Explain chemical properties of alcohols by various chemical reactions
Define and explain preparation of ethers from alcohols by using chemical equations
The document discusses different types of hydrides including ionic, covalent, and metallic hydrides. Ionic hydrides form between hydrogen and highly electropositive metals, with hydrogen acting as the hydride ion. Covalent hydrides form between hydrogen and nonmetals like carbon and silicon, sharing a covalent bond. Metallic hydrides form between hydrogen and transition metals, usually with a covalent or ionic bond. Hydrides find uses as reducing agents, in battery technologies, and as drying agents.
Tang 10 substitution & elimination reactions 2mrtangextrahelp
This document discusses substitution and elimination reactions. It explains that substitution reactions involve replacing an atom or group with a different atom or group. Specific examples of substitution of halogens, alkyl groups, and nitro groups on benzene are provided. The document also discusses preferred locations for second substitutions on aromatic rings. Elimination reactions remove two adjacent atoms or groups, forming a double bond. An example shows dehydration of an alcohol forming an alkene. Factors that determine reaction rates and product percentages in substitution reactions are also summarized.
The Hofmann rearrangement involves the reaction of an amide with bromine in a basic solution, resulting in the conversion of the amide to an amine with one fewer carbon atoms. Specifically, the alkyl group migrates from the amide's carbonyl carbon to its nitrogen, forming an isocyanate intermediate. Hydrolysis and decarboxylation of the isocyanate then produces the final amine product along with carbon dioxide. Examples provided show this rearrangement converting an amide to a structurally similar amine. The Curtius reaction, Lossen reaction, and decomposition of acyl azides can also involve Hofmann-type rearrangements.
This document provides an overview of bonding theories including molecular orbital theory and valence bond theory. It discusses concepts like electronegativity, formal charges, hybridization, sigma and pi bonds, and the formation of molecular orbitals from the combination of atomic and group orbitals. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts for molecules and coordination complexes like NH3, H2O, and octahedral Co(NH3)6 2+. The document is intended to help readers understand bonding models and be able to analyze bonding in different substances.
Explain chemical properties of alcohols by various chemical reactions
Define and explain preparation of ethers from alcohols by using chemical equations
The document discusses different types of hydrides including ionic, covalent, and metallic hydrides. Ionic hydrides form between hydrogen and highly electropositive metals, with hydrogen acting as the hydride ion. Covalent hydrides form between hydrogen and nonmetals like carbon and silicon, sharing a covalent bond. Metallic hydrides form between hydrogen and transition metals, usually with a covalent or ionic bond. Hydrides find uses as reducing agents, in battery technologies, and as drying agents.
Tang 10 substitution & elimination reactions 2mrtangextrahelp
This document discusses substitution and elimination reactions. It explains that substitution reactions involve replacing an atom or group with a different atom or group. Specific examples of substitution of halogens, alkyl groups, and nitro groups on benzene are provided. The document also discusses preferred locations for second substitutions on aromatic rings. Elimination reactions remove two adjacent atoms or groups, forming a double bond. An example shows dehydration of an alcohol forming an alkene. Factors that determine reaction rates and product percentages in substitution reactions are also summarized.
The Hofmann rearrangement involves the reaction of an amide with bromine in a basic solution, resulting in the conversion of the amide to an amine with one fewer carbon atoms. Specifically, the alkyl group migrates from the amide's carbonyl carbon to its nitrogen, forming an isocyanate intermediate. Hydrolysis and decarboxylation of the isocyanate then produces the final amine product along with carbon dioxide. Examples provided show this rearrangement converting an amide to a structurally similar amine. The Curtius reaction, Lossen reaction, and decomposition of acyl azides can also involve Hofmann-type rearrangements.
This document provides an overview of bonding theories including molecular orbital theory and valence bond theory. It discusses concepts like electronegativity, formal charges, hybridization, sigma and pi bonds, and the formation of molecular orbitals from the combination of atomic and group orbitals. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts for molecules and coordination complexes like NH3, H2O, and octahedral Co(NH3)6 2+. The document is intended to help readers understand bonding models and be able to analyze bonding in different substances.
The contents of this presentation is as follow-
1. Introduction aromatic nucleophilic substitution SNAr, SN1 , Benzyne and SRN1 mechanisms
2. Reactivity effect of substrate structure leaving group and attacking nucleophile
3. The Von Richter,
4. Sommlet-Hauser
5. Smiles rearrangements.
This document contains questions and answers related to bio-inorganic chemistry from CSIR and GATE exams from 2019-2020. It was written by Dr. G. Balakrishnan, Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry at Vivekananda College in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. The document includes multiple choice questions about the coordination number and properties of copper ions in oxyhemocyanin, metalloenzymes and the reactions they catalyze, the functions of various metalloproteins, matching metalloenzymes with their metal cofactor and end product, and identifying correct statements about oxymyoglobin and cytochrome P450 in their resting states. Explanations and answers are provided for each question
Energy required to beak a chemical bond, almost same amount of energy is used to form the same bond between reactants. Bond energies can be used to predict exothermic and endothermic nature of chemical reactions
The document discusses molecular orbital theory and its application to transition metal complexes. It describes how atomic orbitals of matching symmetry combine to form molecular orbitals, with equal numbers of bonding and antibonding orbitals. Electrons fill the molecular orbitals starting with the lowest energy orbitals. Ligand interactions such as π-accepting and π-donating affect the splitting of orbitals and influence the metal's oxidation state.
(i) Non-classical carbocations display delocalization of sigma bonds through 3-center-2-electron bonds in bridged systems. Neighboring group participation can assist reactions by donating electrons through lone pairs, pi bonds, aromatic rings, or sigma bonds.
(ii) The pinacol-pinacolone rearrangement involves the migration of an alkyl group from one carbon to another after the loss of a leaving group from a vicinal diol. The migration is assisted by delocalization of the carbocation intermediate onto the oxygen atom.
(iii) In asymmetrical glycols, the group with greater ability for carbocation delocalization, such as phenyl, will migrate preferentially over
The document presents an M.O. diagram for the [Ti(H2O)6]3+ complex. It shows the metal (Ti3+) orbitals and ligand (H2O) orbitals that form the molecular orbitals of the complex. The diagram displays the orbital interactions between the titanium 3d1, 4s0 orbitals and the 12 sigma electrons from the six water ligands to produce the molecular orbital configuration of the [Ti(H2O)6]3+ complex.
The document discusses determining the order of reaction using the initial rate method. It provides examples of experimental data collected for reactions, including initial concentrations of reactants and measured initial rates. It then shows solutions for determining the order of reactions and rate constants by analyzing changes in initial rates with changing concentrations. Key steps include writing rate laws, comparing reaction rates between experiments, and calculating exponents from rate laws. The overall goal is to demonstrate how to apply the initial rate method to experimental data to determine reaction orders and rate constants.
1) The chapter discusses tools for studying chemical reactions including equilibrium constants, free energy change, enthalpy, entropy, bond dissociation energy, kinetics and activation energy.
2) It then examines the chlorination of methane as a free-radical chain reaction involving initiation, propagation and termination steps.
3) Key concepts covered include how reaction rate depends on factors like temperature, activation energy and reaction order. Transition state theory and reaction energy diagrams are also explained.
This document provides an overview of thermochemistry topics covered in a physical chemistry course, including:
- Definitions of thermochemistry, thermochemical reactions, and heat of reaction
- Kirchoff's equation relating heat of reaction to temperature
- Calorimetry and bomb calorimetry for measuring heat changes
- Hess's law of constant heat summation and its applications
- Bond energies, enthalpies of formation, and using these values to calculate heat of reactions
This document discusses ligand substitution reactions in coordination compounds. It begins by defining ligand substitution and classifying the mechanisms as dissociative, associative, or interchange. For octahedral complexes, dissociative mechanisms are seen at high concentrations of the entering ligand and associative at low concentrations. Evidence for dissociative mechanisms includes little effect of the entering ligand on rate. Ligand substitution can also occur in octahedral complexes without breaking the metal-ligand bond. The document also discusses substitution in square planar complexes, factors affecting rate, and the trans effect, providing theories to explain it such as electrostatic polarization and pi bonding. Applications of the trans effect in synthesis are also mentioned.
Inorganic Chemistry - Topic Wise Multiple Choice By Malik XufyanMalik Xufyan
This document provides inorganic chemistry multiple choice questions (MCQs) on topics of chemical periodicity, structure and bonding, and coordination chemistry. It includes 21 MCQs with explanations of the answers to help with studying inorganic chemistry. The questions cover concepts such as periodic trends, molecular geometry, hybridization, molecular orbital theory, and more. The document is intended to help students prepare for exams by providing practice questions and reviewing important inorganic chemistry concepts.
Dr. Yogita Sahebrao Thakare provides an introduction to photochemistry and molecular spectroscopy in her document. She discusses key topics like electromagnetic radiation, parameters of electromagnetic radiation like wavelength and frequency, and principles of photochemistry such as the Grotthuss-Draper and Stark-Einstein laws. She also covers characteristics of electromagnetic radiations and important formulae related to wavelength, frequency, velocity, and energy of electromagnetic waves.
The document discusses the accidental discovery of sandwich complexes and their structures. It summarizes that in 1951, two groups discovered cyclopentadienyl complexes of metals which had unexpected properties that did not match what was expected. This led to proposals of sandwich structures by Wilkinson/Woodward and Fischer. Their work to synthesize various metallocenes resulted in a shared Nobel Prize in 1973. Sandwich complexes have since been found to have applications including in making carbon nanotubes.
The document discusses protecting groups, focusing on protecting alcohols. It defines protecting groups as functional groups that are stable to reaction conditions but can be easily removed to regenerate the original functional group. The document outlines criteria for protecting groups and then discusses various methods for protecting alcohols, including using acetals, ethers, and silyl ethers. It provides examples of specific protecting groups like THP, MEM, benzyl ethers, and trialkylsilyl ethers.
Longifolene is common naturally occurring, oily liquid hydrocarbon found in the high boiling fraction of certain pine resins.
Juvabione is a terpene- derived-keto-ester that has been isolated from plant sources.
Morphine is a major component of opium,it is isolated from poppy straw of the opium poppy.
This document discusses the structures and nomenclature of oxo acids of halogens. It outlines the different oxo anions formed with halogens such as hypohalite (XO)-, halite (XO2)-, halate (XO3)-, and perhalate (XO4)- and their corresponding acid names such as hypohalous acid, halous acid, halic acid, and perhalic acid. It describes the hybridization of halogens in these different oxoacids, which can be linear, bent, trigonal planar or tetrahedral depending on the oxo anion. Finally, it explains that the strength of the oxo-halo acids increases with
Exercices corrigés chap 2 : Premier principe de la thermodynamiqueOmar Benchiheub
Université Badji-Mokhtar Annaba, Département de Métallurgie et Génie des Matériaux
Cours de thermodynamique et cinétique chimique
Licence, Master métallurgie et génie des matériaux
This document presents a summary of group theory and symmetry concepts. It discusses how molecular structure can be determined using techniques like X-ray crystallography, which relies on an understanding of symmetry and group theory. Examples of molecular structures determined by X-ray crystallography are shown, including water, benzene, ammonia, and boron trifluoride molecules. Their rotational axes and mirror planes are identified and described. Group theory is also important for understanding NMR, infrared, and UV-visible spectra.
The contents of this presentation is as follow-
1. Introduction aromatic nucleophilic substitution SNAr, SN1 , Benzyne and SRN1 mechanisms
2. Reactivity effect of substrate structure leaving group and attacking nucleophile
3. The Von Richter,
4. Sommlet-Hauser
5. Smiles rearrangements.
This document contains questions and answers related to bio-inorganic chemistry from CSIR and GATE exams from 2019-2020. It was written by Dr. G. Balakrishnan, Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry at Vivekananda College in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. The document includes multiple choice questions about the coordination number and properties of copper ions in oxyhemocyanin, metalloenzymes and the reactions they catalyze, the functions of various metalloproteins, matching metalloenzymes with their metal cofactor and end product, and identifying correct statements about oxymyoglobin and cytochrome P450 in their resting states. Explanations and answers are provided for each question
Energy required to beak a chemical bond, almost same amount of energy is used to form the same bond between reactants. Bond energies can be used to predict exothermic and endothermic nature of chemical reactions
The document discusses molecular orbital theory and its application to transition metal complexes. It describes how atomic orbitals of matching symmetry combine to form molecular orbitals, with equal numbers of bonding and antibonding orbitals. Electrons fill the molecular orbitals starting with the lowest energy orbitals. Ligand interactions such as π-accepting and π-donating affect the splitting of orbitals and influence the metal's oxidation state.
(i) Non-classical carbocations display delocalization of sigma bonds through 3-center-2-electron bonds in bridged systems. Neighboring group participation can assist reactions by donating electrons through lone pairs, pi bonds, aromatic rings, or sigma bonds.
(ii) The pinacol-pinacolone rearrangement involves the migration of an alkyl group from one carbon to another after the loss of a leaving group from a vicinal diol. The migration is assisted by delocalization of the carbocation intermediate onto the oxygen atom.
(iii) In asymmetrical glycols, the group with greater ability for carbocation delocalization, such as phenyl, will migrate preferentially over
The document presents an M.O. diagram for the [Ti(H2O)6]3+ complex. It shows the metal (Ti3+) orbitals and ligand (H2O) orbitals that form the molecular orbitals of the complex. The diagram displays the orbital interactions between the titanium 3d1, 4s0 orbitals and the 12 sigma electrons from the six water ligands to produce the molecular orbital configuration of the [Ti(H2O)6]3+ complex.
The document discusses determining the order of reaction using the initial rate method. It provides examples of experimental data collected for reactions, including initial concentrations of reactants and measured initial rates. It then shows solutions for determining the order of reactions and rate constants by analyzing changes in initial rates with changing concentrations. Key steps include writing rate laws, comparing reaction rates between experiments, and calculating exponents from rate laws. The overall goal is to demonstrate how to apply the initial rate method to experimental data to determine reaction orders and rate constants.
1) The chapter discusses tools for studying chemical reactions including equilibrium constants, free energy change, enthalpy, entropy, bond dissociation energy, kinetics and activation energy.
2) It then examines the chlorination of methane as a free-radical chain reaction involving initiation, propagation and termination steps.
3) Key concepts covered include how reaction rate depends on factors like temperature, activation energy and reaction order. Transition state theory and reaction energy diagrams are also explained.
This document provides an overview of thermochemistry topics covered in a physical chemistry course, including:
- Definitions of thermochemistry, thermochemical reactions, and heat of reaction
- Kirchoff's equation relating heat of reaction to temperature
- Calorimetry and bomb calorimetry for measuring heat changes
- Hess's law of constant heat summation and its applications
- Bond energies, enthalpies of formation, and using these values to calculate heat of reactions
This document discusses ligand substitution reactions in coordination compounds. It begins by defining ligand substitution and classifying the mechanisms as dissociative, associative, or interchange. For octahedral complexes, dissociative mechanisms are seen at high concentrations of the entering ligand and associative at low concentrations. Evidence for dissociative mechanisms includes little effect of the entering ligand on rate. Ligand substitution can also occur in octahedral complexes without breaking the metal-ligand bond. The document also discusses substitution in square planar complexes, factors affecting rate, and the trans effect, providing theories to explain it such as electrostatic polarization and pi bonding. Applications of the trans effect in synthesis are also mentioned.
Inorganic Chemistry - Topic Wise Multiple Choice By Malik XufyanMalik Xufyan
This document provides inorganic chemistry multiple choice questions (MCQs) on topics of chemical periodicity, structure and bonding, and coordination chemistry. It includes 21 MCQs with explanations of the answers to help with studying inorganic chemistry. The questions cover concepts such as periodic trends, molecular geometry, hybridization, molecular orbital theory, and more. The document is intended to help students prepare for exams by providing practice questions and reviewing important inorganic chemistry concepts.
Dr. Yogita Sahebrao Thakare provides an introduction to photochemistry and molecular spectroscopy in her document. She discusses key topics like electromagnetic radiation, parameters of electromagnetic radiation like wavelength and frequency, and principles of photochemistry such as the Grotthuss-Draper and Stark-Einstein laws. She also covers characteristics of electromagnetic radiations and important formulae related to wavelength, frequency, velocity, and energy of electromagnetic waves.
The document discusses the accidental discovery of sandwich complexes and their structures. It summarizes that in 1951, two groups discovered cyclopentadienyl complexes of metals which had unexpected properties that did not match what was expected. This led to proposals of sandwich structures by Wilkinson/Woodward and Fischer. Their work to synthesize various metallocenes resulted in a shared Nobel Prize in 1973. Sandwich complexes have since been found to have applications including in making carbon nanotubes.
The document discusses protecting groups, focusing on protecting alcohols. It defines protecting groups as functional groups that are stable to reaction conditions but can be easily removed to regenerate the original functional group. The document outlines criteria for protecting groups and then discusses various methods for protecting alcohols, including using acetals, ethers, and silyl ethers. It provides examples of specific protecting groups like THP, MEM, benzyl ethers, and trialkylsilyl ethers.
Longifolene is common naturally occurring, oily liquid hydrocarbon found in the high boiling fraction of certain pine resins.
Juvabione is a terpene- derived-keto-ester that has been isolated from plant sources.
Morphine is a major component of opium,it is isolated from poppy straw of the opium poppy.
This document discusses the structures and nomenclature of oxo acids of halogens. It outlines the different oxo anions formed with halogens such as hypohalite (XO)-, halite (XO2)-, halate (XO3)-, and perhalate (XO4)- and their corresponding acid names such as hypohalous acid, halous acid, halic acid, and perhalic acid. It describes the hybridization of halogens in these different oxoacids, which can be linear, bent, trigonal planar or tetrahedral depending on the oxo anion. Finally, it explains that the strength of the oxo-halo acids increases with
Exercices corrigés chap 2 : Premier principe de la thermodynamiqueOmar Benchiheub
Université Badji-Mokhtar Annaba, Département de Métallurgie et Génie des Matériaux
Cours de thermodynamique et cinétique chimique
Licence, Master métallurgie et génie des matériaux
This document presents a summary of group theory and symmetry concepts. It discusses how molecular structure can be determined using techniques like X-ray crystallography, which relies on an understanding of symmetry and group theory. Examples of molecular structures determined by X-ray crystallography are shown, including water, benzene, ammonia, and boron trifluoride molecules. Their rotational axes and mirror planes are identified and described. Group theory is also important for understanding NMR, infrared, and UV-visible spectra.
1. Кафедра общей и неорганической
химии
Термохимия
Лекция №2
к.х.н.
Авдонина
Людмила Михайловна
2. План лекции
1. Основные понятия термохимии и
термодинамики.
2. Внутренняя энергия системы.
3. Энтальпия системы.
4. Термохимическое уравнение.
5. Закон Гесса.
6. Следствия из закона Гесса.
3. Термохимия
изучает тепловые эффекты химических
реакций
тепло, которое
выделяется или поглощается
в химической реакции
(при P=const или V=const)
экзотермические
эндотермические
5. Термодинамическая система
• конкретный объект термодинамических
исследований
• выделен из окружающего мира
реальными или воображаемыми
поверхностями
• Может обмениваться с окружающей
средой массой m и энергией E
6. По обмену с окружающей средой
• Открытые – m, E
• Замкнутые – E
• Изолированные
• Примеры, примеры…
10. По однородности
• Гомогенные
▫ Свойства системы одинаковы в
каждой точке
• Гетерогенные
▫ Содержат части системы,
отделенные границами раздела
фаз, на которых свойства системы
резко меняются
11. Параметры состояния системы
V P T ρ C m
• Экстенсивные
• Интенсивные
V = V1+V2
m= m1 + m2
m= m1 + m2
P, T, C, ρ
выравниваются
выравниваются
14. Функции состояния системы
Зависят от начального (1) и конечного (2)
состояния системы
U
H
S
G
внутренняя энергия
энтальпия
энтропия
энергия Гиббса
Единицы измерения: Дж/моль, кДж/моль
17. Q = ΔU + A
Q – тепло, поглощенное системой
А – работа, совершенная системой
ΔU
= Q - A = Q – P ∙ ΔV
Если V = const (изохорный процесс), то
A = P ∙ ΔV = 0
ΔU
= Qv
– тепловой эффект изохорного процесса
18. Энтальпия системы H
Если Р = const (изобарный процесс)
ΔU = QP – A
QP = ΔU + P∙ΔV = (U2 – U1) + P(V2 – V1) =
(U2 + PV2) – (U1 + PV1) =
=
H2
–
H1
= ΔH
ΔH = QP – тепловой эффект
изобарного процесса
ΔH < 0
экзотермическая реакция
ΔH > 0
эндотермическая реакция
21. Стандартное состояние вещества
• Наиболее устойчивое состояние 1 моля
чистого вещества в стандартных
условиях
• Примеры:
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
O2(г)
Br2(ж)
Hg(ж)
Al(к)
I2(к)
C(графит)
23. Стандартная энтальпия
образования вещества
• энтальпия образования 1 моль чистого
вещества из простых веществ в
стандартных условиях
ΔH°обр,298 ΔH°f,298
• Пример:
0.5H2(г) + 0.5N2(г)+1.5O2(г) = HNO3(ж)
ΔНоf,298 HNO3= –174кДж/моль
• Для простых веществ ΔH° равна 0
25. Термохимическое уравнение
– уравнение, у которого указаны агрегатные
состояния веществ и тепловой эффект
реакции
Пример: система поглощает тепло
▫ В термохимии
4NH3(г) + 3O2(г) = 2N2(г) + 6H2O(г) –1528 кДж
▫ В термодинамике
4NH3(г) + 3O2(г) = 2N2(г) + 6H2O(г)
ΔНреак = 1528 кДж
ΔН реак = 255 кДж/мольН2О = 1528кДж/6мольН2О
Нреак = –Qp
Δ
26. Стандартная энтальпия
растворения
– это теплота, которая выделяется или
поглощается при растворении 1 моль
вещества в бесконечно большом
количестве воды
Пример: При растворении 80г NaOH выделяется
86 кДж тепла. Определить энтальпию
растворения NaOH.
МNaOH = 40 г/моль
ΔH0раств = –43 кДж/моль
27. Стандартная энтальпия сгорания
– это тепловой эффект окисления 1 моль
соединения в атмосфере молекулярного
кислорода с образованием высших
оксидов
Пример: С(гр) + О2(г) = СO2(г) + 393 кДж
ΔH0 = –393 кДж/моль
С2H2(г) + 2,5O2(г) = 2CO2(г) + H2O(г)+1295кДж
ΔH0 = –1295 кДж/моль
28. Закон Гесса (1840)
Тепловой эффект химической реакции не
зависит от пути реакции, а определяется
только начальным и конечным видом и
состоянием веществ.
1.
Fe+O2
3.
Fe2O3
ΔH3
ΔH1
2.
FeO
ΔH2
