There are three main types of formal organizations. Coercive organizations like prisons use coercive power and have alienative involvement. Utilitarian organizations like businesses use remunerative power through incentives to achieve goals with calculative involvement. Normative organizations like churches use normative power and have moral involvement. Organizational models include scientific management which focuses on efficiency, the human relations model which emphasizes non-economic rewards and group dynamics, and the bureaucratic model with clear divisions of labor and hierarchy based on technical qualifications. Realities of bureaucracy include rules not always being helpful, blind adherence preventing necessary action, and work expanding to fill available time.

1. groups and organizations in this topic, we examine the nature, types, and models of organization

2. social groups a collection of people who share some characteristics, interact with one another, and have some feeling of unity; different from: social aggregate: just a collection of people who happen to be in one place but no not interact with one another social category: a number of people who have something in common but neither interact with one another nor gather in one place

3. ingroup vs outgroup every social group defines a boundary between itself and everyone else to some extent but a cohesive ingroup has three characteristics: members of the ingroup normally use symbols to identify themselves so that they will be distinguishable from the outgroup its members view themselves in terms of positive stereotypes and the outgroup in negative stereotypes it is inclined to compete with the outgroup, or even to get involved in conflict with it

4. other kinds of social groups people use reference group as a frame of reference for evaluating their behavior or forming opinions primary groups are those where individuals have strong emotional ties, i.e. family secondary group are those where relationships among the members are less personal

5. small group small group is one whose members are few enough to be able to interact with one another: dyad: smallest group which contains two people; can easily become the most cohesive of all the groups because its members are inclined to be most personal and interact most intensely with each other; triad: a three-person group

6. small group: leadership & conformity in all small groups larger than triads, there are two kinds of leaders: instrumental leaders who are concerned about achieving goals expressive leaders who are more concerned with members’ feelings, making sure that everybody is happy so that harmony and cohesiveness can reign in the group groupthink : the tendency for members of a cohesive group to maintain consensus to the extent of ignoring the truth

7. formal organizations a secondary group whose activities are rationally designed to achieve specific goals – the raison d’etre of organizations whatever the goals, organizations develop certain common means of achieving them and they engage in rational planning in formal organizations, there is division of labor , whereby workers with different skills are assigned different tasks and is managed by a hierarchy of control

8. formal organizations: power and involvement in virtually every organization, there are “higher participants” and “lower participants” the function of the higher participants is to exercise power over the lower participants so that the latter will help the organization to achieve its goals

9. formal organizations: power and involvement three kinds of power (higher participants) coercive power or the use of physical force remunerative power or the use of material rewards normative power or the use of moral persuasion, the prestige of a leader or the promise of social acceptance

10. formal organizations: power and involvement three kinds of involvement (lower participants) alienative in which case they do not support the organization’s goals calculative which means they are moderately supportive moral involvement which means they strongly support the organization

11. formal organizations: most common types coercive organizations , i.e. prisons, concentration camps, and custodial mental hospitals coercion is the main form of power used and the involvement by lower participants is alienative

12. formal organizations: most common types utilitarian organizations , i.e. banks, factories, and other businesses the higher participants use incentives such as money to ensure that lower participants work to achieve the organization’s goals the power used is remunerative and typical form of involvement by lower-level participants is calculative

13. formal organizations: most common types normative organizations, i.e. churches and political parties; sometimes called voluntary organizations primary form of power is normative and involvement by the rank and file is moral

14. organizational models scientific management: proposed by an American engineer Frederick Taylor, he assumed that the primary goal of an organization is to maximize efficiency Taylor argued that the success of an organization depends on three elements: maximum division of labor, close supervision of workers and an incentive system of piecework wages

15. organizational models human relations model, proposed by industrial psychologist Elton Mayo, he argued the following: workers’ productivity is not determined by their physical capacity but their social capacity, their sensitivity to the work environment; noneconomic rewards, such as friendship with co-workers and respect from management, play a central role in determining the motivation and happiness of workers the greatest specialization is not the most efficient division of labor workers do not react to management and its incentives as isolated individuals but as members of a group

16. organizational models bureaucratic model, proposed by Max Weber, he tried to construct what he called an ideal type, its essential characteristics are: there is a clearcut division of labor among those in the bureaucracy, assigning to each position certain limited duties and responsibilities; there is a well defined hierarchy; employees are hired and hold authority on the basis of technical qualifications which are often determined by examinations the activities of the bureaucrats and their relationships are governed by an elaborate system of explicit, formal, written rules and regulations

17. organizational models collectivist model, proposed by Karl Marx, he claimed that bureaucracies will be replaced by collectivist organization, in which mangers and workers work together as equals and for equal pay

18. realities of bureaucracy deficiencies: rules and regulations are of little help when something unexpected happens blind adherence to rules may prevent necessary action its tendency to produce a seemingly endless number of rules and regulations Parkinson’s Law: work expands to fill the time available for its completion; Peter principle: in every hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence