The document compares three methods for selecting input variables in uncertainty quantification and sensitivity analysis of computer models: random sampling, stratified sampling, and Latin hypercube sampling. It shows that stratified sampling and Latin hypercube sampling produce estimators with lower variance than random sampling for important statistics like the sample mean and variance. When applied to a fluid dynamics computer code called SOLA-PLOOP, Latin hypercube sampling produced estimators with standard deviations around one-fourth those of random sampling, demonstrating its superior performance.
A Modified KS-test for Feature SelectionIOSR Journals
This document proposes a modified Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test-based feature selection algorithm. It begins with an overview of feature selection and its benefits. It then discusses two common feature selection approaches: filter and wrapper models. The document proposes a fast redundancy removal filter based on a modified KS statistic that utilizes class label information to compare feature pairs. It compares the proposed algorithm to other methods like Correlation Feature Selection (CFS) and KS-Correlation Based Filter (KS-CBF). The efficiency and effectiveness of the various methods are tested on standard classifiers. In most cases, the proposed approach achieved equal or better classification accuracy compared to using all features or the other algorithms.
This document summarizes disaster history and affected areas in Hambantota District of Sri Lanka. It details that the district experienced tsunamis in 2004, 2007, 2010, and 2012 affecting 44 divisions. Floods regularly impact various divisions from 2006-2011. Drought affected the entire district from 2001-2002 and 2012. Landslides commonly occur in 3 divisions during heavy rain. Other hazards mentioned include high winds, wild elephant attacks, and rare occurrences of epidemics, accidents, civil conflict, and fires. The document lists 11 schools that could be affected by tsunamis and locations of 9 early warning towers and 5 rain gauges established in the district.
A systematic analysis of the areas of product optimisationPhuong Dx
This document discusses approaches to systematically optimizing products. It begins by defining product optimization as adapting qualities to meet customer expectations while also considering the company's interests. It then outlines various sources of optimization, including internal drivers like dissatisfaction with existing products or external drivers like competition. The document also discusses different forms of optimization like functional and production engineering optimization. It emphasizes the importance of systematically analyzing competitors' products, such as through benchmarking and patent databases, to gain insights. Finally, it concludes that continuously improving existing products is necessary to remain competitive and random improvements will not suffice.
A modeling approach for integrating durability engineering and robustness in ...Phuong Dx
This document presents mathematical models to integrate robustness, durability, and tolerances into the design of mechanical products like springs. The models optimize design parameters like wire diameter and coil diameter to minimize mass and stress while ensuring the spring provides the required deflection over its lifetime considering degradation. Three solutions are provided that incorporate different aspects: 1) ensures high reliability, 2) minimizes loss and quality, and 3) accounts for degradation over the spring's lifetime to better meet customer expectations. The models act as a decision support system for designers to evaluate tradeoffs between robustness, durability and manufacturing tolerances early in the design process.
A re balanced scorecard- a strategic approach to enhance manageriPhuong Dx
This document proposes a re-balanced scorecard framework to better evaluate managerial performance in complex environments. It views the firm as having social contracts beyond shareholders to stakeholders like employees, communities, and the environment. The conceptual framework is based on social contract theory and sees the firm as a nexus of social rather than just economic contracts. It then maps this conceptual framework to a practical re-balanced scorecard structure that can induce improved managerial behavior aligned with long-term sustainability and social contract obligations. This framework aims to better account for multidimensional factors managers face and costs of misconduct in evaluating performance.
Fatigue testing of a composite propeller blade using fiber optic strain sensorsPhuong Dx
This document summarizes a study on the performance of fiber-optic strain sensors during a 17 million cycle fatigue test of a composite propeller blade. Fiber-optic sensors and electrical resistance strain gauges were mounted on the blade to measure strains. The fiber-optic sensors included extrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometric sensors and an extensometer sensor. The fiber-optic sensors provided consistent strain measurements throughout the entire fatigue test, while most of the electrical resistance gauges failed. The results demonstrate the suitability of fiber-optic sensors, especially extrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometric sensors, for structural testing applications involving high strain levels over multiple millions of cycles.
A Modified KS-test for Feature SelectionIOSR Journals
This document proposes a modified Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test-based feature selection algorithm. It begins with an overview of feature selection and its benefits. It then discusses two common feature selection approaches: filter and wrapper models. The document proposes a fast redundancy removal filter based on a modified KS statistic that utilizes class label information to compare feature pairs. It compares the proposed algorithm to other methods like Correlation Feature Selection (CFS) and KS-Correlation Based Filter (KS-CBF). The efficiency and effectiveness of the various methods are tested on standard classifiers. In most cases, the proposed approach achieved equal or better classification accuracy compared to using all features or the other algorithms.
This document summarizes disaster history and affected areas in Hambantota District of Sri Lanka. It details that the district experienced tsunamis in 2004, 2007, 2010, and 2012 affecting 44 divisions. Floods regularly impact various divisions from 2006-2011. Drought affected the entire district from 2001-2002 and 2012. Landslides commonly occur in 3 divisions during heavy rain. Other hazards mentioned include high winds, wild elephant attacks, and rare occurrences of epidemics, accidents, civil conflict, and fires. The document lists 11 schools that could be affected by tsunamis and locations of 9 early warning towers and 5 rain gauges established in the district.
A systematic analysis of the areas of product optimisationPhuong Dx
This document discusses approaches to systematically optimizing products. It begins by defining product optimization as adapting qualities to meet customer expectations while also considering the company's interests. It then outlines various sources of optimization, including internal drivers like dissatisfaction with existing products or external drivers like competition. The document also discusses different forms of optimization like functional and production engineering optimization. It emphasizes the importance of systematically analyzing competitors' products, such as through benchmarking and patent databases, to gain insights. Finally, it concludes that continuously improving existing products is necessary to remain competitive and random improvements will not suffice.
A modeling approach for integrating durability engineering and robustness in ...Phuong Dx
This document presents mathematical models to integrate robustness, durability, and tolerances into the design of mechanical products like springs. The models optimize design parameters like wire diameter and coil diameter to minimize mass and stress while ensuring the spring provides the required deflection over its lifetime considering degradation. Three solutions are provided that incorporate different aspects: 1) ensures high reliability, 2) minimizes loss and quality, and 3) accounts for degradation over the spring's lifetime to better meet customer expectations. The models act as a decision support system for designers to evaluate tradeoffs between robustness, durability and manufacturing tolerances early in the design process.
A re balanced scorecard- a strategic approach to enhance manageriPhuong Dx
This document proposes a re-balanced scorecard framework to better evaluate managerial performance in complex environments. It views the firm as having social contracts beyond shareholders to stakeholders like employees, communities, and the environment. The conceptual framework is based on social contract theory and sees the firm as a nexus of social rather than just economic contracts. It then maps this conceptual framework to a practical re-balanced scorecard structure that can induce improved managerial behavior aligned with long-term sustainability and social contract obligations. This framework aims to better account for multidimensional factors managers face and costs of misconduct in evaluating performance.
Fatigue testing of a composite propeller blade using fiber optic strain sensorsPhuong Dx
This document summarizes a study on the performance of fiber-optic strain sensors during a 17 million cycle fatigue test of a composite propeller blade. Fiber-optic sensors and electrical resistance strain gauges were mounted on the blade to measure strains. The fiber-optic sensors included extrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometric sensors and an extensometer sensor. The fiber-optic sensors provided consistent strain measurements throughout the entire fatigue test, while most of the electrical resistance gauges failed. The results demonstrate the suitability of fiber-optic sensors, especially extrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometric sensors, for structural testing applications involving high strain levels over multiple millions of cycles.
Finite element modeling of the broaching process of inconel718Phuong Dx
This document summarizes a study that used finite element modeling to simulate the broaching process of Inconel718. The study compared simulation results to experimental data and found good agreement for cutting forces. Models for cutting forces as functions of cutting parameters were developed based on simulation results. Additionally, the effects of rake angle and rising per tooth on chip curling and gullet area ratios were examined. Increasing rake angle or decreasing rising per tooth decreased chip curling diameter. Simulated chip curling diameters and area ratios were larger than recommended design values, suggesting gullet dimensions could be increased to improve chip flow.
A potential panel method for prediction of midchord face and back cavitation ...Phuong Dx
1) The document presents a 3D boundary element method for predicting sheet cavitation on marine propellers and wings.
2) The method models face and midchord cavitation using a sheet cavitation model within a potential flow framework.
3) The method is validated by analyzing cavitating wings and propellers to investigate its ability to predict general cavity patterns and pressure distributions on wetted surfaces.
The document discusses managing corporate performance using a balanced scorecard approach. It introduces the balanced scorecard framework which includes four perspectives: financial, customer, internal business processes, and learning and growth. It then provides details on each perspective, including examples of strategic objectives and key performance indicators that could be used. The document also discusses how corporate scorecards can be cascaded down to create balanced scorecards at divisional and functional levels like HR, IT, finance, and marketing. Strategy maps are presented as a tool to translate strategies into objectives and measures across the four perspectives.
Delicious is a social bookmarking service that allows users to save, tag, and share web pages. It allows users to store bookmarks online and access them from any device. Users can register for a Delicious account using their email, Facebook, or Twitter account. Once logged in, they can start adding and tagging bookmarks. Bookmarks can be made private or shared with others. Users can also see popular bookmarks by tag to discover new sites. Bookmarks from Delicious can be linked or embedded into other systems like GOALS courses to share resources.
Determination of proportionality constants from cutting forcePhuong Dx
1) The document presents an experimental study to determine proportionality constants from cutting force modelling during broaching operations.
2) Experiments were conducted on a shaping machine using aluminum, cast iron, and mild steel workpieces to determine specific cutting energy constants.
3) These specific cutting energy constants are then used to calculate the proportionality constants in a mechanistic force model for broaching. Graphs of experimental cutting forces versus chip thickness are presented to validate the model.
Ok (review ) celebrating 20 years of the balanced scorecardPhuong Dx
This document provides an overview of the author's literature review on research related to the balanced scorecard over the past 20 years. The author reviewed over 100 articles published in accounting and business journals from 1992 to 2011 on the topic. The review categorized the articles by topic, research setting, theories used, research methods, and data analysis techniques. The review found diversity in the topics, theories, and methods used in balanced scorecard research. However, it also identified a lack of theory-driven research as an area needing more attention. The author aims to identify gaps and opportunities for future balanced scorecard research, and contribute to the field by synthesizing the past 20 years of studies on the topic.
Applications of composites in marine industryPhuong Dx
Composite materials are increasingly being used in marine applications due to their superior properties compared to traditional materials like wood and metal. They are lightweight, corrosion resistant, and can be tailored for specific structural and mechanical properties. Some key uses of composites discussed in the document include:
1. Boat and ship hull construction using fiberglass or carbon fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) which provides benefits over wood and reduces maintenance costs compared to metal hulls.
2. Naval vessels where FRP composites allow for lightweight construction and corrosion resistance, improving fuel efficiency. Early naval applications included mine sweepers, landing crafts, and submarine components.
3. Offshore oil and gas infrastructure where FRP pipes, tanks, and structures provide
This document discusses the usage of information and communication technology (ICT) in daily life, including education, business, banking, industry, and e-commerce. It provides examples of how teachers, students, researchers, and administrators use ICT in education. It also outlines how customers, businessmen, and bank administrators utilize ICT in banking, and how workers, researchers, and administrators employ ICT in industry. When discussing e-commerce, it describes how customers, suppliers, and employees interact online. Overall, the document demonstrates how ICT has changed and benefited many aspects of modern life.
An Improved Iterative Method for Solving General System of Equations via Gene...Zac Darcy
Various algorithms are known for solving linear system of equations. Iteration methods for solving the
large sparse linear systems are recommended. But in the case of general n× m matrices the classic
iterative algorithms are not applicable except for a few cases. The algorithm presented here is based on the
minimization of residual of solution and has some genetic characteristics which require using Genetic
Algorithms. Therefore, this algorithm is best applicable for construction of parallel algorithms. In this
paper, we describe a sequential version of proposed algorithm and present its theoretical analysis.
Moreover we show some numerical results of the sequential algorithm and supply an improved algorithm
and compare the two algorithms.
An Improved Iterative Method for Solving General System of Equations via Gene...Zac Darcy
Various algorithms are known for solving linear system of equations. Iteration methods for solving the
large sparse linear systems are recommended. But in the case of general n× m matrices the classic
iterative algorithms are not applicable except for a few cases. The algorithm presented here is based on the
minimization of residual of solution and has some genetic characteristics which require using Genetic
Algorithms. Therefore, this algorithm is best applicable for construction of parallel algorithms. In this
paper, we describe a sequential version of proposed algorithm and present its theoretical analysis.
Moreover we show some numerical results of the sequential algorithm and supply an improved algorithm
and compare the two algorithms.
AN IMPROVED ITERATIVE METHOD FOR SOLVING GENERAL SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS VIA GENE...Zac Darcy
Various algorithms are known for solving linear system of equations. Iteration methods for solving the
large sparse linear systems are recommended. But in the case of general n× m matrices the classic
iterative algorithms are not applicable except for a few cases. The algorithm presented here is based on the
minimization of residual of solution and has some genetic characteristics which require using Genetic
Algorithms. Therefore, this algorithm is best applicable for construction of parallel algorithms. In this
paper, we describe a sequential version of proposed algorithm and present its theoretical analysis.
Moreover we show some numerical results of the sequential algorithm and supply an improved algorithm
and compare the two algorithms.
Effect of Feature Selection on Gene Expression Datasets Classification Accura...IJECEIAES
Feature selection attracts researchers who deal with machine learning and data mining. It consists of selecting the variables that have the greatest impact on the dataset classification, and discarding the rest. This dimentionality reduction allows classifiers to be fast and more accurate. This paper traits the effect of feature selection on the accuracy of widely used classifiers in literature. These classifiers are compared with three real datasets which are pre-processed with feature selection methods. More than 9% amelioration in classification accuracy is observed, and k-means appears to be the most sensitive classifier to feature selection
The document discusses sampling distributions and standard errors. It provides:
1) An explanation of sampling distributions as the set of values a statistic can take when calculated from all possible samples of a given size.
2) Formulas for calculating the mean and variance of sampling distributions.
3) A definition of standard error as the standard deviation of a sampling distribution.
4) Common standard errors formulas for statistics like the sample mean, proportion, and difference between means.
5) An example problem demonstrating calculation of the mean and standard error of a sampling distribution of sample means.
Cost Optimized Design Technique for Pseudo-Random Numbers in Cellular Automataijait
In this research work, we have put an emphasis on the cost effective design approach for high quality pseudo-random numbers using one dimensional Cellular Automata (CA) over Maximum Length CA. This work focuses on different complexities e.g., space complexity, time complexity, design complexity and searching complexity for the generation of pseudo-random numbers in CA. The optimization procedure for
these associated complexities is commonly referred as the cost effective generation approach for pseudorandom numbers. The mathematical approach for proposed methodology over the existing maximum length CA emphasizes on better flexibility to fault coverage. The randomness quality of the generated patterns for the proposed methodology has been verified using Diehard Tests which reflects that the randomness quality
achieved for proposed methodology is equal to the quality of randomness of the patterns generated by the maximum length cellular automata. The cost effectiveness results a cheap hardware implementation for the concerned pseudo-random pattern generator. Short version of this paper has been published in [1].
An Algorithm For Vector Quantizer DesignAngie Miller
The document presents an algorithm for designing vector quantizers. The algorithm is efficient, intuitive, and can be used for quantizers with general distortion measures and large block lengths. It is based on Lloyd's approach but does not require differentiation, making it applicable even when the data distribution has discrete components. The algorithm finds quantizers that meet necessary optimality conditions. Examples show it converges well and finds near-optimal quantizers for memoryless Gaussian sources. It is also used successfully to quantize LPC speech parameters with a complicated distortion measure.
This document summarizes recent convergence results for the fuzzy c-means clustering algorithm (FCM). It discusses both numerical convergence, referring to how well the algorithm attains the minima of an objective function, and stochastic convergence, referring to how accurately the minima represent the actual cluster structure in data. For numerical convergence, the document outlines global and local convergence theorems, showing FCM converges to minima or saddle points globally and linearly to local minima. For stochastic convergence, it discusses a consistency result showing the minima accurately represent cluster structure under certain statistical assumptions.
This document presents an analysis of the exponential distribution under an adaptive type-I progressive hybrid censoring scheme for competing risks data. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian estimation methods are used to estimate the distribution parameter. Specifically, maximum likelihood estimators are derived for the exponential distribution parameter. Bayesian estimators are also obtained for the parameter based on squared error and LINEX loss functions using gamma priors. Asymptotic confidence intervals and Bayesian credible intervals are proposed. A simulation study is conducted to evaluate the performance of the estimators.
Undetermined Mixing Matrix Estimation Base on Classification and CountingIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This paper introduces the mixing matrix estimation algorithms about undetermined blind source separation. Contrapose the difficulty to determine the parameters, the complex calculations in potential function method and the difficulty to confirm the cluster centers in method of clustering, we propose a new method to estimate the mixing matrix base on classification and counting the observed data. The experiment result shows that the new algorithm can not only simplify the calculation but also is easier to be understood. Besides, the new algorithm can provide a more accurate result according to the precision people wanted.
Computational intelligence based simulated annealing guided key generation in...ijitjournal
In this paper, a Computational Intelligence based Simulated Annealing (SA) guided approach is use to
construct the key stream. SA is a randomization technique for solving optimization problems. It is a
procedure for finding good quality solutions to a large diversity of combinatorial optimization problems.
This technique can assist to stay away from the problem of getting stuck in local optima and to escort
towards the globally optimum solution. It is inspired by the annealing procedure in metallurgy. At high
temperatures, the molecules of liquid move freely with respect to one another. If the liquid is cooled slowly,
thermal mobility is lost. Parametric tests are done and results are compared with some existing classical
techniques, which shows comparable results for the proposed system.
The document presents a new method called KCGex-SVM for extracting rules from support vector machines (SVMs). It combines weighted kernel k-means clustering, genetic algorithms, and information from SVMs to generate an interpretable rule set from credit screening data. The method was tested on three credit screening datasets and showed improved accuracy over other rule extraction techniques, generating rules with good performance while maintaining comprehensibility.
THE LEFT AND RIGHT BLOCK POLE PLACEMENT COMPARISON STUDY: APPLICATION TO FLIG...ieijjournal1
It is known that if a linear-time-invariant MIMO system described by a state space equation has a number
of states divisible by the number of inputs and it can be transformed to block controller form, we can
design a state feedback controller using block pole placement technique by assigning a set of desired Block
poles. These may be left or right block poles. The idea is to compare both in terms of system’s response.
Finite element modeling of the broaching process of inconel718Phuong Dx
This document summarizes a study that used finite element modeling to simulate the broaching process of Inconel718. The study compared simulation results to experimental data and found good agreement for cutting forces. Models for cutting forces as functions of cutting parameters were developed based on simulation results. Additionally, the effects of rake angle and rising per tooth on chip curling and gullet area ratios were examined. Increasing rake angle or decreasing rising per tooth decreased chip curling diameter. Simulated chip curling diameters and area ratios were larger than recommended design values, suggesting gullet dimensions could be increased to improve chip flow.
A potential panel method for prediction of midchord face and back cavitation ...Phuong Dx
1) The document presents a 3D boundary element method for predicting sheet cavitation on marine propellers and wings.
2) The method models face and midchord cavitation using a sheet cavitation model within a potential flow framework.
3) The method is validated by analyzing cavitating wings and propellers to investigate its ability to predict general cavity patterns and pressure distributions on wetted surfaces.
The document discusses managing corporate performance using a balanced scorecard approach. It introduces the balanced scorecard framework which includes four perspectives: financial, customer, internal business processes, and learning and growth. It then provides details on each perspective, including examples of strategic objectives and key performance indicators that could be used. The document also discusses how corporate scorecards can be cascaded down to create balanced scorecards at divisional and functional levels like HR, IT, finance, and marketing. Strategy maps are presented as a tool to translate strategies into objectives and measures across the four perspectives.
Delicious is a social bookmarking service that allows users to save, tag, and share web pages. It allows users to store bookmarks online and access them from any device. Users can register for a Delicious account using their email, Facebook, or Twitter account. Once logged in, they can start adding and tagging bookmarks. Bookmarks can be made private or shared with others. Users can also see popular bookmarks by tag to discover new sites. Bookmarks from Delicious can be linked or embedded into other systems like GOALS courses to share resources.
Determination of proportionality constants from cutting forcePhuong Dx
1) The document presents an experimental study to determine proportionality constants from cutting force modelling during broaching operations.
2) Experiments were conducted on a shaping machine using aluminum, cast iron, and mild steel workpieces to determine specific cutting energy constants.
3) These specific cutting energy constants are then used to calculate the proportionality constants in a mechanistic force model for broaching. Graphs of experimental cutting forces versus chip thickness are presented to validate the model.
Ok (review ) celebrating 20 years of the balanced scorecardPhuong Dx
This document provides an overview of the author's literature review on research related to the balanced scorecard over the past 20 years. The author reviewed over 100 articles published in accounting and business journals from 1992 to 2011 on the topic. The review categorized the articles by topic, research setting, theories used, research methods, and data analysis techniques. The review found diversity in the topics, theories, and methods used in balanced scorecard research. However, it also identified a lack of theory-driven research as an area needing more attention. The author aims to identify gaps and opportunities for future balanced scorecard research, and contribute to the field by synthesizing the past 20 years of studies on the topic.
Applications of composites in marine industryPhuong Dx
Composite materials are increasingly being used in marine applications due to their superior properties compared to traditional materials like wood and metal. They are lightweight, corrosion resistant, and can be tailored for specific structural and mechanical properties. Some key uses of composites discussed in the document include:
1. Boat and ship hull construction using fiberglass or carbon fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) which provides benefits over wood and reduces maintenance costs compared to metal hulls.
2. Naval vessels where FRP composites allow for lightweight construction and corrosion resistance, improving fuel efficiency. Early naval applications included mine sweepers, landing crafts, and submarine components.
3. Offshore oil and gas infrastructure where FRP pipes, tanks, and structures provide
This document discusses the usage of information and communication technology (ICT) in daily life, including education, business, banking, industry, and e-commerce. It provides examples of how teachers, students, researchers, and administrators use ICT in education. It also outlines how customers, businessmen, and bank administrators utilize ICT in banking, and how workers, researchers, and administrators employ ICT in industry. When discussing e-commerce, it describes how customers, suppliers, and employees interact online. Overall, the document demonstrates how ICT has changed and benefited many aspects of modern life.
An Improved Iterative Method for Solving General System of Equations via Gene...Zac Darcy
Various algorithms are known for solving linear system of equations. Iteration methods for solving the
large sparse linear systems are recommended. But in the case of general n× m matrices the classic
iterative algorithms are not applicable except for a few cases. The algorithm presented here is based on the
minimization of residual of solution and has some genetic characteristics which require using Genetic
Algorithms. Therefore, this algorithm is best applicable for construction of parallel algorithms. In this
paper, we describe a sequential version of proposed algorithm and present its theoretical analysis.
Moreover we show some numerical results of the sequential algorithm and supply an improved algorithm
and compare the two algorithms.
An Improved Iterative Method for Solving General System of Equations via Gene...Zac Darcy
Various algorithms are known for solving linear system of equations. Iteration methods for solving the
large sparse linear systems are recommended. But in the case of general n× m matrices the classic
iterative algorithms are not applicable except for a few cases. The algorithm presented here is based on the
minimization of residual of solution and has some genetic characteristics which require using Genetic
Algorithms. Therefore, this algorithm is best applicable for construction of parallel algorithms. In this
paper, we describe a sequential version of proposed algorithm and present its theoretical analysis.
Moreover we show some numerical results of the sequential algorithm and supply an improved algorithm
and compare the two algorithms.
AN IMPROVED ITERATIVE METHOD FOR SOLVING GENERAL SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS VIA GENE...Zac Darcy
Various algorithms are known for solving linear system of equations. Iteration methods for solving the
large sparse linear systems are recommended. But in the case of general n× m matrices the classic
iterative algorithms are not applicable except for a few cases. The algorithm presented here is based on the
minimization of residual of solution and has some genetic characteristics which require using Genetic
Algorithms. Therefore, this algorithm is best applicable for construction of parallel algorithms. In this
paper, we describe a sequential version of proposed algorithm and present its theoretical analysis.
Moreover we show some numerical results of the sequential algorithm and supply an improved algorithm
and compare the two algorithms.
Effect of Feature Selection on Gene Expression Datasets Classification Accura...IJECEIAES
Feature selection attracts researchers who deal with machine learning and data mining. It consists of selecting the variables that have the greatest impact on the dataset classification, and discarding the rest. This dimentionality reduction allows classifiers to be fast and more accurate. This paper traits the effect of feature selection on the accuracy of widely used classifiers in literature. These classifiers are compared with three real datasets which are pre-processed with feature selection methods. More than 9% amelioration in classification accuracy is observed, and k-means appears to be the most sensitive classifier to feature selection
The document discusses sampling distributions and standard errors. It provides:
1) An explanation of sampling distributions as the set of values a statistic can take when calculated from all possible samples of a given size.
2) Formulas for calculating the mean and variance of sampling distributions.
3) A definition of standard error as the standard deviation of a sampling distribution.
4) Common standard errors formulas for statistics like the sample mean, proportion, and difference between means.
5) An example problem demonstrating calculation of the mean and standard error of a sampling distribution of sample means.
Cost Optimized Design Technique for Pseudo-Random Numbers in Cellular Automataijait
In this research work, we have put an emphasis on the cost effective design approach for high quality pseudo-random numbers using one dimensional Cellular Automata (CA) over Maximum Length CA. This work focuses on different complexities e.g., space complexity, time complexity, design complexity and searching complexity for the generation of pseudo-random numbers in CA. The optimization procedure for
these associated complexities is commonly referred as the cost effective generation approach for pseudorandom numbers. The mathematical approach for proposed methodology over the existing maximum length CA emphasizes on better flexibility to fault coverage. The randomness quality of the generated patterns for the proposed methodology has been verified using Diehard Tests which reflects that the randomness quality
achieved for proposed methodology is equal to the quality of randomness of the patterns generated by the maximum length cellular automata. The cost effectiveness results a cheap hardware implementation for the concerned pseudo-random pattern generator. Short version of this paper has been published in [1].
An Algorithm For Vector Quantizer DesignAngie Miller
The document presents an algorithm for designing vector quantizers. The algorithm is efficient, intuitive, and can be used for quantizers with general distortion measures and large block lengths. It is based on Lloyd's approach but does not require differentiation, making it applicable even when the data distribution has discrete components. The algorithm finds quantizers that meet necessary optimality conditions. Examples show it converges well and finds near-optimal quantizers for memoryless Gaussian sources. It is also used successfully to quantize LPC speech parameters with a complicated distortion measure.
This document summarizes recent convergence results for the fuzzy c-means clustering algorithm (FCM). It discusses both numerical convergence, referring to how well the algorithm attains the minima of an objective function, and stochastic convergence, referring to how accurately the minima represent the actual cluster structure in data. For numerical convergence, the document outlines global and local convergence theorems, showing FCM converges to minima or saddle points globally and linearly to local minima. For stochastic convergence, it discusses a consistency result showing the minima accurately represent cluster structure under certain statistical assumptions.
This document presents an analysis of the exponential distribution under an adaptive type-I progressive hybrid censoring scheme for competing risks data. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian estimation methods are used to estimate the distribution parameter. Specifically, maximum likelihood estimators are derived for the exponential distribution parameter. Bayesian estimators are also obtained for the parameter based on squared error and LINEX loss functions using gamma priors. Asymptotic confidence intervals and Bayesian credible intervals are proposed. A simulation study is conducted to evaluate the performance of the estimators.
Undetermined Mixing Matrix Estimation Base on Classification and CountingIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This paper introduces the mixing matrix estimation algorithms about undetermined blind source separation. Contrapose the difficulty to determine the parameters, the complex calculations in potential function method and the difficulty to confirm the cluster centers in method of clustering, we propose a new method to estimate the mixing matrix base on classification and counting the observed data. The experiment result shows that the new algorithm can not only simplify the calculation but also is easier to be understood. Besides, the new algorithm can provide a more accurate result according to the precision people wanted.
Computational intelligence based simulated annealing guided key generation in...ijitjournal
In this paper, a Computational Intelligence based Simulated Annealing (SA) guided approach is use to
construct the key stream. SA is a randomization technique for solving optimization problems. It is a
procedure for finding good quality solutions to a large diversity of combinatorial optimization problems.
This technique can assist to stay away from the problem of getting stuck in local optima and to escort
towards the globally optimum solution. It is inspired by the annealing procedure in metallurgy. At high
temperatures, the molecules of liquid move freely with respect to one another. If the liquid is cooled slowly,
thermal mobility is lost. Parametric tests are done and results are compared with some existing classical
techniques, which shows comparable results for the proposed system.
The document presents a new method called KCGex-SVM for extracting rules from support vector machines (SVMs). It combines weighted kernel k-means clustering, genetic algorithms, and information from SVMs to generate an interpretable rule set from credit screening data. The method was tested on three credit screening datasets and showed improved accuracy over other rule extraction techniques, generating rules with good performance while maintaining comprehensibility.
THE LEFT AND RIGHT BLOCK POLE PLACEMENT COMPARISON STUDY: APPLICATION TO FLIG...ieijjournal1
It is known that if a linear-time-invariant MIMO system described by a state space equation has a number
of states divisible by the number of inputs and it can be transformed to block controller form, we can
design a state feedback controller using block pole placement technique by assigning a set of desired Block
poles. These may be left or right block poles. The idea is to compare both in terms of system’s response.
THE LEFT AND RIGHT BLOCK POLE PLACEMENT COMPARISON STUDY: APPLICATION TO FLIG...ieijjournal
It is known that if a linear-time-invariant MIMO system described by a state space equation has a number of states divisible by the number of inputs and it can be transformed to block controller form, we can design a state feedback controller using block pole placement technique by assigning a set of desired Block poles. These may be left or right block poles. The idea is to compare both in terms of system’s response.
This document provides an overview of the algorithms used in the IBM SPSS Statistics Algorithms procedure. It begins with an introduction to algorithms and notes that algorithms are avoided in documentation to promote readability. It then discusses algorithms used across multiple procedures and factors that influence the choice of formulas. The document outlines algorithms for various statistical tests and procedures, including two-stage least squares, autocorrelation/partial autocorrelation, attribute importance testing, and ALSCAL multidimensional scaling. Notation is provided and each algorithm is explained step-by-step with details on computational details, references, and terminology.
An Adaptive Masker for the Differential Evolution AlgorithmIOSR Journals
The document proposes an adaptive masker technique for the differential evolution algorithm to perform automatic fuzzy clustering. The adaptive masker aims to guide the search process towards the optimal clustering solution by dividing the mask matrix into three zones - a best masks zone, a global best influence zone where the number of clusters is a function of the best fitness, and a random zone. Experimental results on a remote sensing dataset show the proposed adaptive masker differential evolution algorithm performs better than other fuzzy clustering algorithms like iterative fuzzy c-means, improved differential evolution, and variable length genetic algorithm based fuzzy clustering in automatically detecting the optimal number of clusters.
A TRIANGLE-TRIANGLE INTERSECTION ALGORITHM csandit
This single algorithm can detect intersections between two triangles in 3D space, whether they are coplanar or crossing. It works by solving equations relating the triangles' vertices and finding values for parameters that satisfy constraints based on the triangles' geometry. The algorithm classifies any intersection found as a single point, line segment, or area. It was tested on different triangle pair configurations and intersection types, taking on average less than 0.1 seconds to compute.
In the classical model, the fundamental building block is represented by bits exists in two states a 0 or a 1. Computations are done by logic gates on the bits to produce other bits. By increasing the number of bits, the complexity of problem and the time of computation increases. A quantum algorithm is a sequence of operations on a register to transform it into a state which when measured yields the desired result. This paper provides introduction to quantum computation by developing qubit, quantum gate and quantum circuits.
Optimization of sample configurations for spatial trend estimationAlessandro Samuel-Rosa
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A comparison of three methods for selecting values of input variables in the analysis
1. American Society for Quality
A Comparison of Three Methods for Selecting Values of Input Variables in the Analysis of
Output from a Computer Code
Author(s): M. D. Mckay, R. J. Beckman, W. J. Conover
Source: Technometrics, Vol. 42, No. 1, Special 40th Anniversary Issue (Feb., 2000), pp. 55-61
Published by: American Statistical Association and American Society for Quality
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2. A Comparison of Three Methods for Selecting
Values of Input Variables in the Analysis of
Output From a Computer Code
M. D. MCKAYAND R. J. BECKMAN
LosAlamosScientificLaboratory
P.O.Box 1663
LosAlamos,NM87545
W. J. CONOVER
Departmentof Mathematics
TexasTechUniversity
Lubbock,TX79409
Two types of sampling plans are examined as alternatives to simple random sampling in Monte
Carlo studies. These plans areshown to be improvementsover simple randomsamplingwith respect
to variancefor a class of estimators which includes the sample mean andthe empirical distribution
function.
KEY WORDS: Latin hypercubesampling;Sampling techniques;Simulation techniques;Variance
reduction.
1. INTRODUCTION
Numerical methods have been used for years to provide
approximatesolutions to fluid flow problems that defy ana-
lytical solutions because of their complexity. A mathemati-
cal model is constructedto resemble the fluid flow problem,
and a computer program (called a "code"), incorporating
methods of obtaining a numerical solution, is written.Then
for any selection of input variables X = (X,..., XK) an
output variable Y = h(X) is produced by the computer
code. If the code is accurate the output Y resembles what
the actualoutputwould be if an experimentwere performed
under the conditions X. It is often impractical or impossi-
ble to perform such an experiment.Moreover,the computer
codes are sometimes sufficiently complex so that a single
set of input variables may require several hours of time on
the fastest computers presently in existence in orderto pro-
duce one output. We should mention that a single output
Y is usually a graph Y(t) of output as a function of time,
calculated at discrete time points t, to < t < tl.
When modeling real world phenomena with a computer
code one is often faced with the problem of what values
to use for the inputs. This difficulty can arise from within
the physical process itself when system parametersare not
constant, but vary in some manner about nominal values.
We model our uncertainty about the values of the inputs
by treating them as random variables. The information de-
sired from the code can be obtained from a study of the
probability distribution of the output Y(t). Consequently,
we model the "numerical"experiment by Y(t) as an un-
known transformationh(X) of the inputs X, which have a
known probability distribution F(x) for x c S. Obviously
several values of X, say XI,..., XN, must be selected as
successive inputs sets in order to obtain the desired infor-
mation concerning Y(t). When N must be small because
of the runningtime of the code, the input variables should
be selected with great care.
The next section describes three methods of selecting
(sampling) input variables. Sections 3, 4 and 5 are devoted
to comparing the three methods with respect to their per-
formance in an actual computer code.
The computer code used in this paper was developed
in the Hydrodynamics Group of the Theoretical Division
at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, to study reac-
tor safety (Hirt and Romero 1975). The computer code is
named SOLA-PLOOP and is a one-dimensional version of
anothercode SOLA (Hirt,Nichols, and Romero 1975). The
code was used by us to model the blowdown depressuriza-
tion of a straightpipe filled with water at fixed initial tem-
perature and pressure. Input variables include: X1, phase
change rate;X2, dragcoefficient for driftvelocity; X3, num-
berof bubblesperunitvolume;andX4, pipe roughness.The
inputvariablesareassumedto be uniformly distributedover
given ranges. The output variable is pressure as a function
of time, where the initial time to is the time the pipe rup-
tures and depressurizationinitiates, and the final time tl is
20 milliseconds later.The pressure is recorded at 0.1 milli-
second time intervals.The code was used repeatedly so that
the accuracy and precision of the three sampling methods
could be compared.
2. A DESCRIPTIONOF THE THREE METHODS
USED FOR SELECTINGTHE VALUES
OF INPUTVARIABLES
From the many different methods of selecting the values
of input variables, we have chosen three that have consid-
erable intuitive appeal. These are called random sampling,
stratifiedsampling, and Latin hypercube sampling.
RandomSampling. Let the input values XI,..., XN be
a random sample from F(x). This method of sampling is
perhaps the most obvious, and an entire body of statistical
literaturemay be used in making inferences regarding the
distributionof Y(t).
? 1979 American Statistical Association
and the American Society for Quality
TECHNOMETRICS,FEBRUARY2000, VOL.42, NO. 1
55
3. M. D. MCKAY,R. J. BECKMAN,AND W. J. CONOVER
StratifiedSampling. Using stratifiedsampling,all areas
of the samplespaceof X arerepresentedby inputvalues.
Let the samplespaceS of X be partitionedintoI disjoint
strataSi. Let pi = P(X E Si) representthe size of Si.
Obtain a random sample Xij, j = 1,..., ni from Si. Then
of coursethe ni sum to N. If I = 1, we have random
samplingoverthe entiresamplespace.
LatinHypercubeSampling. The same reasoning thatled
to stratifiedsampling,ensuringthatall portionsof S were
sampled,couldleadfurther.If we wishto ensurealsothat
each of the inputvariablesXk has all portionsof its dis-
tributionrepresentedby inputvalues,we can divide the
rangeof each Xk into N strataof equalmarginalproba-
bility 1/N, and sampleonce from each stratum.Let this
sample be Xkj, j = 1,..., N. These form the Xk compo-
nent, k = 1,..., K, in Xi, i = 1,..., N. The components
of the variousXk's are matchedat random.This method
of selectinginputvaluesis anextensionof quotasampling
(Steinberg1963),andcan be viewed as a K-dimensional
extensionof Latinsquaresampling(Raj1968).
One advantageof the Latinhypercubesampleappears
when the output Y(t) is dominatedby only a few of
the componentsof X. This methodensuresthateach of
those componentsis representedin a fully stratifiedman-
ner, no matterwhich componentsmight turn out to be
important.
WementionherethattheN intervalsontherangeof each
componentof X combineto form NK cells whichcover
the samplespaceof X. Thesecells, whicharelabeledby
coordinatescorrespondingto the intervals,areused when
findingthepropertiesof the samplingplan.
2.1 Estimators
IntheAppendix(Section8),stratifiedsamplingandLatin
hypercubesamplingareexaminedandcomparedtorandom
samplingwithrespectto theclassof estimatorsof theform
N
T(Y1,..., YN) = (1/N) g(Yi),
i=l
whereg(.) = arbitraryfunction.
If g(Y) = Y thenT representsthe samplemeanwhichis
used to estimate E(Y). If g(Y) = yr we obtain the rth
sample moment. By letting g(Y) = 1 for Y < y, 0 other-
wise, we obtaintheusualempiricaldistributionfunctionat
thepointy. Ourinterestis centeredaroundtheseparticular
statistics.
Let T denotetheexpectedvalueof T whentheYt'scon-
stitutearandomsamplefromthedistributionof Y = h(X).
We show in the Appendixthat both stratifiedsampling
and Latinhypercubesamplingyield unbiasedestimators
of r.
If TR is theestimateof T froma randomsampleof size
N, andTs is the estimatefroma stratifiedsampleof size
N, thenVar(Ts)< Var(TR)whenthe stratifiedplanuses
equalprobabilitystratawith one sampleper stratum(all
pi = 1/N and nij = 1). No direct means of comparing the
varianceof the correspondingestimatorfromLatinhyper-
cube sampling,TL,to Var(Ts)has been found.However,
TECHNOMETRICS,FEBRUARY2000, VOL.42, NO. 1
thefollowingtheorem,provedin theAppendix,relatesthe
variances of TL and TR.
Theorem. If Y = h(X1,... XK) is monotonic in each
of its arguments,andg(Y) is a monotonicfunctionof Y,
then Var(TL)< Var(TR).
2.2 The SOLA-PLOOP Example
The three samplingplans were comparedusing the
SOLA-PLOOPcomputercodewithN = 16.Firstarandom
sampleconsistingof 16 valuesof X = (X1,X2,X3,X4)
wasselected,enteredasinputs,and16graphsof Y(t) were
observedas outputs.Theseoutputvalueswereusedin the
estimators.
Forthe stratifiedsamplingmethodtherangeof eachin-
put variablewas dividedat the medianinto two partsof
equalprobability.Thecombinationsof rangesthusformed
produced24 = 16 strataSi. Oneobservationwas obtained
atrandomfromeachSi as input,andtheresultingoutputs
wereusedto obtaintheestimates.
ToobtaintheLatinhypercubesampletherangeof each
inputvariableXi was stratifiedinto 16 intervalsof equal
probability,andoneobservationwasdrawnatrandomfrom
eachinterval.These16valuesforthe4 inputvariableswere
matchedatrandomto form 16 inputs,andthus 16 outputs
fromthecode.
The entireprocessof samplingand estimatingfor the
threeselectionmethodswas repeated50 timesin orderto
getsomeideaof theaccuraciesandprecisionsinvolved.The
total computertime spentin runningthe SOLA-PLOOP
code in this studywas 7 hourson a CDC-6600.Some of
the standarddeviationplotsappearto be inconsistentwith
the theoreticalresults.These occasionaldiscrepanciesare
believedto arisefromthenon-independenceof theestima-
torsovertimeandthe smallsamplesizes.
3. ESTIMATINGTHE MEAN
Thegoodnessof an unbiasedestimatorof the meancan
be measuredby the size of its variance.Foreachsampling
method,theestimatorof E(Y(t)) is of theform
N
Y(t) = (l/N) E Yi(t)
i=l
(3.1)
where
i=1,...,N.
In the case of the stratifiedsample,the Xi comesfrom
stratumSi, pi = 1/N and ni = 1. For the Latin hypercube
sample,theXi is obtainedin themannerdescribedearlier.
Each of the three estimators YR,Ys, and YLis an unbiased
estimatorof E(Y(t)). The variancesof the estimatorsare
givenin (3.2):
Var(Y(t)) = (1/N)Var(Y(t))
N
Var(Ys(t)) = Var(YR(t))- (1/N2) (pi - ,)2
i=l
56
Yi(t) = h(X),
4. A COMPARISONOF THREE METHODS FOR SELECTINGVALUESOF INPUT
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and YL(t).
Var(YL(t))= Var(YR(t))+ ((N - 1)/N)
1/(NK(N- I)K)) E (i
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Figure 3. Estimating the Variance:The Sample Mean of S2 (t), S (t),
and S2 (t).
YL(t) clearly demonstrates superiority as an estimator in
this example, with a standarddeviationroughly one-fo[u]rth
that of the random sampling estimator.
where p = E(Y(t)),
pi = E(Y(t)lX E Si) in the stratified sample, or
Pi - E(Y(t)lX e cell i) in the Latin hypercube
sample,
and R means the restricted space of all pairs ,ui,/j having
no cell coordinates in common.
For the SOLA-PLOOP computer code the means and
standarddeviations, based on 50 observations, were com-
puted for the estimators just described. Comparative plots
of the means are given in Figure 1. All of the plots of the
means are comparable, demonstrating the unbiasedness of
the estimators.
Comparativeplots of the standarddeviations of the es-
timators are given in Figure 2. The standarddeviation of
Ys(t) is smaller than that of YR(t) as expected. However,
or
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4. ESTIMATINGTHE VARIANCE
For each sampling method, the form of the estimator of
the variance is
N
S2(t) - (1/N)Y (Y(t)- Y(t))2,
i=l
and its expectation is
E(S2(t)) Var(Y(t)) - Var(Y(t)),
(4.1)
(4.2)
where Y(t) is one of YR(t),Ys(t), or YL(t).
In the case of the random sample, it is well known that
NS2/(N- 1) is an unbiased estimator of the variance of
Y(t). The bias in the case of the stratified sample is un-
known. However, because Var(Ys(t)) < Var(YR(t)),
(1- 1/N)Var(Y(t)) < E(S2(t)) < Var(Y(t)). (4.3)
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Figure 2. Estimating the Mean: The Standard Deviation of YR(t),
Ys(t), and YL(t).
Figure 4. Estimating the Variance: The Standard Deviation of S2(t),
Ss(t), and S2(t).
TECHNOMETRICS,FEBRUARY2000, VOL.42, NO. 1
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Ai"-(n A -.I.v -V
n.n ' a -1. I-,.,
..- /-a
57
5. M. D. MCKAY,R. J. BECKMAN,AND W. J. CONOVER
o-
RANDOM
STRATIFID .......- I
LATIN --
/
/
Il/
//
"_'
......./""
20-0 30-0 40-0 50-0 60-0 70-0
PRESSURE
2.1, theexpectedvalueof G(y,t) underthethreesampling
plansis thesame,andunderrandomsampling,theexpected
value of G(y, t) is D(y, t).
The variancesof the threeestimatorsaregivenin (5.2).
Di againrefersto eitherstratumi orcell i, as appropriate,
andR representsthesamerestrictedspaceasit didin (3.2).
Var(GR(y,t)) = (1/N)D(y, t)(l - D(y, t))
Var(Gs(y, t)) = Var(GR(y,t))
N
- (1/N2) (D (y, t)- D(y, t))2
t=l
I80 980.0 90'0
Figure 5. Estimating the CDF: The Sample Mean of GR(Y,t), Gs(y,
t), and GL(y, t) at t = 1.4.
Thebiasin the Latinhypercubeplanis also unknown,but
for the SOLA-PLOOPexampleit wassmall.Variancesfor
theseestimatorswerenotfound.
AgainusingtheSOLA-PLOOPexample,meansandstan-
darddeviations(basedon 50 observations)werecomputed.
The meanplots are given in Figure3. They indicatethat
all threeestimatorsare in relativeagreementconcerning
thequantitiestheyareestimating.Intermsof standardde-
viationsof the estimators,Figure4 shows that,although
stratifiedsamplingyieldsaboutthe sameprecisionas does
randomsampling,Latinhypercubefurnishesa clearlybet-
terestimator.
5. ESTIMATINGTHE DISTRIBUTIONFUNCTION
The distribution function, D(y,t), of Y(t) = h(X) may
beestimatedbytheempiricaldistributionfunction.Theem-
piricaldistributionfunctioncanbe writtenas
N
G(y, t) = (1/N) u(y- Yi(t)), (5.1)
i=-i
whereu(z) = 1 for z > 0 and is zero otherwise.Since
equation(5.1) is of the formof the estimatorsin Section
015 -
~~~~~~~RANDOMWY~~~~~~
.
0o .T5RA D ..........
----
< o0-0- LAW -- /
I- :
vG:y,-, tatt=4(:,a
_
.....*
:
:-
^ ^ *../:-
Eo , . .: .
0. 2''
0-00 /J * I I I I
20'0 30-0 4O?0 5-0s 0'0 700 0-o0 90-0
PRESSURE
Figure 6. Estimating the CDF: The Standard Deviation of GR(y, t),
Gs(y, t), and GL(y, t) at t = 1.4.
Var(GL(y,t)) = Var(GR(y,t))
+ ((N - 1)/N. 1/NK(N - 1)K) E (Di(y,t)
R
- D(y, t)). (Dj(y, t) - D(y, t)). (5.2)
As with the cases of the meanandvarianceestimators,
thedistributionfunctionestimatorswerecomparedfor the
threesamplingplans.Figures5 and6 give the meansand
standarddeviationsof the estimatorsat t = 1.4 ms. This
time pointwas chosento correspondto the time of max-
imumvariancein the distributionof Y(t). Againthe esti-
matesobtainedfroma Latinhypercubesampleappearto
be moreprecisein generalthanthe othertwo typesof es-
timates.
6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
We havepresentedthreesamplingplansandassociated
estimatorsof themean,thevariance,andthepopulationdis-
tributionfunctionof the outputof a computercode when
theinputsaretreatedasrandomvariables.Thefirstmethod
is simplerandomsampling.The secondmethodinvolves
stratifiedsamplingandimprovesuponthefirstmethod.The
thirdmethodis calledhereLatinhypercubesampling.It is
an extensionof quotasampling(Steinberg1963),andit is
a firstcousinto the "randombalance"designdiscussedby
Satterthwaite(1959),Budne(1959),Youdenet al. (1959),
Anscombe(1959),andto thehighlyfractionalizedfactorial
designs discussedby Enrenfeldand Zacks (1951, 1967),
Dempster(1960, 1961), and Zacks (1963, 1964), and to
latticesamplingas discussedby Jessen(1975).This third
methodimprovesuponsimplerandomsamplingwhencer-
tain monotonicityconditionshold, andit appearsto be a
goodmethodto use for selectingvaluesof inputvariables.
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
WeextendaspecialthankstoRonaldK.Lohrding,forhis
earlysuggestionsrelatedtothisworkandforhiscontinuing
supportandencouragement.We also thankourcolleagues
LarryBruckner,BenDuran,C.Phive,andTomBoullionfor
theirdiscussionsconcerningvariousaspectsof theproblem,
andDaveWhitemanfor assistancewiththecomputer.
Thispaperwaspreparedunderthe supportof the Anal-
ysis DevelopmentBranch,Divisionof ReactorSafetyRe-
search,NuclearRegulatoryCommission.
1.0 -
0.8 -
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0-4 -
0-2 -
cr
0
I-4
V)
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L&J
La.
0
z
LLJ
:2
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TECHNOMETRICS,FEBRUARY2000, VOL.42, NO. 1
lm . . .. k-
58
6. A COMPARISONOF THREE METHODSFOR SELECTINGVALUESOF INPUT
8. APPENDIX
In the sectionsthatfollow we presentsome generalre-
sults aboutstratifiedsamplingand Latinhypercubesam-
pling in orderto make comparisonswith simplerandom
sampling.Wemovefromthegeneralcaseof stratifiedsam-
pling to stratifiedsamplingwith proportionalallocation,
andthen to proportionalallocationswith one observation
perstratum.WeexamineLatinhypercubesamplingforthe
equalmarginalprobabilitystratacase only.
8.1 TypeIEstimators
LetX denotea K variaterandomvariablewithprobabil-
ity densityfunction(pdf) f(x) for x E S. Let Y denotea
univariatetransformationof X givenby Y = h(X). Inthe
contextof thispaperwe assume
X f(x),xeS KNOWNpdf
Y = h(X) UNKNOWNbutobservable
transformationof X.
The class of estimatorsto be consideredare those of the
form
N
T(Ul,..., iUN)=-(l/N) Eg (ui), (8.1)
t=l
where g(.) is an arbitrary,knownfunction.In particular
we use g(u) = ur to estimatemoments,andg(u) = 1 for
u > 0,= 0 elsewhere,to estimatethedistributionfunction.
The samplingschemesdescribedin the following sec-
tions will be comparedto randomsamplingwith respect
to T. The symbolTR denotesT(Y1,..., YN)whenthe ar-
gumentsY, ..., YNconstitutea randomsampleof Y. The
meanandvarianceof TRaredenotedby r and02/N. The
statisticT given by (8.1) will be evaluatedat arguments
arisingfrom stratifiedsamplingto form Ts, andat argu-
mentsarisingfromLatinhypercubesamplingto formTL.
The associatedmeansand varianceswill be comparedto
thosefor randomsampling.
8.2 StratifiedSampling
Lettherangespace,S, of X bepartitionedintoI disjoint
subsetsSi of size pi = P(X c Si), with
I
5Pi 1.
i=l
Let Xij,j = 1,., ni, be a randomsamplefrom stratum
Si. Thatis, let Xij iid f(x)/pi,j = 1,..., ni, forx ESi,
butwithzerodensityelsewhere.Thecorrespondingvalues
of Y aredenotedby Yij= h(Xij), andthestratameansand
variancesof g(Y) aredenotedby
i = E(g(Yij))- j g(y)(l/pi)f(x) dx
Si
a-2 - Var(g(Yj)) =
S (g(y) -
)2(1/pi)f(x)dx.i I s
Itis easyto seethatif weusethegeneralform
I ni
Ts = (pi/ni) E g(Yij),
i=l j=l
thatTs is an unbiasedestimatorof r with variancegiven by
(8.2)Var(Ts) = (p2/ni)o2.
i=l
Thefollowingresultscanbe foundin Tocher(1963).
StratifiedSampling with Proportional Allocation. If the
probabilitysizes, pi, of the strataand the samplesizes,
ni, are chosen so that ni = piN, proportional allocation
is achieved.Inthiscase (8.2)becomes
I
Var(Ts) = Var(TR)- (I/N) EPi(iii - r)2.
i=l
(8.3)
Thus,we see thatstratifiedsamplingwithproportionalal-
locationoffersanimprovementoverrandomsampling,and
thatthe variancereductionis a functionof the differences
betweenthe stratameans,i andtheoverallmeanr.
Proportional Allocation with One Sample per Stratum.
Any stratifiedplan which employssubsampling,ni > 1,
canbe improvedby furtherstratification.Whenall ni = 1,
(8.3)becomes
N
Var(Ts) = Var(TR) - (1/N2) E (i - r)2.
i=l
(8.4)
8.3 LatinHypercube Sampling
In stratifiedsamplingthe range space S of X can be
arbitrarilypartitionedto form strata.In Latinhypercube
samplingthepartitionsareconstructedina specificmanner
usingpartitionsof therangesof eachcomponentof X. We
will onlyconsiderthecasewherethecomponentsof X are
independent.
Let the rangesof each of the K componentsof X be
partitionedinto N intervalsof probabilitysize 1/N. The
Cartesianproductof these intervalspartitionsS into NK
cellseachof probabilitysizeN-K. Eachcellcanbelabeled
by a set of K cell coordinates mi = (mil, i2,..., iK)
wheremij is the intervalnumberof componentXj repre-
sentedin cell i. A Latinhypercubesampleof size N is ob-
tained from a randomselection N of the cells ml,..., mN,
withtheconditionthatforeachj theset {mij}N is a per-
mutationof theintegers1,..., N. Onerandomobservation
is madein eachcell. Thedensityfunctionof X givenX c
cell i is NKf(x) if x E cell i, zero otherwise. The marginal
(unconditional)distributionof Yi(t)is easilyseento be the
sameas thatfor a randomlydrawnX as follows:
P(Y < y) = P(Yi < ylX E cell q)P(X c cell q)
all cells q
= E ll N K(x)dx(1/NK)
h(x)<y
-Jh(x)<y
f(x) dx.
TECHNOMETRICS,FEBRUARY2000, VOL.42, NO. 1
59
7. M. D. MCKAY,R. J. BECKMAN,AND W.J. CONOVER
From this we have TL as an unbiased estimator of T.
To arrive at a form for the variance of TL we introduce
indicator variables wt, with
f 1 if cell i is in the sample
Wi- l 0 if not.
The estimator can now be written as
NK
TL = (1/N) z wig(Yi),
i=l1
(8.5)
where Yi = h(Xi) and Xi c cell i. The variance of TL is
given by
NK
Var(TL)= (1/N2) Var(wig(Yi))
i=l
NK NK
+ (1/N2) 5 Cov(wig(Yi), Wjg(Yj)). (8.6)
i=l j=l
jii
The following results about the wi are immediate:
1. P (wi = 1) = (1/NK-1) = E(wi) = E(w2)
Var(wi) (1/NK-1)(1- 1INK-1).
2. If wi and wj correspond to cells having no cell coor-
dinates in common, then
E(wiwj) = E(wiw lwwj= O)P(wj = 0)
+ E(wiwjlwj = 1)P(wj = 1)
= 1/(N(N- 1))K-1
3. If wi and wj correspond to cells having at least one
common cell coordinate, then
E(iwjw) =0.
Now
Var(wig(Yi)) = E(w2)Var g(Yi) + E2(g(Yi))Var(wt) (8.7)
so that
NK
E Var(wig(Yi))
i=l
NK
N-K+l E E(g(Yi)
i=l
i)2
NK
+ (N-K+I1 N-2K+2) E 2 (8.8)
='-1
where ui = E{g(Y))X e cell i}. Since
E(g(Y)- i)2
-- NK (g(y) - 7)2f(x) dx + (i -
wcelli
we have
5 Var(wig(Yi))
i
N Var(Y)- N-K+1 E (i
i
+ (N-K+1 _ N-2K+2) E
Furthermore
NK NK
E Z Cov(wig(Yi),wjg(Yj))
i=1 j=1
i#j
- EZ E ijE{wiwj} - N-2K+2 ZE ipj (8.11)
i#j i?j
which combines with (8.10) to give
Var(TL) = (1/N)Var(Y) - N-K-1 (t _ )2
i
+ (N-K-1 N-2NK)-
2
+ (N - 1)-K+1NK-1
R
-N -2K
E ij-^
EE^.~~.,
(8.12)
where R means the restricted space of NK(N - 1)K pairs
([i, ,j) correspondingto cells having no cell coordinates in
common. After some algebra, and with K
ui = NKT, the
final form for Var(TL)becomes
Var(TL) = Var(TR) + (N - 1)/N[N-K(N - 1)-K
*E (pi- T)(pu- T)]. (8.13)
R
Note that Var(TL)< Var(TR)if and only if
N -K(N - 1)-K (/i - )(1jt - T) < 0, (8.14)
R
which is equivalent to saying that the covariance between
cells having no cell coordinates in common is negative. A
sufficient condition for (8.14) to hold is given by the fol-
lowing theorem.
Theorem. If Y = h(X1,..., XK) is monotonic in each
of its arguments,and if g(Y) is a monotonic function of Y,
then Var(TL)< Var(TR).
Proof The proof employs a theorem by Lehmann
(1966). Two functions r(x1,..., XK) and s(y1,..., YK) are
said to be concordant in each argument if r and s either
increase or decrease together as a function of xi - yi, with
all xj,j 7 i and yj,j - i held fixed, for each i. Also,
)2 (8.9) a pair of random variables (X, Y) are said to be nega-
tively quadrant dependent if P(X < x, Y < y) < P(X <
x)P(Y < y) for all x,y. Lehmann's theorem states that
_ T)2 if (i) (X1, Y1),(X2, Y2),... (XK, YK) are independent, (ii)
(Xi, Y,) is negatively quadrantdependent for all i, and (iii)
X = r(X1,...,XK) and Y = s(Y1,...,YK) are concor-
2. (8.10) dant in each argument,then (X, Y) is negatively quadrant
dependent.
TECHNOMETRICS,FEBRUARY2000, VOL.42, NO. 1
60
8. A COMPARISONOF THREE METHODSFOR SELECTINGVALUESOF INPUT
We earlierdescribeda stage-wiseprocessfor selecting
cellsforaLatinhypercubesample,whereacell waslabeled
by cell coordinates mi,..., miK. Two cells (I1,..., IK) and
(ml,..., mK) with no coordinates in common may be se-
lectedas follows.Randomlyselecttwo integers(R11,R21)
withoutreplacementfromthefirstN integers1,..., N. Let
11 = R11 and m1 = R21. Repeat the procedure to obtain
(R12,R22), (R13,R23), . .,(R1K, R2K) and let lk = RIk
and mk = R2k. Thus two cells are randomly selected and
lk 7 mk for k = 1,..., K.
Note thatthe pairs (Rlk, R2k), k = 1,..., K, aremutually
independent. Also note that because P(Rlk < x, R2k <
y) = [xy - min(x,y)]/(n(n - 1)) < P(Rlk < x)P(R2k <
y), where[.] representsthe"greatestinteger"function,each
pair (Rlk, R2k) is negatively quadrantdependent.
Let /ul be the expectedvalue of g(Y) withinthe cell
designated by (I1,..., 1K), and let /2 be similarly defined
for (ml,... ,mK). Then /1 = ii(R11,R12,... ,R1K) and
A12 -= I(R21, R22, ..., R2K) are concordant in each argu-
ment underthe assumptionsof the theorem.Lehmann's
theorem then yields that 1iand /2 are negatively quadrant
dependent.Therefore,
P(PI1< X, l2 < y) < P(li1 < x)P(i2 < y).
UsingHoeffding'sequation
Cov(X, Y) =
1+oo r+00
[P(X < x, Y < y)
- P(X < x)P(Y < y)] dx dy,
(seeLehmann(1966)foraproof),wehaveCov(/Al,/2) < 0.
Since Var(TL) = Var(TR)+ (N - 1)/N Cov(i,Lu2), the
theoremis proved.
Sinceg(t) asusedin bothSections3 and5 is anincreas-
ing functionof t, we cansay thatif Y = h(X) is a mono-
tonic functionof each of its arguments,Latinhypercube
samplingis betterthanrandomsamplingforestimatingthe
meanandthepopulationdistributionfunction.
[Received January 1977. Revised May 1978.]
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61