and infertile women usually carry the blame for the couple inability to conceive. A childless woman is stigmatized and sometimes not allowed to participate in various auspicious ceremonies, particularly those involving childbirth. The present study was undertaken in S.M.S. Medical College, Jaipur, Rajasthan to find out the factors contributing to infertility and the health seeking behavior of infertile women. A hospital based observational study was carried out in year 2017 on eligible women attending OPD of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Mahila Chikitsalaya, S.M.S. Medical College Jaipur. A total 1000 eligible women were recruited using systematic random sampling and interviewed using a predesigned and pretested questionnaire. A total of 119 women (11.9%) were found to be infertile. Age of women, caste, residence, education status of women, occupation, family size and socioeconomic status were found to be significantly associated with infertility (P<0.05). Lower age of women, OBC caste, urban residence, less family size, lesser education status of women, housewives and middle socioeconomic status were found to have significantly more infertile females than their counterparts. Age of women, type of family and religion were not found to be associated with infertility (P >0.05). Improving awareness about infertility and its management could help reduce the burden and its social implications.
An additional year of schooling is associated with a 0.107 higher probability of not having a chronic illness for adults in Mongolia. For males it's 0.114 and for females it's 0.100. A mother's additional year of schooling increases the probability her child does not have health complaints by 0.031. However, a father's schooling has no impact on a child's health. While education is linked to better health outcomes, the causal mechanisms are still being investigated.
Adolescent hiv indian perspective-current and future scope - dr. baxiIndian Health Journal
The document discusses adolescent HIV in India. It notes that while adolescents aged 15-24 years make up 25% of India's population, they account for 31% of AIDS cases. HIV prevalence is 0.04% among those aged 15-19 and 0.18% among those aged 20-24. Factors like gender inequality, lack of education, poverty, and early marriage make many female adolescents particularly vulnerable to HIV. Efforts are needed to provide adolescents with correct information on sexuality and HIV, promote safer sex practices, empower female youth, and involve NGOs in HIV prevention programs targeting this group.
Este documento fornece uma introdução ao ambiente gráfico KDE no Linux, explicando:
1) Os principais elementos da área de trabalho como a barra de menu, ícones e menu principal.
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Reproductive health covers all matters relating to the reproductive system, at all stages of life. Good reproductive health for women begins in childhood and the teen years. Things such as nutrition, environment, education, income level, and cultural practices influence your reproductive health. Good reproductive health benefits the health and well being of our family. It can improve the social and economic situation of you and our family. And most importantly, it can help make sure that every infant is wanted, loved and has a chance to grow up healthy. The present study concludes that 1 4th 59 of the respondents attitude are neutral, 21percent of the respondent’s attitude are positive, and 19percent of the respondent attitude is negative towards sexual and reproductive health. Dr. Agnes Febiola. X | Saranya. S "A Study on the Attitude of Tribal Woman towards Re-Productive Health" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-2 , April 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/papers/ijtsrd56237.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/medicine/other/56237/a-study-on-the-attitude-of-tribal-woman-towards-reproductive-health/dr-agnes-febiola-x
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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A study of sexually experienced unmarried men in india
1. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-5766(Paper) ISSN 2225-0484(Online)
Vol.1, No.4, 2011
Does Education Leads to Contraceptive Use?
A Study of Sexually Experienced Unmarried Men in India
Prashant Kumar Singh1* Manoj Alagarajan1 Rajesh Kumar Rai2 Lucky Singh3
1. International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai 400 088, India
2. Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai 400 088, India
3. International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai 400 088, India
* E-mail of the corresponding author: prashants.geo@gmail.com
Abstract
The consequences of pre-marital sex have been the subject of common concern for the public health
professionals and policy makers. In India, despite strict societal sanctions, the prevalence of pre-marital
sex has been repeatedly documented across literatures. It is believed that existing education system
could afford the responsibility to develop protective sexual behavior among unmarried youths. Using
National Family Health Survey (2005-06) data, this study examines the effect of education on
contraceptive and condom use among sexually experienced unmarried men. Results indicate that
education has a positive effect on contraceptive as well as condom use. However the interaction effect
of education and awareness on contraceptive and condom use provides the key explanations for safe
sexual practices. The findings could help policy makers to focus on both education and awareness
which might lead to improvement in safe sexual practices in India where introducing sex education is
still a controversial issue.
Keywords: Education, awareness, unmarried men, contraceptive and condom use, India
1. Introduction
The socioeconomic and health implication of pre-marital sex remains the subject of common concern
and discussion among researchers and policy makers (Ganguli, 1998). Several studies from developing
countries have reported about premarital sexual relationship among young unmarried men and women
(Guiella & Madise, 2007; Gage, 1998; Jejeeboy, 1998). Due to the risky sexual encounters, illegal and
unsafe abortions are prevalent on staging scale in developing countries (Savara & Sridhar, 1992).
Moreover, the spread of Reproductive Tract Infections (RTI), Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs),
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), and the imminent threat of HIV/AIDS epidemic in recent years
have increased the consequences of premarital sex in the developing countries (Potdar & Koening,
2005). Traditionally, due to prevailing family and societal value system Indian men and women are not
expected to have sexual relationship until marriage. However, despite strict societal sanctions pre-
marital sex has reported in several studies (IIPS & Population Council, 2009; Alexender et al., 2007;
Brahme et al., 2005; Collumbien et al., 2002; Singh et al., 1998).
The increase in pre-marital sexual activities in India could be an outcome of several socio-behavioral
changes in last few years. The average age at marriage for both men and women has been rising by one
year per decade (IIPS, 2006), which widened the period between age of sexual maturity and marriage.
Additionally, exposure towards western culture, mass media such as movies and literature has
increased the commercial information about sex (Khanna & Kapoor, 2004). Studies also highlighted
peer-related pressures as the important factor which could leads to change in sexual behavior among
young women and men (Cicely et al., 2004). In this combined effect, young people could depart
beyond the conservative behavior. In many developing countries including India, lack of contraceptive
use, discontinuation and failure rates characterized the vast majority of sexual encounters among
unmarried young people (Singh et al., 1998; Collumbien et al., 2001). Moreover, contraceptive use by
unmarried young people is generally infrequent and irregular (Awasthi et al., 2000; Gupta, 2000;
Abraham & Kumar, 1999; Amazigo et al., 1997).
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As far as the role of education is concerned, the UNESCO in collaboration of UNAIDS launched
EDUCAIDS, the Global Initiative on Education and HIV/AIDS in 2004 (UNESCO, 2005). It seeks to
promote, develop and support comprehensive education sector responses to HIV/AIDS at global level.
Additionally, education helps to develop communication skill, self-esteem, aspirations and knowledge
about HIV/AIDS and other precautions which help to protect from risky sexual encounters (World
Bank, 2002; Chilman, 1983). In India, introducing sex education in schools and colleges is a very
sensitive subject and a topic not to be discussed openly (Sathe, 1994). Thus, it is generally believed that
existing education system could afford the responsibility to develop a protective behavior towards risky
sexual practices among unmarried young people. As the young people are an integral part of civil
society; it justifies the importance to study the sexual behavior and contraceptive use, especially the
possible impact of education, in order to preserve the productivity of the nation in a better way. Since,
past studies in India particularly looked on pre-marital sexual activity and its correlates among specific
groups they may not be generalized at national level. Therefore, the present study attempts to explore
the contraceptive and condom use separately by using large scale nationally representative dataset and
try to look at the possible impact of education among sexually experienced unmarried men in India.
2. Data and Methods
2.1 Data
The present study used data from the third round of National Family Health Survey (2005-06), covers
various aspects of health across all states of India. The NFHS-3 is a large-scale, multi-round survey
conducted in a representative sample of households throughout India. The third wave of NFHS has first
time interviewed men across the country and among them 28,238 were reported as unmarried at the
time of survey. This study included only those unmarried men who had experienced sexual intercourse
in last four weeks preceding the survey date to avoid recall bias. Thus, the present study restricts to
3,291 unmarried men for whom information was available on selected study variables.
2.2 Variables description
The dependent variables used in this paper are contraceptive use which includes; intra-uterine-device
(IUD), pills, injections, sterilization, periodic abstinence, and withdrawal methods. However, condom
use has also separately analyzed. This study has analyzed contraceptive use separately to examine the
extent of use by either sexual partner at the time of last sexual intercourse which has ignored by several
previous studies. The independent variables are education (no education, primary, secondary and
higher) place of residence (rural and urban), religion (Hindu, Muslim and Others), Caste (Schedules
Castes/ Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Castes, General and Other/Don’t know), wealth index
(poorest, poorer, middle, richer and richest), household structure (nuclear and joint), mass media
exposure (no and yes), know about HIV/AIDS (yes and no), aware about Sexual Transmitted Diseases
(yes and no), know condom as a means to avoid AIDS (yes and no), work status (no and yes), age at
first sexual intercourse (below 14, 15-19, 20-24, 25 and above), total lifetime number of sexual partner
(1, 1-3, and 4+) and alcohol consumption (no and yes).
2.3 Analytical strategy
Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed to fulfill the study objectives. At first the gross
differentials have examined to determine the use of contraceptive and condom among unmarried men
at the time of last sexual encounter. It is worth mentioning, Chi-square test were performed to examine
the difference in proportion in bivariate analyses. In order to observe the net effect, the study applied
multivariate logistic regression analysis to explain the variation in the use of contraceptive and
condom. Further, for each outcome variable, sets of different models were carried out to examine the
unadjusted and adjusted effects of ‘education’ on aforementioned outcome variable.
3. Results
3.1 Profile of the sample
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The utilisation rate of machines in a period of time, Ut, can be calculated as the total processing time,
tpro, Table 1 represents the weighted percentage distribution of unmarried men experienced sexual
intercourse by selected background characteristics. Majority of unmarried men experienced sexual
intercourse had completed secondary education level (63%). About 67% and 94% men have knew
about HIV/AIDS and aware about STDs respectively. Nearly half of the sexually experienced men did
not know condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible way to avoid HIV/AIDS. Majority of
unmarried men lived in rural areas (61%) and belonged to Hindu religion (80%). About one third were
from the Other Backward Caste and 23% belonged to richest wealth quintile. Nearly 57% belonged to
joint family and 85% was working. Over half of the unmarried men experienced first sex in the age
group 15-19 years and about 29% had 2-3 lifetime numbers of sexual partners. About 48% unmarried
men have consumed alcohol.
Table 1: Percentage distribution of sexually active unmarried men by selected background
characteristics, India, NFHS-3 (2005-06)
Selected variables % n Selected variables % n
Education Wealth Index
No Education 10.7 351 Poorest 12.9 425
Primary 13.8 454 Poorer 18.8 619
Secondary 63.0 2074 Middle 20.9 688
Higher 12.5 412 Richer 24.0 790
Knowledge about HIV/AIDS Richest 23.4 769
No 33.0 1081 Household structure
Yes 67.0 2070 Nuclear 42.7 1342
Aware about STDs Joint 57.3 1798
No 5.7 188 Mass Media Exposure
Yes 94.3 3103 No 2.1 69
Knowledge about condom use to avoid
HIV/AIDS Any 97.9 3222
No 50.1 1650 Work Status
Yes 49.9 1641 Not working 15.0 493
Residence Working 85.0 1795
Rural 61.4 2020 Age at first sexual intercourse
Urban 38.6 1271 below 14 11.0 363
Religion 15-19 52.7 1735
Hindu 80.1 2636 20-24 28.8 946
Muslim 11.5 377 25 above 7.5 246
Total lifetime number of sexual
Others 8.4 278 partners
Caste 1 57.4 1889
SC/ST 31.2 1027 2-3 28.5 938
OBC 34.1 1123 4+ 14.1 464
General 32.2 1142 Drink alcohol
No 52.3 1720
Yes 47.7 1571
Total number of respondents 3291
3.2 Bivariate analysis
Contraceptive and condom use among sexually experienced unmarried men by background
characteristics is presented in Table 2. Overall, 27% and 23% unmarried men have used contraceptive
and condom at the time of last sexual intercourse respectively. The bivariate association suggests that
contraceptive (34%) and condom (29%) use were more among higher educated men. Nearly, 31% and
26% men used contraceptive and condom respectively who knew about HIV/AIDS. The use of condom
was 23% among unmarried men who were aware about STDs. Similarly, contraceptive (32%) and
condom (27%) use were higher among unmarried men who knew condom use during sexual
intercourse as a possible way to avoid HIV/AIDS respectively. The use of contraceptive and condom
were more in urban unmarried men than the rural counterpart. Unmarried men belonged to other
religion were 38% and 32% used contraceptive and condom respectively. Scheduled Castes/Scheduled
Tribes men were reported more contraceptive (36%) and condom (31%) use then the other castes
groups. The use of contraceptive and condom among unmarried men from poorest wealth quintile were
18% and 11% respectively. The use of contraceptive and condom among unmarried men were
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increasing with the increase in the lifetime number of sexual partners. Unmarried men who consumed
alcohol were reported lower contraceptive (23%) and condom use (19%).
Table 2: Percentage of sexually active unmarried men using contraceptive and condom use at last
sex by selected background characteristics, India, NFHS-3 (2005-06)
Contraceptive Condom Contraceptive Condom
Selected variables Selected variables
use use use use
Education (38.86***) (48.81***) Household structure ns ns
No Education 17.4 12.2 Nuclear 27.0 22.7
Primary 21.4 15.3 Joint 27.3 22.6
Secondary 28.4 24.4 Wealth Index (133.43***) (173.59***)
Higher 34.2 29.1 Poorest 17.6 11.4
Knowledge about
HIV/AIDS (32.80***) (30.83***) Poorer 22.0 14.4
No 21.0 17.1 Middle 18.5 15.4
Yes 30.8 26.3 Richer 29.2 24.9
Aware about STDs 9.93*** 20.63*** Richest 41.2 38.1
No 17.0 8.2 Mass Media Exposure ns ns
Yes 27.5 23.2 No 26.0 13.6
Know condom
during sexual
(34.63***) (34.43***) Yes 27.1 22.5
intercourse use to
avoid HIV/AIDS
No 22.4 18.0 Work Status ns ns
Yes 32.0 26.8 Not working 27.8 23.4
Residence (56.26***) (88.43***) Working 26.7 22.1
Age at first sexual
Rural 22.3 16.7 intercourse (36.65***) (31.498***)
Urban 34.2 31.1 below 14 17.6 14.1
Religion (22.61***) (18.67***) 15-19 26.5 21.8
Hindu 25.3 20.9 20-24 32.7 27.8
Muslim 30.4 25.7 25 above 21.1 18.1
Total lifetime number of
Others 37.8 31.9 sexual partners (100.53***) (88.93***)
Caste (66.80***) (71.26***) 1 21.7 18.0
SC/ST 35.6 31.3 2-3 28.9 23.1
OBC 23.6 19.0 4+ 44.4 39.2
General 21.2 16.8 Drink alcohol (22.12***) (27.12***)
No 30.7 26.4
Yes 23.4 18.6
Total 26.9 22.3
Note: χ2test applied for each variable; #significant at 0.01 level,*significant at 0.05 level; ns: not significant; NA: Not applicable
3.3 Multivariate analysis
The bivariate analysis clearly suggests that along with education, other background characteristics have
also an effect on contraceptive and condom use among unmarried men. To examine the adjusted effect
of education on two outcome variables, multivariate analysis was carried out and the results are
presented in Table 3.
Model 1 shows that the use of contraceptive was found to be more likely among secondary (OR=1.646)
and higher (OR=1.780) educated men than the uneducated men (p<0.01). Similarly, the odds of using
condom use was also more likely among secondary (OR=1.465; p<0.01) and higher (OR=1.621,
p<0.01) educated men than the uneducated men (Model 4). Model 2 shows that, after including
knowledge of HIV/AIDS along with education and other selected background characteristics, the
likelihood of contraceptive use were found to be more among men who knew about HIV/AIDS than
there counterpart (OR=1.796, p<0.01). However, education did not show any significant impact on
contraceptive and condom use. Muslim religion were found to be significantly and negatively
associated with the contraceptive use. Wealth quintile and age at first sexual intercourse was
significantly and positively associated with the use of contraception among unmarried men. The impact
of education reduces in model 3, where aware about STDs was included along with all variables used
in model 2. The odds of using contraceptive was high among men who were aware about STDs
(OR=1.858; p<0.01) than those men who did not aware about STDs. Again variables which showed
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significant association with contraceptive use in model 2 were also found to be significantly associated
in model 3.
Table 3: Logistic regression (Odds ratio) for assessing the likelihood for use of contraceptive and
condom by education and selected variables, India, NFHS-3 (2005-06)
Contraceptive use Condom use
Selected Covariates Model-1 Model-2 Model-3 Model-4 Model-5 Model-6 Model-7
Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β)
Education
No Education®
Primary 1.172 0.943 1.075 0.953 0.782 0.847 0.77
Secondary 1.646** 1.257 1.419* 1.465** 1.131 1.291 1.107
Higher 1.780** 1.212 1.527* 1.621** 1.110 1.382 1.097
Knowledge about
HIV/AIDS
No®
Yes 1.796*** 1.520** 1.701*** 1.621*** 1.298*
Aware about STDs
No®
Yes 1.858*** 1.747*** 1.589*
Know condom during
sexual intercourse use to
avoid HIV/AIDS
No®
Yes 1.526** 1.420***
Residence
Rural®
Urban 1.228* 1.169 1.221 1.300** 1.251* 1.286** 1.240*
Religion
Hindu®
Muslim 0.608*** 0.596*** 0.599*** 0.602** 0.583*** 0.589*** 0.492***
Others 1.017 1.083 1.009 0.985 1.038 1.023 1.04
Caste
SC/ST®
OBC 0.676*** 0.708** 0.687** 0.987** 0.709** 0.704** 0.720***
General 0.668** 0.688** 0.682** 0.983** 0.709** 0.689** 0.711***
Wealth Index
Poorest®
Poorer 1.183 1.117 1.114 1.180 1.126 1.102 1.14
Middle 1.244 1.06 1.146 1.629* 1.418 1.482 1.449
Richer 2.007*** 1.721** 1.832** 2.593*** 2.282*** 2.329*** 2.320***
Richest 2.840*** 2.561*** 2.587*** 3.847*** 3.503*** 3.463*** 3.615***
Household structure
Nuclear®
Joint 0.927 0.934 0.944 0.888 0.902 0.9 0.907
Mass Media Exposure
No®
Yes 1.292 1.365 1.142 1.034 1.094 0.884 1.082
Work Status
Not working®
Working 1.05 1.068 1.053 1.023 1.045 1.023 1.06
Age at first sexual
intercourse
below 14®
15-19 1.29 1.258 1.26 1.306 1.266 1.275 1.267
20-24 1.682** 1.587** 1.639** 1.672** 1.541* 1.642* 1.556**
25 above 1.353 1.368 1.32 1.304 1.286 1.277 1.27
Total lifetime number of
sexual partners
1®
2-3 1.055 1.056 1.049 1.003 1.005 0.944 1.016
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4+ 1.351** 1.395** 1.316** 1.277 1.296* 1.247 1.301**
Table 1 continued
Drink alcohol
No®
Yes 0.987 0.963 0.994 1.069 1.051 1.074 1.047
-2 log likelihood 2326.957 2205.772 2114.629 2125.190 2029.406 2010.737 2004.491
Note: Level of significance: * p < 0.10 ** p < 0.05 *** p < 0.01 ® Reference category
Model 1and 4: Only education with other selected background variables and excluding knowledge variable.
Model 2and 5: Education + knowledge about HIV/AIDS.
Model 3and 6: Education + heard about STDs Model 4: Education + knowledge about condom as a means to avoid
HIV/AIDS
Model 7: Education + know condom use during sexual intercourse as a way to avoid HIV/AIDS
No significant effect of education on condom use was evident when the knowledge about HIV/AIDS
variable was included in model 5. The odds of condom use were more likely among men who knew
about HIV/AIDS than their counterpart (OR=1.701; p<0.01). Muslim men were less likely to use
condom than the men belonged to Hindu religion (OR=0.589; p<0.01). The odds of using contraceptive
was higher among wealthier men compared with men belonged to poorest wealth quintile (OR=2.587;
p<0.01). A similar association was observed in model 6 when aware about STDs was included along
with other background variables. The odds of condom use was more likely among those men who have
aware about STDs than those who did not aware (OR=1.747; p<0.01). However, the impact of
education on condom use remains insignificant. Place of residence and wealth status found to be
significant and positively associated with the condom use. The last model (Model 7), shows significant
effect of two knowledge related variables (knowledge about HIV/AIDS and aware about STDs) along
with the one additional variables namely, knew condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible
way to avoid HIV/AIDS. The odds of condom use were found to be high among unmarried men who
knew condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible means to avoid HIV/AIDS, than their
counterpart (OR=1.420, p<0.01). Unmarried men belonged to Muslim religion; Other Backward Castes
and General Castes found to be significantly and negatively associated with the condom use during last
sex. However, wealth status, age at first sexual intercourse and number of lifetime sexual partner were
positively associated with the use of condom among unmarried men.
3.4 Interaction effect analysis: multivariate technique
Results from multivariate analyses have shown mixed effect of education and awareness on
contraceptive and condom use among men. Therefore, to understand the possible impact of educational
on the use of contraceptive and condom, the interaction effect is customarily assessed in the analysis of
variance using sums of square for the interaction terms in Table 5. In this paper, new variables
representing combinations of education and other awareness variables like, aware about STDs, know
about HIV/AIDS and know condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible mean to avoid
HIV/AIDS have created. The other background variables remain similar in the multivariate analysis. It
is worthwhile to mention that only one interaction could be examined at a time. Inclusion of two
interaction variables in a single analysis brings in multi-colinearity effect.
The result from interaction effect demonstrated interesting observations regarding the combination of
education and knowledge of HIV/AIDS on contraceptive and condom use by unmarried men (model 1
and 4, table 5). The use of contraceptive and condom were positively associated with the increase in
education and knowledge about HIV/AIDS. The odds of using contraceptive and condom use were
two, and one and half times more likely among higher educated men who knew about HIV/AIDS
respectively, compared with men who were uneducated and did not aware of HIV/AIDS (p<0.05).
Similarly, the interaction effect between education and aware about STDs has shown positive effect on
contraceptive and condom use (model 2 and 5, table 5). The likelihood of using contraceptive
(OR=6.214, p<0.01) and condom (OR=6.630, p<0.01) were higher among those men who have higher
education and aware of STDs than to those who were uneducated and did not aware about STDs.
Interestingly, the likelihood of using contraceptive and condom were found to be high even among
those men who were uneducated but aware about STDs (OR=3.924; p<0.01), compared with men who
were uneducated and did not aware about STDs. A strong interaction effect between education ×
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knowledge about condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible means to avoid HIV/AIDS on the
use contraceptive and condom evident (Model 3 and 6, Table 5). The likelihood of using contraceptive
and condom were found to be higher among unmarried men who knew condom use during sexual
intercourse as a possible means to avoid HIV/AIDS, irrespective of their educational level than the
uneducated men who did not knew condom as a possible means to avoid HIV/AIDS (p<0.01).
Table 4: Logistic regression (Odds ratio) for the use of contraceptive and condom, India, NFHS-3
(2005-06): Assessment of the education and know any ways to avoid HIV/AIDS, heard about
STDs and condom use as a means to avoid HIV/AIDS.
Contraceptive use Condom use
Interaction variables Model-1 Model-2 Model-3 Model-4 Model-5 Model-6
Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β) Exp (β)
Education x Knowledge about HIV/AIDS
No Education-did not know about HIV/AIDS® 1.00 1.00
No education-knew about HIV/AIDS 1.585 1.487
Primary-did not know about HIV/AIDS 0.897 0.737
Primary-knew about HIV/AIDS 1.581* 1.265*
Secondary-did not know about HIV/AIDS 1.171** 1.042**
Secondary-knew about HIV/AIDS 2.068** 1.774**
Higher-did not know about HIV/AIDS 1.976** 1.773**
Higher-knew about HIV/AIDS 2.041** 1.420**
Education x Aware about STDs
No education-do not aware about STDs® 1.00 1.00
No education- aware about STDs 3.924** 4.835**
Primary-do not aware about STDs 2.592 0.931
Primary- aware about STDs 3.933** 4.027**
Secondary-do not aware about STDs 1.437** 2.048**
Secondary- aware about STDs 5.574** 6.153**
Higher-do not aware about STDs 5.961** 6.598**
Higher- aware about STDs 6.214** 6.630**
Education x Knew condom use during sexual intercourse
as a means of avoid AIDS
No education-did not know condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS® 1.00 1.00
No education-knew condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS 3.844*** 3.971***
Primary-did not know condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS 1.424 1.146
Primary-knew condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS 2.485** 1.995**
Secondary-did not know condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS 1.773** 1.719**
Secondary-knew condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS 3.125*** 2.983***
Higher-did not know condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS 2.025*** 1.929***
Higher-knew condom use to avoid HIV/AIDS 3.234*** 2.904***
-2 log likelihood 2205.32 2314.69 2288.38 2028.95 2052.32 2092.43
Note: Level of significance: * p < 0.10 ** p < 0.05 *** p < 0.01 ® Reference category
Model 1 and 4: Education x Knowledge about HIV/AIDS; Model 2 and 5: Education x Heard about STDs.
Model 6: Education x Knowledge about condom use during sexual intercourse as a means to avoid HIV/AIDS
All the estimates adjusted by age, place of residence, mass media exposure, work status, household structure, religion, caste, wealth index,
age at the first sexual intercourse, total lifetime number of sexual partner and alcohol consumption.
4. Conclusion
The present study examines the association between education and contraceptive as well as condom
use among unmarried men who have experienced last sexual intercourse in the four weeks preceding
the survey date. The study has used data from the Indian National Family Health Survey (INFHS)
conducted during 2005-06. The present study findings highlight the importance of education in
delaying sexual initiation before marriage. This finding is consistent with other studies elsewhere
documented late sexual initiation among educated young unmarried men compared to uneducated men
(Alexender et al., 2007; Gupta, 2000). Previous studies acknowledged that education has a positive
effect on contraceptive and condom use among unmarried men (Zambuko & Mturi, 2005), however the
present study found that the extent of contraceptive and condom use among unmarried men varying by
educational level. The three selected awareness indicators i.e., knowledge about HIV/AIDS, aware
about STDs and knowledge about condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible means to avoid
HIV/AIDS observed measurable effect on contraceptive and condom use among sexually experienced
unmarried men. However, this finding is not consistent with other studies where they found
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inconsistent relationship between knowledge about sexual related issues and safe sex practices
(Abraham & Kumar, 1998; Marston et al., 2004).
In this study, first time interaction effect between two key variables (education and awareness),
highlighted by several studies have incorporated. This provides some of the key explanations for safe
sexual practices among unmarried men in India. The impact of higher education on contraceptive and
condom use is evident. Even those higher educated men who did not know about HIV/AIDS, did not
aware about STDs and did not know condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible means to
avoid HIV/AIDS, the odds of using contraceptive and condom was significantly higher compared to
uneducated men who did not know about all three awareness indicators. This could be because
education helps to develop communication skill, self-identity, self-esteem and aspirations which protect
young people from the risky sexual behavior (Chilman, 1983; Arowojolu et al., 2002). On the other
hand finding shows that contraceptive and condom use were higher among uneducated men who were
aware about STDs and condom use during sexual intercourse as a possible means to avoid HIV/AIDS
compared to uneducated men who did not have the knowledge about STDs and condom use during
sexual intercourse as a possible means to avoid HIV/AIDS. This confirms the notion that combination
of information and awareness could increase the acceptance of safe sexual practices even among
uneducated men.
In India where introducing sex education is still a controversial issue and increasing expectations from
the existing education system to encourage safe sexual practices among young people is very high. The
finding of this study could help policy makers and public health experts to focus on the combination of
education × awareness approach which may lead unmarried men more likely to adopt safe sexual
practices. The present study takes an initial step towards bridging the evidence from three key
components of research- education, awareness and pre-marital sexuality- and tried to explore possible
impact of education and awareness combination which could be more acceptable way for achieving
safe sexual practices among unmarried men particularly in the country with relatively traditional
society like India.
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10. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-5766(Paper) ISSN 2225-0484(Online)
Vol.1, No.4, 2011
About Authors
Mr. Prashant Kumar Singh. Doctoral Candidate at the International Institute for Population Sciences
(IIPS), Mumbai. He is engaged in social science research particularly in the area of maternal and child
health in South Asian countries.
Dr. Manoj Alagarajan. Assistant Professor at Department of Development Studies, International
Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai. The area of interest is on Fertility related issues,
family planning, maternal and child health and issues related to Population and Development.
Mr. Rajesh Kumar Singh. Research Associate at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India.
His current areas of interest have been maternal and child well-being, and evolutionary demography.
Ms. Lucky Singh. Doctoral Candidate at the International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS),
Mumbai, India. Her major research areas are ageing and social network, reproductive and child health,
and adolescent’s health.
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