1) The document provides a brief historical overview of despotic leadership research from ancient Greece to modern times. It discusses how the concept emerged in fields like philosophy and political science before being applied to management sciences.
2) It explains the difference between tyranny and despotism, noting that despotism can potentially be legitimate if the ruler governs for the benefit of subjects, whereas tyranny is always illegitimate.
3) The document also briefly discusses how constructs from other fields like authoritarian personality helped lay the foundations for the concept of despotic leadership in management research.
Book Title Public Personnel Management; 5th edition; by No.docxAASTHA76
Book Title: Public Personnel Management; 5th edition; by Norma M Riccucci
Chapter 1: Public Human Resources Management: How We Get Where We Are Today.
Stephen E. Condrey, Ph.D., is senior associate and program director for human resource management with the University of Georgia's Carl Vinson Institute of Government. He is also adjunct professor of public administration and policy in the School of Public and International Affairs at the University of Georgia. He has over a quarter of a century of professional experience in human resource management and has consulted nationally and internationally with over 700 organizations concerning personnel-related issues. He presently serves as editor-in-chief of the Review of Public Personnel Administration and is the editor of the Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government, third edition (2010, Jossey-Bass).
There is perhaps no area of public administration that has experienced greater change, professionalization, and controversy over the past four decades than public human resource management. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to explicate this phenomenon and set the stage for the chapters that follow.
This chapter first describes five models of public human resource management service delivery. The chapter will then discuss four fairly recent events and how the influence of these events shapes the current practice of public human resource management. The four events are as follows:
•The Civil Rights Act of 1964
•The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978
•Radical reform of civil service systems
•The election of President Barack Obama
Underlying each of these events is an enduring tension regarding how to create and sustain a neutrally competent civil service corps while at the same time helping to ensure that public bureaucracies are responsive to elected and appointed officials as well as the public they serve. This constant and seemingly irresolvable tension brings life to the field of public human resource management and makes it an interesting one to study, explore, and practice.
PUBLIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SERVICE DELIVERY
The most definitive history of the development of the field of public human resource management is Paul Van Riper’s History of the United States Civil Service (1958). Additionally, all of the leading texts in the field (e.g., Berman, Bowman, Van Wart, and West, 2010; Klingner, Nalbandian, and Llorens, 2009; Nigro, Nigro, and Kellough, 2006; Riccucci and Naff, 2008) provide an excellent historical analysis of the field. Essentially, public human resource management history in the United States began with early elitist tendencies that favored the landed gentry as holders of public jobs. The election of Andrew Jackson in 1828 ushered in an era of spoils politics in which public jobs were considered a commodity to be bartered for political support. In a direct confrontation of spoils politics, the Pendleton Act of 1883 established the first federal civil serv ...
Mass Incarceration Essay
Structure and Agency Essay
Essay about Organizational Structures
Essay on Capital Structure
Essay about Organizational Structure
My Family Structure
Lewis Structure
Book Title Public Personnel Management; 5th edition; by No.docxAASTHA76
Book Title: Public Personnel Management; 5th edition; by Norma M Riccucci
Chapter 1: Public Human Resources Management: How We Get Where We Are Today.
Stephen E. Condrey, Ph.D., is senior associate and program director for human resource management with the University of Georgia's Carl Vinson Institute of Government. He is also adjunct professor of public administration and policy in the School of Public and International Affairs at the University of Georgia. He has over a quarter of a century of professional experience in human resource management and has consulted nationally and internationally with over 700 organizations concerning personnel-related issues. He presently serves as editor-in-chief of the Review of Public Personnel Administration and is the editor of the Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government, third edition (2010, Jossey-Bass).
There is perhaps no area of public administration that has experienced greater change, professionalization, and controversy over the past four decades than public human resource management. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to explicate this phenomenon and set the stage for the chapters that follow.
This chapter first describes five models of public human resource management service delivery. The chapter will then discuss four fairly recent events and how the influence of these events shapes the current practice of public human resource management. The four events are as follows:
•The Civil Rights Act of 1964
•The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978
•Radical reform of civil service systems
•The election of President Barack Obama
Underlying each of these events is an enduring tension regarding how to create and sustain a neutrally competent civil service corps while at the same time helping to ensure that public bureaucracies are responsive to elected and appointed officials as well as the public they serve. This constant and seemingly irresolvable tension brings life to the field of public human resource management and makes it an interesting one to study, explore, and practice.
PUBLIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SERVICE DELIVERY
The most definitive history of the development of the field of public human resource management is Paul Van Riper’s History of the United States Civil Service (1958). Additionally, all of the leading texts in the field (e.g., Berman, Bowman, Van Wart, and West, 2010; Klingner, Nalbandian, and Llorens, 2009; Nigro, Nigro, and Kellough, 2006; Riccucci and Naff, 2008) provide an excellent historical analysis of the field. Essentially, public human resource management history in the United States began with early elitist tendencies that favored the landed gentry as holders of public jobs. The election of Andrew Jackson in 1828 ushered in an era of spoils politics in which public jobs were considered a commodity to be bartered for political support. In a direct confrontation of spoils politics, the Pendleton Act of 1883 established the first federal civil serv ...
Mass Incarceration Essay
Structure and Agency Essay
Essay about Organizational Structures
Essay on Capital Structure
Essay about Organizational Structure
My Family Structure
Lewis Structure
Running head: PUBLIC LEADERSHIP
1
PUBLIC LEADERSHIP
2
Public Leadership
Tina Rice
Professor Timothy Smith
Pad515
July 26, 2014
Public Leadership
Defining the public leader
A public leader is a person who holds a public office and serves and guides the community as a whole and should be able to inspire and mobilize others to undertake collective action in pursuit of the common good while at the same time using his/her leadership skills to address pressing social, political and economic problems. He or she has to take up the social,administrative and political functions of a public office.As a public leader is concerned with the welfare of the community as a whole he or she expected to set the vision and maintain it while at the same time making sure that the different groups understand the vision and its ideologies and are well organized and planned for, with the right leaders empowered and involved in problem solving as well as decision making while all the time balancing and managing public opinion (Hart & Uhr, 2008). Public leaders are expected to be committed to and understand the values and importance of the principles of public service with public codes of conducts and ethics as their guides. An example of a public leadership role could be the Chief of Staff at the local government.
Leadership Theories
In chapter three; models and theories of leadership of Bernard and Ruth’s book, a number of leadership theories and models are discussed but those that would best personify a public leader are (Bernard & Bass, 2011).
Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories imply that the best leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account allowing the members to feel like they helped to reach a goal or that it was their idea to start with.
Situational Theories: Situational theories came up after the realization that there was no one supreme leader and rather different leaders are best suited for different situations. These theories hold that the effectiveness of a leader is related to his or her behavior based on different situations. It is therefore clear that according to situational theories, a leader has to modify his or her leadership behavior to match with that of the subordinates. In addition, as revealed in situational theories, the leader is supposed to change with the situation at hand. This is because a public leader should be dynamic in different situations while addressing the social, administrative and political functions of his office while at the same time allow for participation of the team working with him. As it involves dealing with many people, public leadership should then not be bureaucratic or lazier faire as this could lead to collapse of the systems and eventual anarchy (Julio, 2014). Based on research, situational theories have four leadership behaviors in regard to the supportive team. These include telling, where the leader shows high behavior of directing and low level of suppo.
Pinning down Power in Ukraine Crisis: West versus RussiaBright Mhango
In February 2014, the people of Ukraine managed to topple their government by way of prolonged protest which was in part a call for the Eastern European nation to move closer to Europe and away from Russia.
The deposed Russian-backed President of Ukraine Victor Yanukovych sparked the wrath of the Ukrainians by refusing to sign a ‘trade agreement’ that would have brought Ukraine closer to the EU. Instead he preferred closer ties with Russia which is sort of creating its own ‘EU’ called the Customs Union.
This paper posits that Ukraine has been a battleground for power both between the West and Russia (external power) and that of the state versus the citizens (Internal).
The paper will try to lay bare the various power struggles that were and are at play in the Ukrainian crisis and conclude that with the West looking like having won, the power play has only begun as Russia will not allow a nation so close to it and vital to its prestige get aligned with the West, its arch-enemy.
Before the Ukraine case can be tackled, it is essential to discuss the notion of power as it occurs in the discipline of International Relations. It will also feature a summary of two prescribed course readings on Power.
·From the weekly readings and e-Activity, analyze the key influe.docxalinainglis
·
From the weekly readings and e-Activity, analyze the key influences that the theoretical and practical aspects of public leadership may exert upon a public leader’s performance. Provide two (2) examples of these influences to support your response.
·
From the weekly readings and e-Activity, predict two to three (2-3) challenges that public leaders will face regarding the future of public leadership. Provide a rationale response.
Readings:
·
Leadership Theories
For decades, leadership theories have been the source of numerous studies. In reality as well as in practice, many have tried to define what allows authentic leaders to stand apart from the mass! Hence, there as many theories on leadership as there are philosophers, researchers and professors that have studied and ultimately published their leadership theory. A great article to read before diving into the theories is the
The Philosophical Foundations of Leadership
Theories are commonly categorized by which aspect is believed to define the leader the most. The most widespread one's are:
Great Man Theory
,
Trait Theory
,
Behavioural Theories
,
Contingency Theories
,
Transactional Theories
and
Transformational Theories
.
Leadership Theories
Great Man Theory (1840s)
The Great Man theory evolved around the mid 19th century. Even though no one was able to identify with any scientific certainty, which human characteristic or combination of, were responsible for identifying great leaders. Everyone recognized that just as the name suggests; only a man could have the characteristic (s) of a great leader.
The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic. That simply means that great leaders are born...
they are not made. This theory sees great leaders as those who are destined by birth to become a leader. Furthermore, the belief was that great leaders will rise when confronted with the appropriate situation. The theory was popularized by Thomas Carlyle, a writer and teacher. Just like him, the Great Man theory was inspired by the study of influential heroes. In his book "On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History", he compared a wide array of heroes.
In 1860, Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher disputed the great man theory by affirming that these heroes are simply the product of their times and their actions the results of social conditions.
Trait Theory (1930's - 1940's)
The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with certain qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain qualities such as intelligence, sense of responsibility, creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a good leader. In fact,
Gordon Allport
, an American psychologist,"...identified almost 18,000 English personality-relevant terms" (Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003, p. 3).
The trait theory of leadership focused on analyzing mental, physical and social characteristic in order to gain more understanding of .
Relationships between Men and Women in Islamic Organizationsijtsrd
In Islamic culture, which is the culture of order and discipline, the organization and organization are viewed with a deep perspective. The division of labor, the limits of duties, the prevention of interference in affairs, the authority and freedom within the bounds of responsibility, are all issues that are considered necessary to achieve happiness and sovereignty in the Islamic system. This study sought to investigate the relationship between men and women in Islamic organizations and analyzed the relationship between theories in this field with a descriptive analytical method and concluded that human beings are social beings. With the advent of Islam and the fact that religion has the ability to be present in all individual and social spheres of human life, at all times and places and conditions, Muslim relations also found a special structure and rules. Islam not only endorsed constructive social relations Rather, by explaining new principles, he emphasized the importance of targeting this general need of society. Mansoore Ansari | Gulab Mir Rahmany "Relationships between Men and Women in Islamic Organizations" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-5 , August 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd31900.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/31900/relationships-between-men-and-women-in-islamic-organizations/mansoore-ansari
Empowering Civil Society initiative by PRIA
This version of the paper has been written under the three-year project Cultures of Governance and Conflict Resolution in Europe and India (http://www.projectcore.eu/), which concluded in December 2013, funded by the European Union under the 7th Framework Programme.
Ethics Matter Moderating Leaders’ Power Use and Followers’C.docxhumphrieskalyn
Ethics Matter: Moderating Leaders’ Power Use and Followers’
Citizenship Behaviors
Peter J. Reiley • Rick R. Jacobs
Received: 15 November 2013 / Accepted: 2 October 2014 / Published online: 11 October 2014
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract Followers’ perceptions of their leaders’ ethics
have the potential to impact the way they react to the influence
of these leaders. The present study of 365 U.S. Air Force
Academy Cadets examined how followers’ perceptions of their
leaders’ ethics moderated the relationships found between the
leaders’ use of power, as conceptualized by French and Raven
(Studies in social power, 1959), and the followers’ contextual
performance. Our results indicated that leaders’ use of expert,
referent, and reward power was associated with higher levels of
organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) among their fol-
lowers when the followers perceived these leaders to be more
ethical. Moreover, when followers perceived their leaders to be
less ethical, these followers reported lower levels of OCBs
when their leaders’ utilized referent power. Practical implica-
tions, limitations, and future research are also discussed.
Keywords Coercive power � Ethical leadership � Ethics �
Expert power � Follower � Leader’s power use � Legitimate
power � Military � Organizational citizenship behavior �
Perception � Performance � Power bases � Referent power �
Reward power � Social influence
Ethics Matter: Moderating Leaders’ Power Use
and Followers’ Citizenship Behaviors
Power has a bad reputation—but power is a fundamental
element of the leadership process (Hollander 1985). Lord
Acton’s oft-quoted notion that ‘‘power tends to corrupt, and
absolute power corrupts absolutely,’’ captures a seemingly
common concern associated with those who wield great
power. The nineteenth-century politician’s belief that
power carries a negative, and even corrupt, connotation is
echoed in the modern day by many scholars and practi-
tioners alike. In his aptly titled bestseller, The No Asshole
Rule, Stanford University Professor Robert Sutton (2007)
underscored the negative corollaries of power:
A huge body of research—hundreds of studies—
shows that when people are put in positions of power,
they start talking more, taking what they want for
themselves, ignoring what other people say or want,
ignoring how less-powerful people react to their
behaviors, acting more rudely, and generally treating
any situation or person as a means for satisfying their
own needs. (p. 70)
Although some researchers have argued that a person
who uses power and authority in this manner cannot truly
be considered a ‘‘leader’’ (e.g., Howell and Avolio 1992;
Kellerman 2004; Yukl 1999; Yukl and Van Fleet 1992),
several theories have been developed to better recognize
and understand the influence of these powerful individuals
in the leadership process. Ashforth (1994) characterized
‘‘petty tyrants’’ who use their powe.
James H. SvaraNorth Carolina State UniversifyThe Myth of.docxchristiandean12115
James H. Svara
North Carolina State Universify
The Myth of the Dichotomy: Complementarity
of Politics and Administration in the Past and
Future of Public Administration
At the heart of the practice of public administration is the
relationship between administrators, on one hand, and po-
litical leaders and the public on the other hand. The nature
of that relationship and the proper role of administrators in
the political process have been the subject of considerable
debate. Anxiety about administrative legitimacy has been
particularly intense in the United States, where the rise of
the administrative state was out of synch with a democratic
society (Stillman 1997), but similar issues have arisen in
other countries as well (Rutgers 1997). As the field emerged,
it was important to differentiate a practice based on profes-
sional knowledge and values from political particularism,
but the extent and scope of the differentiation were unclear.
It was also necessary to reconcile the tensions among com-
plying with the directions of elected officials, maintaining
professional integrity, and serving the public. Observers dif-
fer as to whether American thinking about the relationship
of public administration to society has experienced major
shifts over time or has gradually evolved.
Along the lines developed by Lynn, the case can be made
that there has generally been continuity in the develop-
ment of public administration in the United States rather
than an abandonment of the traditions of the field. Whereas
Lynn organizes his reexamination around the bureaucratic
paradigm, my emphasis is the core relationship between
politicians and administrators.' Not only did traditional
thought, as Lynn observes, seek to maintain "balance be-
tween administrative capacity and popular control on be-
half of public purposes defined by electoral and judicial
institutions," it also sought to justify the contributions of
public administrators to shaping the definition of public
purposes. Put simply, early contributors to the develop-
ment of public administration acknowledged a policy role
for administrators that has often been ignored. Even the
politics-administration dichotomy that is a part of the tra-
ditional paradigm usually incorporates the ideas of account-
ability and responsibility—although the paradigm can be
expressed in ways that seem to preclude these qualities by
176 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, VoL 6 1 , No. 2
portraying administration as mechanically instrumental—
but the emphasis on a strict dichotomy of politics and ad-
ministration will not accommodate the policy role of ad-
ministrators that has come to be widely recognized.
In the past—and, I would argue, in the present as well—
there was simultaneous emphasis on separation and insu-
lation of administrators from political interference, on one
hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative
contributions in the design and the implementation of pub-
lic policy,.
In this thesis, leadership is tested by looking at the influence from cultural dimensions. This cultural influence is on the preference of leadership and the managing of conflicts.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Weeks 3–4 Sources of Power, Influence, and Empowerment as Well as L.docxtwilacrt6k5
Weeks 3–4: Sources of Power, Influence, and Empowerment as Well as Leadership Traits and Skills
Introduction
What are the bases of social power? How do effective leaders use their power? It has been said that the social use of power by leaders is a topic that has much in common with the topic of romantic love. You may recognize it as a potent force in your social life, or you may talk about it in everyday language, or ponder its meaning. In this paradigm, researchers see power use as being affected by organizational contexts and point to hierarchical status systems as causal factors. Additionally, leaders' personal qualities, such as core values like authority relations and dependency habits, are a part of this paradigm. Once social system factors such as organizational culture and social justice perceptions are included, you will begin to see why empowerment is often posed as a simplistic solution to problems when it is in fact the result of a fascinating complex of many different processes in an occupational setting.
As you interact with your colleagues this week, think about whether there can be harmful aftereffects to the overuse or abuse of power. What describes the true sharing of power in a high-stakes organizational environment?
Whether one looks in western cultures or in eastern cultural resources, the earliest writings can be said to be accounts of the heroic journeys or experiences of our moral leaders. Even ancient Greek philosophy, not normally associated with one religion or another, espouses the desirability of the "philosopher king," who by superior intellect leads in a moral fashion. In contrast, there has never been a universal agreement on what the ideal leadership trait might be. How can you best understand the differences in leaders' characteristics? If there is no one best way to lead, then is there one best characteristic for each particular situation for leadership? In the 20th century, a number of contingency theories attempted to match individual traits with specific leadership situations or contexts. This argument could be put simply by saying that no leadership trait was all-important but that didn't mean that traits or individual qualities were unimportant either; they just had to be understood in their context. More recently, our ideas of traits have expanded beyond motivations or personality factors. Individual difference factors such as gender have been hotly debated.
What about diversity factors like gender and/or ethnicity: do they interact with traits or skills to help us understand leadership?
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this week, you will be able to:
Distinguish among social bases of power, social influence attempts, and authority models as paradigms
Analyze the organization bases for expertise and delegation
Measure outcomes of power assertion, and how it relates to social change
Evaluate differences in leadership styles
Assess emotional intelligence as a skill set for power and influence
Apply .
Running head: PUBLIC LEADERSHIP
1
PUBLIC LEADERSHIP
2
Public Leadership
Tina Rice
Professor Timothy Smith
Pad515
July 26, 2014
Public Leadership
Defining the public leader
A public leader is a person who holds a public office and serves and guides the community as a whole and should be able to inspire and mobilize others to undertake collective action in pursuit of the common good while at the same time using his/her leadership skills to address pressing social, political and economic problems. He or she has to take up the social,administrative and political functions of a public office.As a public leader is concerned with the welfare of the community as a whole he or she expected to set the vision and maintain it while at the same time making sure that the different groups understand the vision and its ideologies and are well organized and planned for, with the right leaders empowered and involved in problem solving as well as decision making while all the time balancing and managing public opinion (Hart & Uhr, 2008). Public leaders are expected to be committed to and understand the values and importance of the principles of public service with public codes of conducts and ethics as their guides. An example of a public leadership role could be the Chief of Staff at the local government.
Leadership Theories
In chapter three; models and theories of leadership of Bernard and Ruth’s book, a number of leadership theories and models are discussed but those that would best personify a public leader are (Bernard & Bass, 2011).
Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories imply that the best leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account allowing the members to feel like they helped to reach a goal or that it was their idea to start with.
Situational Theories: Situational theories came up after the realization that there was no one supreme leader and rather different leaders are best suited for different situations. These theories hold that the effectiveness of a leader is related to his or her behavior based on different situations. It is therefore clear that according to situational theories, a leader has to modify his or her leadership behavior to match with that of the subordinates. In addition, as revealed in situational theories, the leader is supposed to change with the situation at hand. This is because a public leader should be dynamic in different situations while addressing the social, administrative and political functions of his office while at the same time allow for participation of the team working with him. As it involves dealing with many people, public leadership should then not be bureaucratic or lazier faire as this could lead to collapse of the systems and eventual anarchy (Julio, 2014). Based on research, situational theories have four leadership behaviors in regard to the supportive team. These include telling, where the leader shows high behavior of directing and low level of suppo.
Pinning down Power in Ukraine Crisis: West versus RussiaBright Mhango
In February 2014, the people of Ukraine managed to topple their government by way of prolonged protest which was in part a call for the Eastern European nation to move closer to Europe and away from Russia.
The deposed Russian-backed President of Ukraine Victor Yanukovych sparked the wrath of the Ukrainians by refusing to sign a ‘trade agreement’ that would have brought Ukraine closer to the EU. Instead he preferred closer ties with Russia which is sort of creating its own ‘EU’ called the Customs Union.
This paper posits that Ukraine has been a battleground for power both between the West and Russia (external power) and that of the state versus the citizens (Internal).
The paper will try to lay bare the various power struggles that were and are at play in the Ukrainian crisis and conclude that with the West looking like having won, the power play has only begun as Russia will not allow a nation so close to it and vital to its prestige get aligned with the West, its arch-enemy.
Before the Ukraine case can be tackled, it is essential to discuss the notion of power as it occurs in the discipline of International Relations. It will also feature a summary of two prescribed course readings on Power.
·From the weekly readings and e-Activity, analyze the key influe.docxalinainglis
·
From the weekly readings and e-Activity, analyze the key influences that the theoretical and practical aspects of public leadership may exert upon a public leader’s performance. Provide two (2) examples of these influences to support your response.
·
From the weekly readings and e-Activity, predict two to three (2-3) challenges that public leaders will face regarding the future of public leadership. Provide a rationale response.
Readings:
·
Leadership Theories
For decades, leadership theories have been the source of numerous studies. In reality as well as in practice, many have tried to define what allows authentic leaders to stand apart from the mass! Hence, there as many theories on leadership as there are philosophers, researchers and professors that have studied and ultimately published their leadership theory. A great article to read before diving into the theories is the
The Philosophical Foundations of Leadership
Theories are commonly categorized by which aspect is believed to define the leader the most. The most widespread one's are:
Great Man Theory
,
Trait Theory
,
Behavioural Theories
,
Contingency Theories
,
Transactional Theories
and
Transformational Theories
.
Leadership Theories
Great Man Theory (1840s)
The Great Man theory evolved around the mid 19th century. Even though no one was able to identify with any scientific certainty, which human characteristic or combination of, were responsible for identifying great leaders. Everyone recognized that just as the name suggests; only a man could have the characteristic (s) of a great leader.
The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic. That simply means that great leaders are born...
they are not made. This theory sees great leaders as those who are destined by birth to become a leader. Furthermore, the belief was that great leaders will rise when confronted with the appropriate situation. The theory was popularized by Thomas Carlyle, a writer and teacher. Just like him, the Great Man theory was inspired by the study of influential heroes. In his book "On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History", he compared a wide array of heroes.
In 1860, Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher disputed the great man theory by affirming that these heroes are simply the product of their times and their actions the results of social conditions.
Trait Theory (1930's - 1940's)
The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with certain qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain qualities such as intelligence, sense of responsibility, creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a good leader. In fact,
Gordon Allport
, an American psychologist,"...identified almost 18,000 English personality-relevant terms" (Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003, p. 3).
The trait theory of leadership focused on analyzing mental, physical and social characteristic in order to gain more understanding of .
Relationships between Men and Women in Islamic Organizationsijtsrd
In Islamic culture, which is the culture of order and discipline, the organization and organization are viewed with a deep perspective. The division of labor, the limits of duties, the prevention of interference in affairs, the authority and freedom within the bounds of responsibility, are all issues that are considered necessary to achieve happiness and sovereignty in the Islamic system. This study sought to investigate the relationship between men and women in Islamic organizations and analyzed the relationship between theories in this field with a descriptive analytical method and concluded that human beings are social beings. With the advent of Islam and the fact that religion has the ability to be present in all individual and social spheres of human life, at all times and places and conditions, Muslim relations also found a special structure and rules. Islam not only endorsed constructive social relations Rather, by explaining new principles, he emphasized the importance of targeting this general need of society. Mansoore Ansari | Gulab Mir Rahmany "Relationships between Men and Women in Islamic Organizations" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-5 , August 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd31900.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/31900/relationships-between-men-and-women-in-islamic-organizations/mansoore-ansari
Empowering Civil Society initiative by PRIA
This version of the paper has been written under the three-year project Cultures of Governance and Conflict Resolution in Europe and India (http://www.projectcore.eu/), which concluded in December 2013, funded by the European Union under the 7th Framework Programme.
Ethics Matter Moderating Leaders’ Power Use and Followers’C.docxhumphrieskalyn
Ethics Matter: Moderating Leaders’ Power Use and Followers’
Citizenship Behaviors
Peter J. Reiley • Rick R. Jacobs
Received: 15 November 2013 / Accepted: 2 October 2014 / Published online: 11 October 2014
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract Followers’ perceptions of their leaders’ ethics
have the potential to impact the way they react to the influence
of these leaders. The present study of 365 U.S. Air Force
Academy Cadets examined how followers’ perceptions of their
leaders’ ethics moderated the relationships found between the
leaders’ use of power, as conceptualized by French and Raven
(Studies in social power, 1959), and the followers’ contextual
performance. Our results indicated that leaders’ use of expert,
referent, and reward power was associated with higher levels of
organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) among their fol-
lowers when the followers perceived these leaders to be more
ethical. Moreover, when followers perceived their leaders to be
less ethical, these followers reported lower levels of OCBs
when their leaders’ utilized referent power. Practical implica-
tions, limitations, and future research are also discussed.
Keywords Coercive power � Ethical leadership � Ethics �
Expert power � Follower � Leader’s power use � Legitimate
power � Military � Organizational citizenship behavior �
Perception � Performance � Power bases � Referent power �
Reward power � Social influence
Ethics Matter: Moderating Leaders’ Power Use
and Followers’ Citizenship Behaviors
Power has a bad reputation—but power is a fundamental
element of the leadership process (Hollander 1985). Lord
Acton’s oft-quoted notion that ‘‘power tends to corrupt, and
absolute power corrupts absolutely,’’ captures a seemingly
common concern associated with those who wield great
power. The nineteenth-century politician’s belief that
power carries a negative, and even corrupt, connotation is
echoed in the modern day by many scholars and practi-
tioners alike. In his aptly titled bestseller, The No Asshole
Rule, Stanford University Professor Robert Sutton (2007)
underscored the negative corollaries of power:
A huge body of research—hundreds of studies—
shows that when people are put in positions of power,
they start talking more, taking what they want for
themselves, ignoring what other people say or want,
ignoring how less-powerful people react to their
behaviors, acting more rudely, and generally treating
any situation or person as a means for satisfying their
own needs. (p. 70)
Although some researchers have argued that a person
who uses power and authority in this manner cannot truly
be considered a ‘‘leader’’ (e.g., Howell and Avolio 1992;
Kellerman 2004; Yukl 1999; Yukl and Van Fleet 1992),
several theories have been developed to better recognize
and understand the influence of these powerful individuals
in the leadership process. Ashforth (1994) characterized
‘‘petty tyrants’’ who use their powe.
James H. SvaraNorth Carolina State UniversifyThe Myth of.docxchristiandean12115
James H. Svara
North Carolina State Universify
The Myth of the Dichotomy: Complementarity
of Politics and Administration in the Past and
Future of Public Administration
At the heart of the practice of public administration is the
relationship between administrators, on one hand, and po-
litical leaders and the public on the other hand. The nature
of that relationship and the proper role of administrators in
the political process have been the subject of considerable
debate. Anxiety about administrative legitimacy has been
particularly intense in the United States, where the rise of
the administrative state was out of synch with a democratic
society (Stillman 1997), but similar issues have arisen in
other countries as well (Rutgers 1997). As the field emerged,
it was important to differentiate a practice based on profes-
sional knowledge and values from political particularism,
but the extent and scope of the differentiation were unclear.
It was also necessary to reconcile the tensions among com-
plying with the directions of elected officials, maintaining
professional integrity, and serving the public. Observers dif-
fer as to whether American thinking about the relationship
of public administration to society has experienced major
shifts over time or has gradually evolved.
Along the lines developed by Lynn, the case can be made
that there has generally been continuity in the develop-
ment of public administration in the United States rather
than an abandonment of the traditions of the field. Whereas
Lynn organizes his reexamination around the bureaucratic
paradigm, my emphasis is the core relationship between
politicians and administrators.' Not only did traditional
thought, as Lynn observes, seek to maintain "balance be-
tween administrative capacity and popular control on be-
half of public purposes defined by electoral and judicial
institutions," it also sought to justify the contributions of
public administrators to shaping the definition of public
purposes. Put simply, early contributors to the develop-
ment of public administration acknowledged a policy role
for administrators that has often been ignored. Even the
politics-administration dichotomy that is a part of the tra-
ditional paradigm usually incorporates the ideas of account-
ability and responsibility—although the paradigm can be
expressed in ways that seem to preclude these qualities by
176 Public Administration Review • March/April 2001, VoL 6 1 , No. 2
portraying administration as mechanically instrumental—
but the emphasis on a strict dichotomy of politics and ad-
ministration will not accommodate the policy role of ad-
ministrators that has come to be widely recognized.
In the past—and, I would argue, in the present as well—
there was simultaneous emphasis on separation and insu-
lation of administrators from political interference, on one
hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative
contributions in the design and the implementation of pub-
lic policy,.
In this thesis, leadership is tested by looking at the influence from cultural dimensions. This cultural influence is on the preference of leadership and the managing of conflicts.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Weeks 3–4 Sources of Power, Influence, and Empowerment as Well as L.docxtwilacrt6k5
Weeks 3–4: Sources of Power, Influence, and Empowerment as Well as Leadership Traits and Skills
Introduction
What are the bases of social power? How do effective leaders use their power? It has been said that the social use of power by leaders is a topic that has much in common with the topic of romantic love. You may recognize it as a potent force in your social life, or you may talk about it in everyday language, or ponder its meaning. In this paradigm, researchers see power use as being affected by organizational contexts and point to hierarchical status systems as causal factors. Additionally, leaders' personal qualities, such as core values like authority relations and dependency habits, are a part of this paradigm. Once social system factors such as organizational culture and social justice perceptions are included, you will begin to see why empowerment is often posed as a simplistic solution to problems when it is in fact the result of a fascinating complex of many different processes in an occupational setting.
As you interact with your colleagues this week, think about whether there can be harmful aftereffects to the overuse or abuse of power. What describes the true sharing of power in a high-stakes organizational environment?
Whether one looks in western cultures or in eastern cultural resources, the earliest writings can be said to be accounts of the heroic journeys or experiences of our moral leaders. Even ancient Greek philosophy, not normally associated with one religion or another, espouses the desirability of the "philosopher king," who by superior intellect leads in a moral fashion. In contrast, there has never been a universal agreement on what the ideal leadership trait might be. How can you best understand the differences in leaders' characteristics? If there is no one best way to lead, then is there one best characteristic for each particular situation for leadership? In the 20th century, a number of contingency theories attempted to match individual traits with specific leadership situations or contexts. This argument could be put simply by saying that no leadership trait was all-important but that didn't mean that traits or individual qualities were unimportant either; they just had to be understood in their context. More recently, our ideas of traits have expanded beyond motivations or personality factors. Individual difference factors such as gender have been hotly debated.
What about diversity factors like gender and/or ethnicity: do they interact with traits or skills to help us understand leadership?
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this week, you will be able to:
Distinguish among social bases of power, social influence attempts, and authority models as paradigms
Analyze the organization bases for expertise and delegation
Measure outcomes of power assertion, and how it relates to social change
Evaluate differences in leadership styles
Assess emotional intelligence as a skill set for power and influence
Apply .
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A Brief Overview Of Despotic Leadership Research
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A Brief Overview of Despotic Leadership Research
ALEENA MUKARRAM
Department of Business Administration,
Foundation University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Email: Aleena.mukarram@fjwu.edu.pk
Dr. SAJJAD HUSSAIN
Department of Business Administration,
Foundation University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Email: sajjad.hussain@fui.edu.pk
MEHWISH ALI KHAN
Faculty of Management Sciences,
Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Email: Mehvish.ali@riphah.edu.pk
Abstract
The present study is an attempt to give a brief overview of despotic leadership research in a chronological
order. Starting from the pre-historic era, the study links the concept of despotic leadership with Greek era
and explains its existence in other domains which includes sociology and political science. It briefly
addresses questions like how despotic leadership evolved from the broader construct of destructive
leadership. What are the different types of destructive leaders and how despotic leadership differs from
other type? It also covers different consequences of the despotic leadership with multiple themes. The
study deeply analyzes the integration of despotic leadership research with multiple behavioral and
attitudinal work-related outcomes. Finally, current trends and future directions are proposed for further
scientific and logical validation.
Keywords: Despotic leadership, Historical Review, Multiple Dimensions, Current and Future Trends.
Introduction
Aristotle, the most famous Greek philosophers of all times, was the first one to describe the concept of
leadership 2400 years ago. Leadership is a widely discussed and well known concept with critical
administrative ramifications(Antonakis et al., 2012; Bass & Bass, 2009; Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). It‘s
research has seen fast developments with a huge number of publications of articles and books (Batistič et
al., 2017). The core of leadership phenomenon lies in determining clear objectives and its afterward
implications on followers who seek those objectives(Shamir et al., 1993). Interestingly, the same essence is
followed by a destructive leader, but antagonistically, which means destructive leaders identify negative
goals and then influence followers to chase them. Society's enthrallment with scandalous super villains has
created incredible academic interest in understanding damaging effects of bad leadership (Krasikova et al.,
2013; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).Destructive leader is a harsh reality of organizational life. Deceiving
CEOs and their infamous corporate scandals arouse thoughts on the ‗‗dark‘‘ traits of organizational leaders.
An increase in destructive leadership studies is also significant because of the costs associated with it. For
instance, according to a research, abusive supervision negatively impact an estimated 13.6% of workers in
USA alone mainly due to employee absenteeism and employee turnover. Furthermore, the deterring
impacts of bad leadership on employees are very extreme(Harvey et al., 2007).
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Destructive leadership is a broad construct and its defined as “The systematic and repeated behavior by a
leader, supervisor or manager that violates the legitimate interest of the organization by undermining
and/or sabotaging the organization‘s goals, tasks, resources, and effectiveness and/or the motivation, well-
being or job satisfaction of subordinates‖(Einarsen et al., 2007).Destructive behavior of those in leadership
positions are often not labelled as leaders but received other names e.g. abusive, bad or authoritative
leadership (Tepper, 2000). In recent times many categorizations of destructive leadership have been studied
which includes: Machiavellian(Christie&Geis,1970), Autocratic(Kipnis et al.,1981),Narcissistic
leadership(De Vries & Miller, 1985),Flawed leadership(Hogan et al., 1994),Derailed leadership(McCall &
Lombardo, 1983; Shackleton, 1995),Toxic leadership(Lipman-Blumen, 2005),Impaired managers
(Lubit,2004),Supervisor undermining(Greenbaum et al.,2015),Self-serving leadership(Decoster et al.,2014;
Rus et al.,2010),Hubristic leadership(Sadler-Smith, 2018)and Despotic leadership(De Hoogh & Den
Hartog, 2008). Despotic leadership is unarguably the most conceited and damaging style of leading. It was
found in one of the study that despotic leadership strengthens the impact of organizational deviance which
mainly includes stealing and minimizing efforts in performing day to day tasks at workplace (Erkutlu &
Chafra, 2018). Despotic leaders negatively affect the job performance level, satisfaction and emotional
well-being of employees at workplace as this phenomenon is unbearable for most of the employees
(Raja,Haq,Clercq & Azeem,2019). Bullying behavior acts as an antecedent of despotic leadership in one of
the study where despots through moral emotions of anger and disgust tend to manipulate the work
environment negatively (Syed et al., 2020). Social exchange theory (Balu, 1964) tend to better explain the
logical reasoning of above-mentioned negative work-related outcomes of employees at work by providing
necessary theoretical support and underpinning. This theory proposes that in social exchanges, parties
respond by mimicking the way they are being treated by the other parties involved in the exchange
relationships. In case of despotic leaders, followers respond by exhibiting emotional and psychological
distress and decreased levels of satisfaction, performance and creativity as a reciprocity of what they have
received from their bad and toxic leaders.
This particular study aims to provide a brief overview of despotic leadership as this leadership type is
attaining scholarly attention worldwide but still has scope for further exploration(Nauman et al., 2018; De
Clercq et al., 2018). This study is divided into six sections. First section describes brief historical
background which mainly involves how this concept emerged from history specifically from philosophical
and political science perspective to modern management sciences literature. Second section discusses
theoretical significance by highlighting different constructs related to despotic leadership their similarities
and differences and major overarching theories in this regard. Third section consists of multiple themes
including belief system of a despot and the impact of it on attitudinal and behavioral work-related outcomes
of employees. Fourth section includes methodology for conducting review paper, fifth involves current and
future trends. Finally sixth section includes discussion and conclusion.
Brief Historical Background of Despotic Leadership
―The possession of unlimited power will make a despot of almost any man. There is a possible Nero or
cruel ruler in the gentlest human creature that walks‖ (Thomas Bailey, Leaves from a notebook).
Despotism is derived from a Greek word ―despot” which means "master" or "one with absolute power." It
refers to an arrangement of administration where a solitary being rules with supreme force. The term has
been utilized to depict various types of rulers, from local chieftain, tribal leader to king or emperor. The
term has been utilized to depict numerous rulers and governments in Greek folklore.
Colonial or communist countries soon after their independence from their subsequent oppressors had high
expectations, but unfortunately these expectations of true freedom from the brutal clutches of their rulers
proved futile(de Vries, 2006). Reason was the stark differences between wealth and poverty, prevalence of
corruption and social institutions‘ and disintegration. These factors forced people to willingly obey despotic
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regimes. The search of people for their messiahs who would award them economic and political salvation
paved way for despotism.
From Greek emperors to modern despots, the historical background of numerous tyrannical systems is a
line of caution stories, reminding that each culture needs to assemble and keep up solid balanced
governance against the maltreatment. Without these protections, any system, regardless of how kind, can
approach to dictatorial guideline.
The term Despotism has been used interchangeably used with tyranny since 18th
century. However as a
matter of fact these terminologies differ.
Difference between Tyranny and Despotism
―Despotism while being authoritarian and arbitrary, is legitimate if not legal in some countries, whereas
tyranny, in the most rigorous sense, is authoritarian and arbitrary and which is illegitimate and illegal
because it is exercised not only without but against the will of the individuals and also scorns fundamental
human rights.‖(Turchetti, 2008). A ruler with unlimited despotic power may become tyrant. But it is not
necessary that every tyrant is a despot. A despotic ruler can be compassionate, if he rules for the benefit of
the subjects.
Management sciences have many constructs similar to despotic leadership which includes: authoritarian
personality(Altemeyer, 1988),bureaupathic individual(Thompson, 1965)and abrasive personality(Levinson,
1978) etc. These constructs provided rich legacy of behavioral descriptions. They have striking similarities
with despotic leadership and they also paved way for the concept of despotic leadership in management
sciences literature.
Brief Theoretical Background
Since 1930s many prominent theories have been developed shaping leadership research (House & Aditya,
1997). A theory in organizational science is aimed to describe an organizational perspective that guides
humanistic action(Hussain & Dar, 2020). Researchers have studied a number of constructs that is covered
under destructive leadership. Preliminary work on destructive leadership started with the phenomenon of
abusive supervision and it has received substantial attention since the 2000s. An impactful work in this
regard is produced by Tepper in 2007 and by Aryee, Chen, Sun, and Debrah in 2007. Some other
destructive leadership constructs are as under:
Table 1: Description of Destructive Leadership Constructs
Construct Definition
Abusive supervision Subordinates' impression of the degree to which
supervisor is involved in verbal and non-verbal
abuse at workplaces (Tepper, 2000).
Petty Tyranny It involves administrative style that includes
playing top favorite and disparaging devotees
(Ashforth, 1994, 1997, 2003; Reed & Bullis,
2009)
Pseudo-Transformational Leadership Authority that emphasizes personal objectives
over devotees‘ needs and hierarchical
destinations; it also involves misdirection and
pressure (Barling, Christie, &Turner, 2008; Bass
and Steidlmeier, 1999).
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Personalized Charismatic Leadership They deliberately chose strategies to create a
desired
Picture among followers and spot focuss in an
agreeable, feeble position to accomplish
individual or authoritative targets (Ferris et al.,
2007)
Strategic Bullying Leaders in this case are regularly spurred by
authoritative objectives, they mainly follow self-
serving objectives(e.g., "making a realm, winning
titles, being perceived as a maestro, being seen as
a deliverer (Ma et al., 2004)
Managerial Tyranny Authority block capacity to build up and keep up
relational connections, business related
achievement, and ideal standing (Duffy, Ganster,
& Pagon, 2002, p. 332)
Leader Incivility It involves utilization of "low-force‖ misconduct
with questionable aim to hurt the followers,
disregarding work environment standards.
Uncivil practices are naturally inconsiderate and
rude, showing an absence of respect for other
people (Andersson & Pearson, 1999, p. 457)
Despotic Leadership This style is "presumptuous and shifty of others"
since it depends on close predominance and
conduct that serves the personal circumstance of
the leader (De Hoogh and Den Hartog, 2008, p.
298)
Keeping in view the above-mentioned leadership styles it is worthwhile to explain that there are many
overlaps between different leadership styles. But still there are distinctive differences that need to be
considered. Some of the differences that make despotic leadership construct different from other
destructive leadership types are as under:
Despotic leaders require ultimate obedience and submission from their subordinates. Such leaders are more
demanding and controlling and they behave unsympathetically toward their followers (Schilling, 2009).
They are arrogant, ethically devastated and have low moral principles (De Hoogh and Den Hartog, 2008).
The significant spotlight is on severe, embarrassing, and hostile practices toward the subordinates and no
reference is made to the honesty and moral character. Moreover the despotic leadership style unlike other
leadership types includes practices that reflect selfish thought processes intended to control, use, and
endeavor supporters. The emphasis of despots is on their own benefit, that‘s why they not just act in
exploitative and socially unconstructive manners but likewise they neutralize the real interests of the
followers by participating in deceitful and ethically inaccurate self-serving practices (Aronson, 2001).
Other administration types, for example, petty tyranny, abusive supervision and supervisor undermining
can't cover the particular impacts that a despot have on their followers.
Similarly tyrannical leadership differs from despotic leadership (de Vries, 2006). According to De Vries,
tyrants oppress subordinates but they are beneficial for the organizational performance. The fact is that
tyrannical leaders are exceedingly valuable in attaining organizational goals. Tyrants achieve their assigned
goals and help organizations reach pinnacle of their performance but on the expense of psychological well-
being of their subordinates.
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Table 2: Brief Over view of Positive Leadership Theories
Theory Elements/Components References
The Great Man Theory It postulates that leaders are born not
made
Gib 1945), Jenkins
(1947) and Stogdill(1948)
Trait theory This theory emphasizes synthesis of
all traits that are present in a leader.
Behavioral Theories
Ohio State studies There are two important leaders‘
behaviors that includes: initiating
consideration and structure
Katz et al.,1951;
Bales (1954),
Stogdil (1948)
University of Michigan
studies
There are two important leaders‘
behaviors that includes: Task-
oriented and Relationship-oriented
Contingency Theories
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory Leader‘s style must be in accordance
with the situational characteristics
Fiedler,1967;
1971),
Path-Goal Theory A leader through his/her vision and
persuasion helps group members to
attain goals
Decision-Making Model Before choosing any leadership style,
a leader analyzes the particular
situation.
.
Leader–Member
Exchange
It emphasizes on quality of leader‘s
relationship with their followers.
Table 3 : Major Overarching theories of destructive leadership
Theory Reference
Social exchange theory George Homans in 1958
Power/dependence theory Richard Emerson in1962
Moral exclusion theory Opotow's in 1990.
Social learning theory Bandurs in 1964
Social information processing theory Joseph Walther in 1992
Attribution theory Fritz Heider in 1958
Role theory Eagly and Wood in 1999
Conservation of resources theory Hobfoll's in 1998
Self-gain view Thau et al., in 2007
Self-regulation impairment view Roy Baumeister in 1994
Reactance Theory Jack Brehm in 1966
Demand-control theory of stress. Karasek in 1979
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Figure 1: Graphical Representation of Leadership
Leadership
Positive Leadership
Negative Leadership
Trait theories
(Jenkins (1947) and Stogdill(1948)
Destructive leadership
The leader behavior paradigm
(Katz et al., 1953;
Stogdil & Cones, 1957)
Anti-subordinate and
pro -organization
Pro- subordinate
and anti-
organization
Anti-subordinate
and anti -
organization
Tyrannical
leaderships (Ashforth,
1994; Tepper, 2000)
Supportive-Disloyal
Leadership
(Altheide et al., 1978)
Contingency Theories
Fiedler, 1967; 1971),
Toxic leadership
(Lipman-Blumen,
2005)
Aversive Leadership
(Bligh, Kohles, Pearce,
Justin, & Stovall,
2007)
Derailed
Leadership
(Einarsen, Aasland, &
Skogstad, 2007)
Despotic leadership
(De Hoogh & Den
Hartog, 2008)
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Multiple Themes
The desire for power pushes a despot past the limits, making them forsake regard for people and act in
manner that stop others from carrying on with their lives normally. Despotic leaders create great hindrance
in achieving equity, distinction and growth of the human potential.
Belief about Subordinates
As per Ashforth in his conspicuous work on "Petty Tyranny in Organizations". He contends that a despot‘s
initiative stems from the conviction proposed by McGregor (1960) in his acclaimed "Hypothesis X". This
hypothesizes that there is an intrinsic conviction of leaders with respect to the overall working disposition
of their subordinates at work environments. Supervisors feel that a normal employee would prefer not to
work as they are lazy reckless, and are least keen on gathering their cutoff times and objectives at work.
Fiman (1974) contends that those administrators who are steadfast adherents of hypothesis X are seen as
least helpful and stricter by their subordinates. It was additionally contended by McGregor that hypothesis
X gives a solid establishment to legitimate and coercive administration styles.
Belief about Self
Interestingly, low self-confidence was found to be one of the leading causes of coercive actions of
authoritative leaders (Kipnis, 1976). According to Kipnis, there is a negative relationship between
managerial confidence and oppression as a leader. This means that lower confidence directs more coercive
and authoritarian actions of a leader. In other words, personal insecurities pave way for over-controlling
others (Vries & Millr, 1984).
Preference for Action
It is said that most of the political dictators have a will to impose power (Ray, 1976). On the same footing
House (1988) proposed that those individuals having higher desire for attaining power, want to experience
gaining power as compared to those with a lower tendency at workplace. Authoritarianism postulates
dominance towards one inferior. These core concepts of directedness, dominance and desire to subjugate
inferiors to gain power were not only prevalent previously in management sciences but they also provide
sufficient theoretical support for a novel phenomenon of leadership i.e., despotic leadership.
Attitudinal Outcomes and Behavioral Outcomes
There are different attitudinal and behavioral outcomes of despotic leadership style. Some of them are as
under:
To avoid the wrath of leaders, followers adopt certain strategies including ingratiation which equip
employees to avoid the rage of a despotic leader and also help them to bear the hardships inflicted by them
(De Clercq, Fatima & Jahanzeb, 2018).
Stress and psychological deterioration of the subordinates are the most significant and most researched
outcomes of despotic leadership. It was revealed in one of the studies conducted in public sector financial
institutions that trauma and angst among employees related to humiliation and bias by their higher-ups
which is also perceived as organizational injustice, leads to phenomenal failure(Baig,Hussain &
Hussain,2020). Elevated level of anger and frustration was found to be followed by a higher level of
insecurity, frustration and detachment from work under bad leadership (Bhandarkar & Rai, 2018).
Supervisor‘s abusive behavior triggers burnout and counterproductive work behaviors among the
employees while Islamic Work Ethics plays a critical role in minimizing the negativity of the dark triad of a
leader (Tahir, Khan& Hussain, 2020). Despotic leadership induces emotional exhaustion among employees
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which later on negatively influence their psychological well-being and family life (Ernst, Kossek & Ozeki,
1998). As a defensive mechanism employees tend to avoid their toxic leaders or maintain minimum
interaction with them (Lubit, 2004). Sometimes they seek to find easier and less efficient ways of doing
things and become unethical (Schilling, 2009). Employees at the workplace mostly seek stress preventive
resources which safeguard them against the negative work environment. One of such preventive resource is
group cohesion. Group cohesion is one of such resources and it plays an important role in increasing
psychological capital, thus encouraging employees to share the knowledge that is otherwise hindered by
abusive supervision (Hussain et al., 2020). Emotional intelligence plays a similar role in buffering the
negative impact of work interference and negative emotions on counterproductive work behaviors (Sarmad
et al., 2002). Perception meaningfulness of tasks by employees and its linkage with overall organizational
goals greatly elevates their creativity level (Ahmad, Hussain, Sulehri & Hussain, 2020). Despotic leaders
are viewed as a burden at workplaces. A study conducted by Erkutlu and Chafra, (2017) findings suggested
that despotic leadership leads to higher levels of employee deviance from their organizational goals and
objectives and minimizes their relevant identification related to their job. In other words, organizations
should be careful in treating their subordinates as the perception of subordinates in case of a bad working
environment increases organizational deviance. Some other studies suggested that the darker aspect of
despotic leadership becomes more implicit in the context which favors or promotes its negativity such as
high LMX and high perception of politics (POP) (Naseer et.al, 2016). Follower‘s optimism, trust, loyalty,
and organizational citizenship behaviors largely depend on their leadership, in case of despotic leadership
such extra-role performances from employees are rarely triggered (De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2008).
Job stress makes employees suffer mentally and physically. Sometimes it is triggered by the employees‘
inability to share concerns about their job stress to their supervisors (De Clercq, Haq, & Azeem, 2017). The
prompting role of stress among female employees was found to be more severe as compare to their male
counterparts (Eagly & Crowley, 1986; Leslie et al., 2013). This urge them to help colleagues suffering from
despotic leadership. Islamic work ethics strongly influence the helping behaviors of employees towards
their affected colleagues as Islamic work ethic postulates peer support (Ali, 2005; Tufail et al., 2020).
Helping behaviors play a significant role to mitigate the negativity associated with bad leaders in work
environment. Mostly employees are reluctant to report because of the fear of being caught (Aronson, 2001)
Table 4: Brief Overview of Despotic Leadership
Level Nature Negative Effects of Despotic leadership
Personal
Attitudes
Turnover intentions (Clercq et al., 2020)
Employee Family life (Nauman,Fatima & Haq,2018)
Behaviors
Performance(Naseer et al., 2016)
Helping behavior(De Clercq et al., 2019)
Employee Performance(Jabeen & Rahim,2021)
Job performance(Raja et al., 2019)
Dissatisfaction(Islam et al., 2020)
Social
Exchange
Interpersonal Workplace Status(De Clercq,Fatima & Jahanzeb,2019)
Organizational
Organizational deviance(Erkutlu & Chafra,2017)
Organizational Career Growth(Rasool et al., 2018)
Despotic leaders were also found to indulge in immoral acts of bullying and humiliating employees (Syed
et. al., 2020). Bullying specifically prevails in a high-power distance culture as such cultures provide a
fertile ground and leaders use their power against subordinates. Despots can also involve in fraudulent and
morally incorrect activities against the legitimate interests of organizations (Aronson, 2001). The following
tables indicate that despotic leadership is associated with several negative outcomes which can be
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categorized into psychological- and performance-related outcomes along with their respective research
models. These tables are as under:
Table 5 : Brief Overview of Despotic Leadership -Perspectives and Ideologies
Referent Perspective Model Ideology
Relational
Behavioral
outcomes
Social exchange
theory
Conservation of
resource theory
Despotic leadership is negatively
influences three employee outcomes
i.e., Job performance, OCB and
employee creativity.
Supportive co-workers steers away
employees from turn over intentions
and despotic leadership
Work-family trouble hurt
subordinates' non-work lives
Morality
Related to
sabotaging
moral values
Social exchange
theory
Conservation of
resource theory
Despotic leadership damages
satisfaction and morality levels of
employees by pushing them towards
deviance behaviors
Religiosity
Islamic work
ethics
Social exchange
theory
Conservation of
resource theory
Islamic work ethics (IWE) was
found to cushion the beneficial
outcome by reducing occupation
disappointment.
Cultural
Perspective
Power Distance
Orientation
Conservation of
resources theory
Despotic leaders‘ spikes workers'
upward ingratiatory conduct, and
this conduct is more unmistakable
among representatives with more
significant levels of power- distance
orientation.
Methodology
Organized efforts were made to identify despotic leadership research that was available as of December
2020 in order to provide evidences that could be compared and synthesized. The goal was to formulate a
review study that could represent the empirical despotic leadership literature. The following research
strategies were used:
Google and Google Scholar were utilized for the hunt of studies that referred to quantify papers for explicit
styles of destructive leadership. Academic information bases were looked through that included ProQuest
Dissertations, Theses, Web of Science, PsycINFO for articles, book parts, gathering papers, specialized
reports, and working papers. Similarly reference lists of many relevant articles were also researched for
identifying further useful studies. One of the selection criteria for choosing most relevant and appropriate
studies included searching for the terms that included "damaging" "oppressive" "authority" ―tyrant‖
―tyranny‖ ―destructive leader‖ ―toxic leadership and ―abusive leadership/supervision ―related articles.
Certain inclusion criterias were followed for selection of papers while conducting this study. The main
reason for following inclusion criteria was to standardize this brief overview as much as possible and to
enhance the validity of the study. Some of the quality assurance inclusion criteria includes following: Only
those research articles were selection where the phenomenon of destructive leadership was studied not only
empirically but also in consistence with its conceptualization. Those studies were selected that surveyed
employees and their perceptions about their leaders. Similarly only those papers were selected which were
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written in English. Earliest available data was included and it was also ensured that no overlap occurs
during this process. Approximately 100-150 articles were studied among which 110-120 relevant papers
were selected and referred accordingly during the formulation process of the study. Since the phenomenon
of despotic leadership is still in its initial phases of infancy and limited research work is done so far,
therefore nearly 15-20 papers(research papers, dissertations, book chapters, technical reports working
papers and conference papers )were downloaded that specifically addressed despots and despotic leadership
at workplaces.
The leader-follower relationship also known as a dyadic relationship is mainly measured in leadership.
Each theory views the dyadic phenomena from different perspectives. Dyad or Dyadic relationships
measure a variable from two perspectives which lead to a complete view (Krasikova & LeBreton, 2012;
Bass, 2008). Dyadic data can be collected from either one leader and one follower or one leader and
multiple followers (Gooty & Yammarino, 2011). In addition self-report measurement method, time-lagged
studies are also used for recording responses. Time-lagged method for data collection is considered as one
of the most reliable method, as after careful examination of the literature, it was found that common
method variance is one of the potential cause of biases and errors in research studies. One of the solutions
proposed by (Podoskoff, MacKenzie & Lee, 2003) in their conspicuous research paper ―Common Method
Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies‖ after
rigorously assessing the research settings, was conducting ―Time-lagged studies‖. Time-lagged studies
instead of one short or cross sectional studies minimizes the occurrences of biases and errors in research
findings. Some of such biases and errors which can potentially manipulate and damage the reliability and
validity of research findings in the absence of a time-lagged research design are as under:
Table 6: Description of Potential Sources of Biases and Errors
Social desirability It alludes to the inclination of individuals to
react to things more because of their social
worthiness than their actual sentiments.
Consistency motif It mentions to the inclination of respondents to
attempt to keep up consistency in their reactions
to inquiries without thought.
Transient mood state It mentions to the effect of the current events to
impact the way in which respondents see
themselves and their general surroundings.
Note: Reference: Podsakoff, MacKenzie & Lee, 2003.
In Quantitative studies, there are different scales for assessing negative leadership. One of the most
commonly used scale in this regard is abusive supervision (Tepper, 2000). While the dominant part of
studies utilized the full 15 question adaptation, a few investigations (Baumeister et al., 2001) utilized more
limited forms going from 3 to 13 questions for assessing negative leadership. Ensuing variables and
investigations verified that despotic leadership could be close fistedly caught by the six- item scale. This
scale was created by Annebel H.B. De Hoogh and Deanne N. Den Hartog. It was developed on the basis of
items formerly proposed by Hanges and Dickson (2004). The items assessing Despotic leadership includes
following:
I. My supervisor is punitive; has no pity or compassion.
II. My supervisor is in charge and does not tolerate disagreement or questioning.
III. My supervisor gives orders and acts like a tyrant or despot; imperious.
IV. My supervisor tends to be unwilling or unable to relinquish control of projects or tasks.
V. My supervisor expects unquestioning obedience of those who report to him/her is vengeful.
VI. My supervisor seeks revenge when wronged.
(Annexure-A- Despotic Leadership items)
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Current Trends’ Summary
Studies conducted on despotic leadership had largely focused on the leader‘s attitudinal and behavioral
outcomes. The summary of current trends in despotic leadership literature shows the following:
Table 7 : Description of Independent Variables (IVs) and Consequences of Despotic Leadership
Independent Variables (IVs) Consequences
Despotic Leadership Employees‘ turnover intentions
(De Clercq,Azeem,Haq & Bouckenooghe,2020)
Despotic leadership
Organizational deviance
(Erkutlu & Chafra, 2017)
Despotic leadership
Bullying Behavior
(Syed et al. 2020)
Despotic leadership
Performance,OCB and creativity.
(Naseer et al. 2016)
Despotic leadership
Job Performance
(Nauman,Zheng & Basit,2020)
Islamic work behavior Helping behavior (DeClercq et al., 2019)
Despotic leadership
Performance, Satisfaction and Psychological
well-being.
(Raja et al. 2019)
Despotic leadership
Job dissatisfaction and Organizational Deviance
(Islam et al. 2020)
Despotic leadership
Employee outcomes
(Rasool et al., 2018)
Despotic leadership
Workplace Status
(De Clercq,Fatima & Jahanzeb,2019)
A despot can have a damaging impact on subordinates' morale and their tendency to contribute positivity
towards their jobs. OCB towards individuals and towards organization (OCB-I and OCB-O) creativity,
satisfaction, helping behavior, dissatisfaction, stress, deviance, and psychological and emotional well-being
are badly affected.
These effects are strengthened with underlying mechanisms and processes. Some of the underlying
mechanisms and their relevant moderators and mediators studied so far in despotic leadership researches
includes: Political ineptness, ingratiation behavior, quality of work-family life, value congruence,
organizational identification, self-concordance, moral emotion, perception of politics, leader-member
exchange (LMX), employee engagement, employee trust, trait anxiety, exhaustion, Islamic work ethic, and
power distance.
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Actionable Agenda for Future Research
Future research should explore some other under explored or unexplored horizons. For example, future
research should focus how negative leader traits, attitudes, and behaviors can have constructive outcomes?
(Yam et al., 2018; Zapata & Hayes-Jones, 2019). The antecedents of despotic leadership require scholarly
attention as limited research is done in this domain along with a lack of a unified theoretical framework.
Similarly, identification of further moderators and mediators of underlying relationships of despotic
leadership need to be explored. In this regard a new direction could be to examine the role of third party or
bystanders and witnesses‘ reaction to the abusive supervision of a co-worker (Zhu, Song, Zhu &Jhonson,
2019). The tendency of the followers to successfully break the spiral of despot through their psychological
powers, thus managing to reach a reconciliation with a leader can be an interesting area for future research
(Carlo & Garcia, 2018). Psychological processes and their role in underlying despotic leadership
relationship also need to be explored (Huyghebaert et al., 2018).
Another interesting avenue can be to understand how experience of a despot at workplace can damage the
psychological well- being of subordinates and ruin their peace of mind thus leading them to indulge in
paranoid thoughts (Freeman et al., 2011; Lopes et al., 2018).
The majority of destructive leadership studies at workplace have focused on leader-employee relationship.
An interesting avenue in this regard can be to study leader‘s aggression between different leaders rather
than between followers and subordinates. Currently many organizations are relying on teams of leaders to
undertake various strategic tasks and projects (Wageman & Hackman, 2010).
Another possible avenue can be to study impact of hierarchical position on the extent of devastation
imposed by despotic leaders (Giessner & Schubert, 2007). Assessing leadership style along with followers
and environments is difficult and challenging. Broader systems approaches need to be incorporated to
assess accurately the overall impact of a despot.
Different destructive leadership styles despite having differences also consists of certain level of overlaps
in some of the concepts which makes it difficult sometimes to compare and contrast them. Future studies
should also consider exploring this avenue by postulating comparative studies between different leadership
styles and establishing the distinctiveness between them.
Limitations
There are some limitations in this study that should be carefully regarded.
One of the limitation is that management sciences journals were focused mainly for the phenomenon of
despotic leadership which may have a possibility of excluding research and theory on this topic flourishing
in other domains. For example despotic leadership phenomenon also occurs in Political science, Sociology,
Education sector and Public Sector. Although this brief overview tried to provide a unifying perspective but
a better comprehension can be obtained by analyzing and comparing a broader perspective provided by
different domains and academically diversified subjects.
Second possible limitation is that although rigorous efforts were put to include research studies published
on despotic and to provide brief but comprehensive overview, however there is a possibility that some of
the studies got excluded because of limitations of absolute access of all research journals and human error.
Discussion
The previous few years have seen consistent developments in the literature regarding destructive
leadership. It is perhaps the genuinely notable and upsetting phenomenon which subordinates can insight at
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work. Numerous studies have identified many terminologies related to bad/negative/destructive leadership
styles but among them despotic leadership is very much novel as well as an under-explored and is
successful in achieving the attention of scholars worldwide.
Despotic leadership is unarguably becoming relevant to corrupt and authoritative top executives and
becoming increasingly serious for organizations(Hoobler & Hu, 2013). This is evident in many corporate
scandals one of them is linked to Enron and Worldcom. These controversies captured vast coverage by
media. Main reasons for the growing interest in the negative leadership literature includes: costs associated
with bad leaders in terms of financial, physical and psychological pay off. Secondly their effects are
twofold and severe on emotional and moral aspects of workforce. Some of these outcomes include negative
effects on stress, emotional exhaustion and counterproductive work behaviors(Bamberger & Bacharach,
2006; Harvey et al., 2007). The incredible serious effects and frequent occurrence rate make despotic
leadership a concept of much deeper and broader investigation.
This study aims to introduce a brief review of despotic leadership theory and research conducted to create a
solid foundation for knowledge. This will facilitate not only theory development process but will also
create many insights for future research.
Conclusion
The aim of this brief review paper was to improve understanding regarding research conducted on several
studies related to despotic leadership. Overall, numerous meaningful relationships as well as outcomes of
attitudinal and behavioral nature were studied. Current trends and future directions were also discoursed.
Lastly, different research gaps were identified that can serve as a call for more theoretical and empirical
research work in this specific domain.
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