19. nanotechnology book chapter.pdf

ISBN No. : Title of The Book
Advanes in Biosciences
( 213 )
Nanotechnology: Concepts, Aspects and Prospects
1
Mohee Shukla, 1
Anupam Dikshit
and *2
Rajesh Kumar
1-Biological product laboratory, Department of Botany,
University of Allahabad
2-P.G. Department of Botany, Mahatma Gandhi Governments
Arts College, Mahe, Puducherry,67331.
*Corresponding author email: rajeshdubey.au@gmail.com
Abstract
Nanotechnology is one of hottest and advance technology of
today by which materials built on nano scales. Nanotechnology is
very useful and trending in all the fields of science and is a great
revolution. There are several methods for the formation of
nanoparticle or nanocomposites like physical, chemical and
biological methods. In biological methods nanoparticle are
synthesized by bacteria fungi and plant extracts. The sizes of
nanoparticle are vary like spherical, tubular, star shaped,
nanoflower, nanofiber etc. Nanotechnology influences the all the
sector from making nanochips to development of nano formulations.
A subfield of nanotechnology is nano-biotechnology which is
combined field of nanoscience and biotechnology. The drugs are
delivered with the help of nano-carriers such as liposomes, niosomes,
solid lipid nanoparticle, Nanoemulsion etc. The application of
nanotechnology is a very broad covering all the fields like
agriculture, environment, medicines, cosmetics etc. Recently the
nanoform of drugs are playing a vital role in curing and diagnosis of
severe and complicated diseases like cancer, diabetes etc. In the
form of nanobiofertilizers this technology is creating a new route for
the helping of farmers. Nanosizing materials increase penetration
efficiency, bioavailability, better stability and site specific targeting.
( 214 )
The cosmetic industry is also utilize this technology by using
nanocomponents in their products like sunscreen, hair serum,
creams, shampoos, conditioners, lip balms and much many other
cosmetic products. Apart from the benefits of nonmaterial there is
also some toxic effect (nanotoxicity) like cell toxicity,
immunotoxicity and toxicity on gene level. So, this technology have
great potential to fills all the gaps either it is related to medicals,
agricultures or pollutions along with overcoming it’s negative impact
The aim of this book chapter is to explain nanotechnology and
highlighting the application and as well as its limitations.
Keywords Nanotechnology, nanoparticle, agriculture, liposo-
mes, cosmetic, nanotoxicity
Introduction
Nanotechnology is one of hottest and advance technology of
today by which materials built on nano scales. The Greek numerical
nano and technology combined and formed a new term named
“nanotechnology”, the term nano means dwarf. So nanotechnology is
a branch of science which is used to develop or manipulate the size
range of particle from 1to 100nm ( S. Logothetidis). Nanotechnology
is known as most advance technology of 21st
century and gaining so
much importance today due to developing many materials,
techniques, devices which are very play a vital role for diagnosis and
solving major problems of human. Nanotechnology is very useful
and trending in all the fields of science and is a great revolution.
Nanobiotechnolgy have lots of potential for generating
nanomaterials, nanochips, nanodrugs etc. which are very important
for human beings in present days.
Nanocarriers
Liposomes. Liposomes are most often used for the
cosmeceuticals preparations. Liposomes typically vary in size
between 20 nm and a couple of hundred micrometers. They possess
the vesicular structures in which a aqueous core are enclosed by a
hydrophobic lipid bilayer (Kaul et al., 2018). The main constituents

( 215 )
of liposome lipidbilayer is phospholipids; these are GRAS (generally
recognized as safe) ingredients, so minimizing the risk for adverse
effects (Arora et al., 2012)For protecting the drug from metabolic
degradation, liposome encapsulating it and releases active
ingredients in a very controlled manner [Hope et al., 1993].
Liposomes are suitable for delivery of both hydrophobic as well as
hydrophilic compounds. (Bhupendra et al., 2012).
Nanocapsules: These are polymeric nanomaterial capsules
which are surrounded by an oily or water phase. Nanocapsules are
used for the protection of ingredients, for reducing chemical odors
and for solving incompatibility issues between formulation
components (Nafisi et al., 2017). In case of cosmetics Polymeric
nanocapsule suspensions can be directly applied on the skin as a final
product, or incorporated into semisolid form as an ingredient. The
efficiency of skin penetration of an ingredient can be modulated
according to the polymer and the surfactant used as raw materials
(Poletto et al., 2011).
Niosomes: These are defined as vesicles having a bilayer
structure that are formed by self-assembly of hydrated nonionic
surfactants, with or without incorporation of cholesterol or their
lipids (Kuotsu et al., 2010). Niosomes can be multi lamellar or uni
lamellar vesicles in which an aqueous solution of solute and
lipophilic components is entirely enclosed by a membrane which are
formed when the surfactant macromolecules are organized as bilayer
(Duarah et al., 2016). Size ranges from 100nm to 200nm in diameter.
Major niosomes components are cholesterol and nonionic surfactants
like alkyl amides spans, tweens, polyoxy ethylene alkyl ether,
sorbitan ester, crown ester and steroid-linked surfactants which are
utilized for its preparation (Kuotsu et al., 2010)
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN) and Nanostructure Lipid
Carriers (NLC)
Solid lipid nanoparticles are different from nano lipid
carriers by the composition of their solid particle matrix. SLNs are
an alternative carrier system to liposomes and emulsions (Pardeike et
( 216 )
al., 2009). They act as a carrier for components due to their various
advantages over existing conventional formulation, and they are
excellent for skin hydration (Wissing, 2003). SLNs are made up of a
single layer of shells, and the core is lipoidal in nature (Kaul et al.,
2018). The NLC are called second generation of lipid nanoparticle
and these are developed due to drawback of SLN. SLNs and NLCs
can be found in moisturizing creams and sunscreens and very good
for dermal applications (Kaul et al., 2018 ).
Nanosphere: Nanospheres are spherical in shape and exhibit
a core shell structure. The size ranges from 10 to 200 nm in diameter.
The drug is entrapped, dissolved, attached, or encapsulated to the
matrix of polymer of nanosphere and protected from the any
chemical and enzymatic degradation. The drug is physically and
uniformly dispersed in the matrix system of polymer. The
nanospheres can be crystalline or amorphous in nature (Wissing,
2003).
Dendrimer: The term “dendrimer” arises from Greek
words: one is,, “Dendron” that means tree and other is “Meros”
which means part. They are highly branched, globular, unimolecular,
multivalent and micellar nanostructure, which is synthesized
theoretically affords monodisperse compounds (Kaul et al., 2018 )
Polymersomers: Polymersomers are made up of bilayer one
inner core is hydrophilic and outer is lipophylic or hydrophobic. So
these are suitable for both lipophilic and hydrophilic drug. (
Ambikanandan, 2011) Polymersomers are biologically stable and
are highly versatile. Drug encapsulation and release capability of
polymersomers can be readily modified by help of various block
copolymers which are biodegradable in nature. There radius ranges
from 50 nm to 5 �m or more (Kim et al., 2011)
Cubosomes: These are the most advanced liquid crystalline,
submicron, discrete nano-structures which are, self-assembled
particles of surfactants with proper ratio of water that provides
unique properties. These are highly stable nanoparticle. Cubosomes
are formed by self-assembling of aqueous lipid and surfactant

( 217 )
systems when mixed with water and microstructure at a certain ratio
(Tilekar et al., 2014)
Application of Nanotechnology
Fig.- Application of nanotechnology
In field of Agriculture: Nanotechnology is very useful
technology for agriculture due to having lots of potential for
increasing soil fertility and crop productivity.
Nanofertilizer: Any product that is used to improve
productivity and nutrient efficiency is called fertilizer and if it is
made by nanotechnology then it is called nanofertilizers. (Kah et al.,
2018). Nanofertilizers can also be formed by encapsulating nutrients
inside the nanomaterials (DeRosa, 2010). A critical analysis of a
dataset of nanofertilizers by Kah et al. (2018) revealed a approx. 18-
29% efficacy gain by nanofertilizers as compared to the conventional
fertilizers (Kah et al., 2018). Nanomaterial such as chitosan,
polyacrylic acid, clay minerals, hydroxyapatite, zeolite, etc. is
utilized to develop fertilizers for soil and/or foliar application.
In the present days, the smart agriculture is a way to found
priority of short and long term development in the countenance of
climate change and serves as a link to others (Helar and Chavan,
( 218 )
2015). It supports countries and other functional aspects in securing
the necessary agricultural functions (Kandasamy and Prema, 2015).
Nanopestiside: Today Pesticide use is a regular practice in
commercial agriculture and development of new, efficient and target-
specific pesticides is a continuous process. So there are large number
of pesticides are screened in each and every year (N1 million
according to an estimate in 2009) (Resh and Cardé, 2009). But only
very small amount of the pesticides (0.1%) reaches the target pests
while the remaining (99.9%) polluting the surroundings (Carriger et
al., 2006) which has serious effects on human health and ecosystem.
Biopesticides are able to reduce hazardous effects of chemical
pesticides but their use is limited due to their slow and environment-
dependent efficiency against pests. Nanopesticides having more
potential to overcome these limitations. Controlled release slow
degradation of active ingredients of pestisides in the presence of
suitable nanoparticle can act as effective pest control for long time
(Chhipa, 2017). The nanopesticides differ from other pesticides due
to having higher efficiency rate (Kah et al., 2019).
Table 1- List of nano particle used against several pathogen (Rohela et
al.,2011 )
S.N Nanoparticle Pathogens Disease Host References
1 Nano silver Bipolarissorokiniana Spot
blotch
wheat Jo et al.,
(2009)
2 Nano silver Xanthomonascampestris
pv. Campestris
Black
rot
Cabbage Gan et al.,
(2010)
3 Nano-copper Xanthomonasoryzae pv.
Oryzae
Blight rice Gogoi et
al., (2009)
4 TiO2
nanoparticles
with Ag and
Zn
Xanthomonasperforans Bacterial
spot
Tomato Paret et
al., (2012)
5 Nano copper Phytophthorainfestans Bacterial
blight
Tomato Giannousi
et al.,
(2013)
Nano-biosensors: Biosensors represents the hybrid system
of receptor-transducer which are used to sense the chemical and

( 219 )
physical properties of any medium in the presence of biological or
organic recognition factor to detect the specific biological analyte
present (Sun et al., 2006). Nanobiosensor detect any biological
agents like pathogens metabolites antibodies or presence of any
nucleic acid. According to Sagadevan and Periasamy (2014) the
sensitivity and performance of biosensors can be improved by using
nanomaterials through new signal transduction technologies.
Nanomaterial for soil remediation: Due to having smaller
particle size, lager surface area and higher penetrating efficiency and
reactivity of nanomaterials, there has been a growing interest to use
of it as remediation techniques for contaminated soils by adsorption,
chemical oxidation or reduction (Guerra et al., 2018). Nanomaterials
affect the mobility, toxicity and transformation of many inorganic
and organic pollutants. Nanomaterials improve the phytoremediation
efficiency of heavy metals in contaminated soil more significantly
than any other remedy. Singh and Lee (2016) investigated the impact
of nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2) on Cd accumulation by soybean
plants from soil.
In field of Medicine: Use of nanotechnology in field of
medicine is vast such as diagnosis, bio-imaging agents, bio-sensor
devices; drug delivery etc .Iron oxide is a nano-agent which is used
in cell tracking gene detection, molecular imaging etc.
Nanotechnology play a vital role in diagnosis of cardiovascular and
neurovascular diseases. Some nanoparticles which are used in
clinical field are given in table no. 2.
Table 2- Clinical use of some nonmaterial (S. Kim et al., 2011)
Nanoparticl
e
Shape &
Size
Uses Toxicity TM FDA
Dendrimer Variable &
5-50 nm
Microbicid
e in HIV
Abdomina
l pain
VivaGel Phase 2
trial
Iron Oxide Globular
& variable
MRI
contrast
None Resovist Approve
d
Gold Sphere &
variable
In vitro
genetic test
Respiratory
virus
None Verigene approved
( 220 )
nucleic
acid test
Liposome Spherical
phosphlipi
d
Bilayer &
70-100 nm
Cancer
therapy
Anemia,
leukopeni
a
Doxil/Caely
x
approved
Iron Oxide Globular
& variable
MRI
contrast
None Combidex Phase 3
trial
In field of cosmetics
Skin Care:. Cosmeceuticals improving texture of skin and
reduced the harmful effects of free radicals. The nanotechnology
enhance and improve effects of cosmetics due to their nanosizes and
penetrating efficiency. There are many products in which
nanotechnology is used like sunscreen, anti-aging cream etc.
Nanoparticle of zinc oxide and titanium oxide are most effective in
sunscreen (Smijs and Pavel, 2011).
Lip Care: Lip balm, lip gloss are cosmetic products which
are used for caring of lips. Nanocomponent in these products
increases the efficiency rate of these products. (Tripura and
Anushree 2017)
Nail Care: Nails are very tough and any normal product
does not penetrate it for curing any disease or improving its health,
but nanotechnology removes this barrier and caring the nails by
nanoparticle based nail paints (Betheny, 2017)
In field of Environment
Air pollution: Nanotechnology is a most effective treatment
technology to control and remediate air pollution in several ways due
to having advantage of nanomaterial properties and applying them as
sensors, catalysts, adsorbents and membranes, (Zhao, 2009).
Nanoparticle having large surface area due to which adsorption
capacity significantly enhanced and for remediation this technology
proved as cost effective and most efficient. The solid adsorbents for
capturing carbon dioxide can be divided into three classes: (1) the
high temperature adsorbents (>400 °C), (2) the intermediate

( 221 )
temperature adsorbents (200–400 °C), and (3) the low temperature
adsorbents (<200 °C) (Upendar et al., 2012). Calcium (Ca)-based
nano-adsorbents are used to capture carbon dioxide at high
temperature based on the reversible carbonation reaction of calcium
oxides (CaO).
Soil pollution: Heavy metals such as zinc, lead, arsenic etc
are one of most important factor of soil pollution. It enhances the
quality and fertility of soil by removing soil contaminations.
Immobilization or adsorption is most widely used techniques and
recently, nano particles have gained a great interest for heavy metal
immobilization in soil and ground water. Two essential requirements
should be met when using nanoparticle as amendment agents
including the following(An and Zhao, 2012) (1) they must be
deliverable to the polluted zones and, (2) when removing the external
injection pressure, the delivered nanoparticles should remain under
natural groundwater conditions, where the delivered nanoparticles
will work as an immobile sink for capturing soluble metals.
Zerovalent iron (ZVI) nanoparticles are also used for in situ
reductive immobilization of heavy metals in soil.
Water pollution: According to The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) water pollution is classified
into the following categories: (a) plant nutrients (b) biodegradable
waste (c) sediment (d) heat (e) hazardous and toxic chemicals and (f)
radioactive pollutants. Water pollutants contains organic pollutants,
industrial discharge containing heavy metals, pathogens and different
anions etc.(Goyal et al., 2013) and due to presence of it the property
of water body become changed. There are some nanoscale metal
oxides, like iron oxides titanium dioxides, alumina, zinc oxides etc.,
which are cost effective and good adsorbent for water treatment and
providing a better remediation technology due to nanosize and
adsorption efficiency (Engates and Shipley, 2011; Zhang, 2003).
Limitations of Nanotechnology: Although there are several
benefits of nanotechnology but some limitations of it is also present
like its toxicity. Due to high penetration ability nanoparticle also
affects health of environment and organism either short-term period
( 222 )
or long term-period. The toxicity of nanoparticle depends on the
properties of nanoparticle like shape, size, coating, surface properties
and aggregating ability. Due to having poor solubility nanoparticle
can cause cancer (Buzea et al., 2007). Ultrafine particle of TiO2
cause lung injury and below 20 nm size of TiO2 cause complete
distraction of DNA, whereas 500nm TiO2 having less ability to break
DNA strand (Wakefield et al., 2004). Exposing to UV rays TiO2 and
ZnO have ability to generate ROS and free radical which is
responsible for damage of membrane, protein, DNA, RNA and fat of
cells (Shi et al., 2013). Nanoparticle of Co and Cr can cross the skin
barrier and damage the fibroblast of humans (Posada et al., 2015).
Conclusion and Future Prospect: So nanotechnology is an
advance technology which is very helpful in various fields. It is
beneficial for agriculture, environment, medicals, cosmetics etc. But
besides its advantage there are some disadvantages also like its
toxicity. In many researches it is proved that nanoparticle may cause
hazardous health effect in environment and organism. In future by
reducing the toxicity of nanoparticle we can increase the beneficial
effect of it.
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