Ecosystem Ecology lecture for Botany, Zoology, Environmental Sciences, and Chemistry Students by Salman Saeed lecturer Botany University College of Management and Sciences Khanewal, Pakistan.
About Author: Salman Saeed
Qualification: M.SC (Botany), M. Phil (Biotechnology) from BZU Multan.
M. Ed & B. Ed from GCU Faisalabad, Pakistan.
A biogeochemical cycle is the circulation of an element in the Earth system. It involves various reservoirs that store the element, fluxes between reservoirs as well as the physical, chemical and biological parameters that regulate the fluxes. The oceans play a key role in the biogeochemical cycling of elements on our planet. As primary productivity is strictly limited to the photic zone and decay of organic matter is pursued in the deeper water masses of the oceanic system, the distribution of many elements exhibits a strong vertical gradient. A biogeochemical cycle refers to the cycling and transport of a chemical element or compound, usually in multiple forms and physical states, through the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components of the earth system. Some of the most commonly examined biogeochemical cycles include carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, iron and phosphorous.
The marine nitrogen cycle is one of the most complicated biogeochemical cycles in the ocean. Nitrogen is a biologically limiting element and changes in its form, or concentration, can cause changes in the cycling of other elements, such as carbon and phosphorus. Marine nitrogen cycle is perhaps the most complex and therefore the most fascinating among all biogeochemical cycles in the sea. Nitrogen exists in more chemical forms than most other elements, with a myriad of chemical transformations. All these transformations are undertaken by marine organisms as part of their metabolism, either to obtain nitrogen to synthesize structural components, or to gain energy for growth. Nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere dissolves into seawater at the ocean surface. Nitrogen gas is the most abundant form of nitrogen in the ocean, but is not useful to most living things. Dissolved nitrogen gas is taken up by just a few types microbes, which convert the nitrogen into a much more useable form, known as ammonium (NH4+). This process, known as “nitrogen fixation,” is vitally important. Without it, very little nitrogen would available for thousands of other organisms that live near the ocean surface.
Ammonium is the form of nitrogen that is most easily consumed by microorganisms. For this reason, ammonium is consumed almost as fast as it is produced, a process called “assimilation.” The result is that the nitrogen becomes incorporated into the cells of living organisms. Some marine microbes consume nitrite and nitrate, another form of assimilation. When microbes (and other organisms) die, they decompose, releasing ammonium and tiny particles containing particulate organic nitrogen (PON), as well as dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) into the surrounding seawater. Some microbes convert ammonium to nitrite (NO2-) and then nitrite to nitrate (NO3-). This two-step process is called “nitrification.” The result of this process is that nitrate is released into the ocean. A host of organisms consume particulate organic nitrogen and dissolved organic nitrogen, converting some of the nitrogen back to a
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
1. 4.3 Carbon cycling
• Essential idea: Continued availability of carbon in
ecosystems depends on carbon cycling.
2. Understandings
Statement Guidance
4.3 U.1 Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon
compounds.
4.3 U.2 In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and
hydrogen carbonate ions.
4.3 U.3 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs.
4.3 U.4 Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms
into water or the atmosphere.
4.3 U.5 Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by
methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or
accumulates in the ground.
4.3 U.6 Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.
4.3 U.7 Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of
acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.
4.3 U.8 Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was
converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous
rocks.
4.3 U.9 Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and fossilized
organic matter.
4.3 U.10 Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard parts that are
composed of calcium carbonate and can become fossilized in limestone.
3. Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
4.3 A.1 Estimation of carbon fluxes due to processes
in the carbon cycle.
Carbon fluxes should be measured
in gigatonnes.
4.3 A.2 Analysis of data from air monitoring stations
to explain annual fluctuations.
4.3 S.1 Construct a diagram of the carbon cycle.
4. What are the factors that effect an ecosystem like
the coral reef below?
• Abiotic (nutrients and energy)
• Biotic individual organisms that live in that
ecosystem
5. Factors controlling and ecosystem:
I. Nutrients (Closed System)
II. Energy (Open System)
III. Interactions between species
* In this section we will focus on nutrients
6. Remember what plants
need…
4.3 U.1 Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other
carbon compounds.
To make carbohydrates
7. Nutrient Cycles Are Closed Systems in an Ecosystems
• Biogeochemical cycles are cycles of matter between the abiotic
and the biotic components of the environment
– The carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles are central to life on
Earth
– Carbon and nitrogen cycles have atmospheric components, and
cycle on a global scale
– Phosphorus has no atmospheric component, and cycles on a local
scale
8. 4.3 U.2 In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon
dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3
–
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3
–
• Carbon dioxide dissolves in water and some of it will remain as a dissolved gas
• Some of the carbon dioxide will combine with water to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3.
• Carbonic acid can then disassociate to form H+ and HCO3
-
(H2CO3 <-->HCO3
− + H+)
• This is why the pH decreases
• Autotrophs in water absorb both CO2 and hydrogen carbonate ions, and use them
to produce organic compounds
9.
10. 4.3 U.3 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs
• Autotrophs use carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, as the CO2 is
depleted by the autotroph, the
concentration of CO2 in the
surrounding atmosphere or water
is greater than inside the
autotroph; therefore a
concentration gradient is created
• Carbon dioxide diffuses into the
autotroph, following the
concentration gradient created
• In aquatic organisms carbon
dioxide can diffuse directly into
the autotroph as all parts of the
plant are usually permeable to CO2
• For land plants, carbon dioxide
diffuses through stomata
(openings on the bottom of the
leaf)
11. 4.3 U.4 Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of
organisms into water or the atmosphere.
• All organisms carry out cellular respiration and produce carbon dioxide as a waste
product
• The carbon dioxide will be released by these organisms into the atmosphere or
water. Examples
• saprotrophs and decomposers, e.g. fungi and bacteria
• autotrophs, e.g. plants
• heterotrophs, e.g. animals
https://s-media-cache-
ak0.pinimg.com/736x/3a/7e/5b/3a7e5b
b986dc898403935fcea4aae574.jpg
12. 4.3 U.5 Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic
conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the
atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.
• Methane is produced in anaerobic
conditions as a waste product by
bacteria (methanogenic archaeans)
who use organic acids and alcohol to
produce acetate, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen, which is in turn
used to produce methane as a waste
product. These reactions occur
without oxygen in swamps, wetlands
and mangroves, in mud along the
banks of rivers and lakes, and in the
digestive tracts of mammals and
termites.
• In addition, large herds of domestic
cattle and sheep being raised
worldwide produce methane, which is
contributing to the greenhouse effect http://pre13.deviantart.net/d828/th/pre/i/2012/156/0/e/herd_of_c
ows_by_yuveza-d52e16l.jpg
13. 4.3 U.6 Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the
atmosphere.
• Methane is the main ingredient in natural gas. When you burn
methane the reaction involves oxygen gas from the atmosphere
to produce carbon dioxide and water
• When methane is actually released into the atmosphere through the
anaerobic reactions, it can persist in the atmosphere for about 12
years, as it is naturally oxidized by monatomic oxygen (O) and
hydroxyl radicals (OH-)
• This is why methane concentrations are not very great in the
atmosphere, even though large amounts are produced
14. 4.3 U.7 Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed
because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.
• In soils organic matter, e.g.
dead leaves, are digested
by saprotrophic bacteria and
fungi.
• Saprotrophs assimilate
some carbon for growth and
release as carbon dioxide
during aerobic respiration
(requiring O2).
• Waterlogged soils are an
anaerobic environment
leaving these organisms
unable to complete the
process.
• Large quantities of (partially
decomposed) organic
matter build up. The organic
matter is compressed to
form peat Youtube video
15. • In soils organic matter, e.g.
dead leaves, are digested by
saprotrophic bacteria and
fungi.
• Saprotrophs assimilate some
carbon for growth and release
as carbon dioxide during
aerobic respiration (requiring
O2).
• Waterlogged soils are an
anaerobic environment leaving
these organisms unable to
complete the process.
• Large quantities of (partially
decomposed) organic matter
build up. The organic matter is
compressed to form peat
16.
17. 4.3 U.7 Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed
because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.
Saprotrophs assimilate some carbon for
growth and release as carbon dioxide during
aerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration
requires oxygen
Waterlogged soils are an
anaerobic environment
Partial
decomposition
causes acidic
conditions
saprotrophs and
methanogens [4.3.U5] are
inhibited
Organic matter is only
partially decomposed
Large quantities of
(partially decomposed)
organic matter build up.
The organic matter is
compressed to form peat
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peat-bog-Ireland.jpg
Organic matter
18. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coal_lump.jpg
The peat is compressed and heated over millions years eventually
becoming coal.
4.3 U.8 Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras
was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in
porous rocks.
19. Very few types of organism play a role in
the cycling of nutrients
Saprotrophic Bacteria
cycle Nitrogen
Fungi Cycle Carbon
20. Carboniferous
• Extended from 359 million years ago, to the about 299.
• A time of glaciation, low sea level and mountain building. With many
beds of coal were laid down all over the world during this period.
4.3 U.8 Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras
was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in
porous rocks.
21. Carboniferous period
• The world’s large coal deposits
occurred during this time
period
Two factors
1. The appearance of bark-
bearing trees (containing bark
fiber lignin).
2. Lower sea levels
• Development of extensive
lowland swamps and forests.
• Large quantities of wood were
buried during this period.
• Animals and decomposing
bacteria had not yet evolved
that could effectively digest the
new lignin.
4.3 U.8 Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras
was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in
porous rocks.
22. Basidiomycetes (fungi)
• Appear 290 million years ago. They can degrade it Lignin. The
substance is insoluble, to heterogeneous because of specific
enzymes, and toxic, they are one of the few organisms that can.
http://andreas-und-angelika.de/galleries/andreas/2014-
05_Autumn_Colours/photos/aka-Autumn-Colours-2014-04-
19__D8X7633.jpg
23. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coal_lump.jpg
4.3 U.8 Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras
was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in
porous rocks.
The cycle of sea-level changes that happened during the Carboniferous period caused costal
swamps to be buried promoting the formation of coal.
https://www.biv.com/media/filer_public_thumbnails/filer_public/68/05/6805c17b-255c-48c8-
8db3-4708d6435ab0/aussies-coal.jpg__0x400_q95_autocrop_crop-smart_subsampling-
2_upscale.jpg
24. 4.3 U.8 Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras
was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in
porous rocks.
25. 4.3 U.9 Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and
fossilized organic matter.
Fossil/Biomass fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O
• When organic compounds rich in hydrocarbons are heated and reach
their ignition temperature in the presence of oxygen they
undergo combustion(burning). This is an oxidation reaction.
• The products of combustion are carbon dioxide and water
26. 4.3 U.10 Animals such as reef-building corals and Mollusca have hard
parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become
fossilized in limestone.
Some animals secrete
calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) structures to
protect themselves:
• Shells of mollusks
• Hard corals
exoskeletons
27. http://www.discoveringfossils.co.uk/chalk2.jpg http://www.discoveringfossils.co.uk/ammonite_nautilus.jpg
4.3 U.10 Animals such as reef-building corals and Mollusca have hard
parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become
fossilized in limestone.
• Hard corals produce their exoskeletons by secreting calcium carbonate and
mollusks have shells that contain calcium carbonate
• The calcium carbonate in alkaline or neutral conditions from a variety of these
organisms, settle onto the seafloor when they die
• Through lithification, these sediments form limestone. The hard parts of many of
these animals are visible as fossils in the limestone rock
28. Carbon Cycle *
• Is exchanged of the element carbon among the biosphere. Or
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.
• Carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange with these
reservoirs is mainly through plants and other living things.
4.3 S.1 Construct a diagram of the carbon cycle.
29. 4.3 S.1 Construct a diagram of the carbon cycle.
You need to be able to produce a simplified carbon cycle. Use the
following sinks and flows (processes) to build a carbon cycle:
CO2 in the atmosphere and
hydrosphere (oceans)
Carbon compounds
in fossil fuels
Carbon compounds in
producers (autotrophs)
Carbon compounds
in consumers
Carbon compounds in
dead organic matter
Key:
Sink
Flux
n.b. some of the fluxes will need to be used more than once.
Cell respiration Photosynthesis
Combustion Feeding
Egestion
Death
Incomplete
decomposition
& fossilization
30. 4.3 S.1 Construct a diagram of the carbon cycle.
You need to be able to produce a simplified carbon cycle. Use the following
sinks and flows (processes) to build a carbon cycle:
CO2 in the atmosphere and
hydrosphere (e.g. oceans)
Carbon compounds
in fossil fuels
Carbon compounds in
producers (autotrophs)
Carbon compounds
in consumers
Carbon compounds in
dead organic matter
Key:
Sink
Flux
Incomplete
decomposition &
fossilisation
Feeding
31. 4.3 S.1 Construct a diagram of the carbon cycle.
You need to be able to produce a simplified carbon cycle. Use the following
sinks and flows (processes) to build a carbon cycle:
CO2 in the atmosphere and
hydrosphere (e.g. oceans)
Carbon compounds
in fossil fuels
Carbon compounds in
producers (autotrophs)
Carbon compounds
in consumers
Carbon compounds in
dead organic matter
Key:
Sink
Flux
Incomplete
decomposition &
fossilisation
Feeding
32. 4.3 A.1 Estimation of carbon fluxes due to processes in the carbon cycle.
Estimation of carbon fluxes (measured in gigatons) due to processes in the carbon
cycle.
* There is tremendous in the data, the large fluctuation that occur
33. 4.3 A.2 Analysis of data from air monitoring stations to explain annual fluctuations.
Many field stations globally use the same
standardised method. All stations show a clear
upward trend with annual cycles.