1) The document describes an experimental study on the aerodynamic characteristics of basic airfoils at low Reynolds numbers between 2.9×104 and 7.2×104. 2) Wind tunnel experiments were conducted on airfoil models including a NACA0015, flat plate, and modified flat plates with different leading and trailing edge geometries. Surface pressure measurements were taken at varying angles of attack. 3) Preliminary results showed the importance of sharp leading edges for low Reynolds number flight and the influence of airfoil geometry on aerodynamic characteristics like pressure coefficient.

1. 5th
BSME International Conference on Thermal Engineering
Experimental Study on Aerodynamic Characteristics of Basic
Airfoils at Low Reynolds Number
Md. Amzad Hossain*, Mohammad Mashud and Sharmin Sultana
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, KUET, Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
Abstract
The airfoil is one of the common and elemental devices to control flow and its reacting force. In the Reynolds number region
lower than approximately 1.0×105
, which corresponds to the Reynolds number region of a Micro Air Vehicle, thinner and
sharper leading edge airfoil performs better than thicker and blunter one. This research focuses on the difference in flow
fields which are clarified by means of surface pressure distributions measurements. But the aerodynamic characteristics of
airfoils have been researched in higher Reynolds-number ranges more than 106
, in a historic context closely related with the
developments of airplanes and fluid machineries in the last century. However, our knowledge is not enough at low and
middle Reynolds-number ranges. So, in this project, I have investigated such basic airfoils as a NACA0015, a flat plate and
the flat plates with modified fore-face and after-face geometries at Reynolds number ranges from 2.9×104
< Re <7.2×104
,
using two dimensional computations together with wind-tunnel. As a result, I have revealed the effect of the Reynolds
number Re upon the pressure coefficient Cp. Besides, I have shown the effects of attack angle α upon various aerodynamic
characteristics such as the coefficient of pressure Cp at Re=2.9×104
to 7.2×104
, discussing those effects on the basis of both
near-flow-field information and surface-pressure profiles. Such results suggest the importance of sharp leading edges, which
implies the possibility of an inverse NACA0015. Furthermore, concerning the flat-plate airfoil, I have investigated the
influence of fore-face and after-face geometries upon such effect
Key words: Loe Reynolds Number; Airfoil; Aerodynamics; Cp; Experiment; Wind Tunnel
1. Introduction
Airplanes are transportation devices which are designed to move people and cargo from one place to another.
Airplanes come in many different shapes and sizes depending on the mission of aircraft. However, most of the
aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils have been investigated at higher values of Reynolds number Re than
about 1.0×106
, where Re is defined using a chord length c as a characteristic length scale. On the other hand, we
have been requiring more precise knowledge about the aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils especially at Re <
106
. Concerning the aerodynamic characteristics at low values of Re, there have been several studies. Among
them, Sunada et al. (1997) have conducted a series of water tank experiments on various airfoils including a
NACA0006, a NACA0012 and a flat plate at Re= 4.0×103
. Motohashi (2001) and Nakane et al. (2003) have
carried out wind tunnel experiments on a flat plate at Re= 4.8×103
– 1.5×105
, and on a NACA0012 at
Re=5.0×103
-7.0×105
, respectively. Few years ago, Sun & Boyd (2004) have computed the flow past a flat plate
at Re= 1.4-1.4×10 and at a Mach number Ma=0.2. However in such a lower range of Re, our knowledge has not
been enough yet, due to non-negligible and complicated Re effects related with the laminar to turbulent
transition whose strong non-linearity brings us some technical difficulties in the accuracies of analyses,
computations and experiments.
In the present study, in a Re ranges from 2.9×104
< Re<7.2×104
, we investigates two kinds of basic two
dimensional airfoils, namely a NACA0015 and a flat plate, using two dimensional computations with wind
tunnel experiments. Specifically speaking, at first, we try to reveal the effect of attack angle α upon various
aerodynamics characteristics such as the pressure coefficient Cp.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +88-01721269426
E-mail address: amzad.kuet.me@gmail.com

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And then, in order to discuss the αeffects, we show such near flow field information as pressure distributions
around the airfoils at α=4 and 16 deg, together with surface-pressure profiles of the airfoils. Furthermore,
concerning the flat plate, we investigate the influences of fore-face and after-face geometries upon the α effect
introduce the paper, and put a nomenclature if necessary, in a box with the same font size as the rest of the
paper.
Nomenclature
U∞ Free stream velocity
Re Reynolds number
t/c cross-section ratio
C Cord length [m]
S Surface area [m2
]
T Flat-plate thickness[m]
α Angle of attack
Cp Coefficient of pressure
µ∞ free stream viscosity
ρ∞ free stream density
1.1. Aplication Overview
On 11 January 1999, the Pentagon and Lockheed Martin began airborne flight test on an aircraft with a
wingspan of 15cm and a weight of 85 grams. This type of aircraft is considered a Micro Air Vehicle (MAV).
MAVs of this size or even smaller, will enable soldiers to significantly enhance their fighting capability. Such a
vehicle can be fitted with miniature cameras and other surveillance equipment to allow a soldier to have instant
information about their battlefield environment. MAVs can also be used to sniff for chemical and biological
agents, detect mines, jam radars and communications and assistance with micro weapons. Besides military uses,
they can be employed to monitor airborne pollutants and traffic, fly into burning buildings to search for victims,
or survey the activities of criminal suspects. The MAV’s in the near future are expected to have a total wingspan
of 10-15cm with a total weight of about 10-50grams. A typical mission will require it to be airborne for about
20-60 minutes while carrying a payload of 2-5 grams and a fly distance of about 10km at approximately 13m/s.
However, these specifications have presented problems. At a wingspan of about 15cm, the laws of
aerodynamics make flight very much more difficult than just scaling down a larger aircraft. At that size, the
performance of most conventional airfoils deteriorates as these airfoils were tailored for Reynolds number, Re
of 105 and above. They give insufficient lift at the relatively low speed which the MAV flies at. Thus some
investigation into performance of airfoils at below Re=105 is necessary. In shortly, we have been requiring more
precise knowledge about the aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils especially at Re < 106, because of the
recently increasing importance in such applications as unmanned aerial vehicles known as UAVs, micro air
vehicles known as MAVs, insect/bird flight dynamics, small –scale machines like micro fluid machineries and
fluid machineries and micro combustion engines and so on.
2. Method
2.1. Model Construction of
Figure 1 shows the present models. They are two kinds of fundamental airfoils such as a NACA 0015 and a flat
plate. The flat plate has a cross section ratio t/c= 0.05, where t and c denote the thickness and the chord length,
respectively. They are two dimensional ones with basic and symmetric cross sections: the NACA 0015 is a
typical streamlined airfoil for high Re and the flat plate is the simplest thin airfoil with sharp leading and trailing
edges. I investigate the NACA0015 and the flat plate also experimentally. Furthermore, in order to investigate
the influences of fore-face & after-face geometries, the flat plate is transformed into six kinds of modified flat
plates, which are hereinafter referred to as MFP1-MFP6. Strictly speaking, the MFP1-MFP3 is the flat plates
with their fore faces partially expanded in the upstream & the MFP4-MFP6 are those with their after-faces
partially expanded in the downstream. These modified models are designed, being intended to reveal
representative effects of sharp edges. All the modified models are shown in Fig.1, as well.

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Fig. 1. Models (Two Dimentional Airfoils)
According to this design, I have prepared my Airfoil models which are made of wood. The pictures of the
models are given here:
Fig. 2. Airfoil NACA 0015, Flat Plate Model
Fig. 3. Modified Flat plates with modified fore- face (MFP1, MFP2, MFP3)

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Fig. 4. Modified Flat plates with modified after-face (MFP4, MFP5, MFP6)
2.2. Experimental Setup
The experiments were conducted using 36×36×100 cm wind tunnel. Figure 5 shows a schematic of the
experimental setup. A small sized model is appropriate to examine the aerodynamic characteristics for the
experiments. The model was placed in the middle of the test section supported by a frame. The frame is
constructed by four 5mm diameter threaded iron rod, bolts, a flat plate and two bars with angle measuring
system. The four threaded rods placed the plate tightly inside the wind tunnel. This plate holds the two bars &
these bars hold the model tightly inside the wind tunnel. One bar has an extended part which is used to measure
the angle of attack. The surface of the model is drilled through 2mm diameter holes & small sizes pressure tubes
are placed inside the drilled holes. One end of the vinyl tubes are attached to each pressure tube & the other end
are connected to a digital manometer for measurement of the surface pressure of the model at different points.
Fig. 5. Experimental setup( The NACA0015 airfoil mounted in the wind tunnel)
3. Results And Discussions
Aerodynamic force (AF) was the resultant of all static pressure acting on an airfoil in airflow, multiplied by
the plan form area that was affected by the pressure. The line of action of the AF passed through the chord line
at a point called the Centre of Pressure (CP). When Angle of Attack (AOA) changed, the magnitude & direction
of the aerodynamic force also changed & the location of Centre of Pressure (CP) also moved. These changes
made the analysis of the forces on airfoils very complicated. The centre of pressure on the top of airfoil & that
on the bottom were located at the same point on the chord line (for symmetric airfoil).The surface pressure
distribution was measured for various attack angles. The experiment was done in three different speeds. In this
experiment the aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil shape & flat plate including modified flat plate were
determined by plotting Cp Vs X/C.
Pressure distribution around the surface of the model is calculated by following equation
Co-efficient of pressure, Cp = P - P∞/ q∞

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Cp = P - P∞/ .5 ρ∞ u∞
2
Where,
P∞= free stream pressure
u∞= free stream velocity
q∞= dynamic pressure
Using this equation the co-efficient of pressure for various attack angles for the model have been calculated and
plotted Cp vs. X/C graphs.
In these graphs,
Cp1 = Upper surface Co-efficient of Pressure at 2 m/s
Cp2 = Upper surface Co-efficient of Pressure at 4 m/s
Cp3 = Upper surface Co-efficient of pressure at 5 m/s
CpL = Lower surface Co-efficient of Pressure
Fig. 6. Coefficient of pressure vs. distance for 4o
angle of attack at Re=72640 (NACA0015 & Flat plate)
Fig. 7. Coefficient of pressure vs. distance for 16o
angle of attack at Re=72640 (NACA0015 & Flat plate)
From the figure 6 & figure 7 show the surface pressure profiles on both the airfoils at Re= 72640. The
abscissa x denotes the distance from the leading edge in the leeward direction which are normalized by c. Figure
6 are at α= 4 deg. & figure 7 are at 16 deg. First we consider the NACA0015. When we see figure 6, we can
confirm the features representing the similarities between α= 4 & 16 deg. such as (i) the widely distributed low-
pressure area over the upstream portion of the upper surface and (ii) the concentrated high pressure area just
below the fore-face. We also know that the features representing the slight discrepancies between α=4 & 16 deg.
such as (iii) the pressure reduction in the widely distributed low pressure area over the upstream portion of the
upper surface with the increasing α and (iv) The leeward expansion of the concentrated high-pressure area just
below the fore-face with almost the same peak value of Cp with increasing α. However, we cannot find any
features representing the clear discrepancy (v) between α= 4 & 16 deg. related with the flow separation on the
middle upper surface.
Finally, we compare the NACA0015 & the flat plate. We can easily find one clear difference between both
the airfoils; namely, a sharp and very low pressure drop near the upper fore-face is seen not for the NACA0015,
but for the flat plate. Besides, we can see another difference between both the airfoils, namely, slightly higher
pressure of the flat plate than the NACA0015, which is widely distributed over the middle portion especially of
the lower surface.

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Fig. 8. Coefficient of pressure vs. distance for 4o
& 16o
angle of attack at Re=72640 (MFP1, MFP2, MFP3)
Fig. 9. Coefficient of pressure vs. distance for 4o
& 16o
angle of attack at Re=72640 (MFP4, MFP5, MFP6)
From figure 8 and figure 8, the variation of coefficient of pressure with the distance from leading edge can
be observed for various angles of attack. Here The angle of attack, α= 4o
& 16o
. From figure 8 & figure 9 show
variation of pressure over the upper surface of the airfoil with 4o
and 16o
angle of attack. The pressure is high on
the lower surface close the leading edge of the airfoil. The pressure is high on the lower surface and positive at
maximum points for the value of x/c from 0 to .81. 5 m/s free stream velocity was used to calculate the pressure
at different values of x/c from 0 to 1. The pressure decreases with the increase of free stream velocity. Pressure
was started to increase after the point x/c=0.15.
As the flow expands around the top surface of the airfoil P decreases rapidly. At the point where P decreases
rapidly Cp goes negative. In those region where P< P∞, the value of Cp is negative. By convection plots of Cp for
airfoils were shown with negative values above the abscissa. Similarly, I have observed the value of Cp for all
the models at Re=29056 & Re= 56112. The Characteristics are pretty similar with the above Reynolds Number.
The only difference is that pressure decreases with the increase of free stream velocity. The minimum value of
Cp was found at the free stream velocity of 2m/s that means at Re=29056.
4. Conclusion
We have investigated such basic airfoils as a NACA0015, a flat plate and the flat plates with modified fore-
face and after-face geometries in a low Reynolds number, using two dimensional computations with wind
tunnel. Obtained results are as follows:
At low Re, the aerodynamic characteristics of the flat plate are qualitatively similar with those of the
NACA0015 and are quantitatively superior to those of the NACA0015. The sharp and very low pressure drop
near the upper fore-face, which can be seen not for the NACA0015 but for the flat plate, contributes to such
superior aerodynamic characteristics, due to the existence of sharp leading edges. Both a non convex lower
surface and the appropriate after-face geometry can also improve aerodynamic characteristics. The latter of both
is actually effective only at large α. For the airfoil with any sharp leading edges, the effects of the fore-face
geometry upon aerodynamic characteristics can be negligible at such a low Re as 7.2×104
, while the after-face
geometry can be effective actually at α>= 10 deg. Among the after-face modified flat plates, the MFP4 shows
superior aerodynamic characteristics.

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5. References
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[7] Donald T. Ward, "Introduction to Flight Test Engineering ", Elsevier Science Publishers. Richard Eppler,
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