Introduction
Inter-area oscillations involve wide areas of the power grid and numerous power system components. Therefore, identifying the components influencing negatively the oscillations damping is extremely important. Power system oscillations usually contain multiple frequency components (modes), which are determined by generator inertia, transmission line impedance, governor, and excitation control, etc.
The oscillation behavior is sensitive to the following parameters:
The load model
The operating conditions
The presence of fast exciters
The topology
INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM STABILITY BY Kundur Power Systems SolutionsPower System Operation
Power System Stability denotes the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with all system variables bounded so that the system integrity is preserved
Integrity of the system is preserved when practically the entire power system remains intact with no tripping of generators or loads, except for those disconnected by isolation of the faulted elements or intentionally tripped to preserve the continuity of operation of the rest of the system
Stability is a condition of equilibrium between opposing forces:
instability results when a disturbance leads to a sustained imbalance between the opposing forces
instability is a run-away or run-down situation
Steady state stability analysis and enhancement of three machine nine bus pow...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Power System stability study is the important parameter of economic, reliable and secure system planning and operation. Studies
are important during the planning and conceptual design stages of the project as well as during the operating life of the plant
periodically. This paper presents the power system steady state stability analysis for IEEE- 9 bus test system and examines
influence of TCPS FACTS device based controller on test system. It is assumed that system under study has been perturbed from a
steady state equilibrium that prevailed prior to the application of the disturbance. If system is stable, we would expect that for
temporary or permanent disturbance, system will acquire initial or new operating state after a transient period. The stability
study is accessed using Lyapunov’s first method. The effectiveness of damping controller in enhancing the steady state stability is
investigated by incorporating available constraints. For analysis MATLAB software is employed. The conclusions have been
drawn here, based on theoretical and mathematical analysis so as to provide an insight and better understanding of steady state
stability of considered multi machine power system.
Key Words: Lyapunov’s first method, Steady-state stability, Phase portrait, FACTS device, supplementary modulation
controller, eigen value, synchronizing power coefficient, IEEE-9 Bus Test System, Load Flow Study, Differential
algebraic equation.
Power System Stability
Power system stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a
state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded
so that practically the entire system remains intact.
Functions and Performance Requirements
Elements of an Excitation System
Types of Excitation Systems
Control and Protection Functions
Modeling of Excitation Systems
The functions of an excitation system are
to provide direct current to the synchronous generator field winding, and
to perform control and protective functions essential to the satisfactory operation of the power system
The performance requirements of the excitation system are determined by
Generator considerations:
supply and adjust field current as the generator output varies within its continuous capability
respond to transient disturbances with field forcing consistent with the generator short term capabilities:
rotor insulation failure due to high field voltage
rotor heating due to high field current
stator heating due to high VAR loading
heating due to excess flux (volts/Hz)
Power system considerations:
contribute to effective control of system voltage and improvement of system stability
Voltage Stability analysis by using SVC With Fuzzy Logic Controller in Multi ...paperpublications3
Abstract: Power system can be simulated and analyzed based on a mathematical model however; uncertainty still exists due to change of loads and an occurrence of fault. Recently, fuzzy theory highly flexible easily operated and revised, theory is a better choice, especially for a complicated system with many variables. Hence, this work aims to develop a controller based on fuzzy logic to simulate an automatic voltage regulator in transient stability power system analysis. By adding power system stabilizer for tuning of fuzzy logic stabilizing controller there is no need for exact knowledge of power system mathematical model. The fuzzy controller parameters settings are independent due to nonlinear changes in generator and transmission lines operating conditions. Because of that proposed fuzzy controlled power system stabilizer should perform better than the conventional controller. To overcome the drawbacks of conventional power system stabilizer (CPSS), numerous techniques have been proposed in the article. The conventional PSS's effect on the system damping is then compared with a fuzzy logic based PSS while applied to a single machine infinite bus power system.
The functions of an excitation system are
to provide direct current to the synchronous generator field winding, and
to perform control and protective functions essential to the satisfactory operation of the power system
The performance requirements of the excitation system are determined by
Generator considerations:
supply and adjust field current as the generator output varies within its continuous capability
respond to transient disturbances with field forcing consistent with the generator short term capabilities:
rotor insulation failure due to high field voltage
rotor heating due to high field current
stator heating due to high VAR loading
heating due to excess flux (volts/Hz)
Power system considerations:
contribute to effective control of system voltage and improvement of system stability
Starters of induction motor and protection equipmentsateesh kumar
Safety precautions of Electrical power supply
Starting methods of Induction machine
Protection equipment of 3-phase machines
Various operations of machines on Induction machine used in industry
In this work, a solution for the excitation system of a low-voltage synchronous
generator is designed. The excitation system is implemented with an auxiliary
winding utilizing the power in air-gap flux-density harmonics to supply the
automatic voltage regulator. A standard solution for the auxiliary winding and the
voltage regulator system is created.
Small-Signal (or Small Disturbance) Stability is the ability of a power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to small disturbances
such disturbances occur continually on the system due to small variations in loads and generation
disturbance considered sufficiently small if linearization of system equations is permissible for analysis
Corresponds to Liapunov's first method of stability analysis
Small-signal analysis using powerful linear analysis techniques provides valuable information about the inherent dynamic characteristics of the power system and assists in its robust design
In the past few years we have experienced big disturbances in
the power system which caused complete blackout and million
of users including industry have suffered big economical
losses. These disturbances cause big oscillations in active and
reactive power, low voltage, voltage instability and phase or
angular instability between the generated and consumed power
which results in loss of generation and load which effected both
the power generation and the end customers.
During the steady state condition, power systems operate on
the nominal frequency (50Hz or 60Hz). The complete synchronism
of nominal frequency and voltage at the sending and
receiving ends cause complete balance of active and reactive
power between generated and consumed active and reactive
powers. In steady state operating condition Frequency=
Nominal frequency (50 or 60 Hz) +/– 0.02 Hz and
Voltage=Nominal voltage +/– 5% [1].
Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection,
and the loss or application of large blocks of load result in
sudden changes to electrical power, which is due to the causes
shown
Introduction
Inter-area oscillations involve wide areas of the power grid and numerous power system components. Therefore, identifying the components influencing negatively the oscillations damping is extremely important. Power system oscillations usually contain multiple frequency components (modes), which are determined by generator inertia, transmission line impedance, governor, and excitation control, etc.
The oscillation behavior is sensitive to the following parameters:
The load model
The operating conditions
The presence of fast exciters
The topology
INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM STABILITY BY Kundur Power Systems SolutionsPower System Operation
Power System Stability denotes the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with all system variables bounded so that the system integrity is preserved
Integrity of the system is preserved when practically the entire power system remains intact with no tripping of generators or loads, except for those disconnected by isolation of the faulted elements or intentionally tripped to preserve the continuity of operation of the rest of the system
Stability is a condition of equilibrium between opposing forces:
instability results when a disturbance leads to a sustained imbalance between the opposing forces
instability is a run-away or run-down situation
Steady state stability analysis and enhancement of three machine nine bus pow...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Power System stability study is the important parameter of economic, reliable and secure system planning and operation. Studies
are important during the planning and conceptual design stages of the project as well as during the operating life of the plant
periodically. This paper presents the power system steady state stability analysis for IEEE- 9 bus test system and examines
influence of TCPS FACTS device based controller on test system. It is assumed that system under study has been perturbed from a
steady state equilibrium that prevailed prior to the application of the disturbance. If system is stable, we would expect that for
temporary or permanent disturbance, system will acquire initial or new operating state after a transient period. The stability
study is accessed using Lyapunov’s first method. The effectiveness of damping controller in enhancing the steady state stability is
investigated by incorporating available constraints. For analysis MATLAB software is employed. The conclusions have been
drawn here, based on theoretical and mathematical analysis so as to provide an insight and better understanding of steady state
stability of considered multi machine power system.
Key Words: Lyapunov’s first method, Steady-state stability, Phase portrait, FACTS device, supplementary modulation
controller, eigen value, synchronizing power coefficient, IEEE-9 Bus Test System, Load Flow Study, Differential
algebraic equation.
Power System Stability
Power system stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a
state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a
physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded
so that practically the entire system remains intact.
Functions and Performance Requirements
Elements of an Excitation System
Types of Excitation Systems
Control and Protection Functions
Modeling of Excitation Systems
The functions of an excitation system are
to provide direct current to the synchronous generator field winding, and
to perform control and protective functions essential to the satisfactory operation of the power system
The performance requirements of the excitation system are determined by
Generator considerations:
supply and adjust field current as the generator output varies within its continuous capability
respond to transient disturbances with field forcing consistent with the generator short term capabilities:
rotor insulation failure due to high field voltage
rotor heating due to high field current
stator heating due to high VAR loading
heating due to excess flux (volts/Hz)
Power system considerations:
contribute to effective control of system voltage and improvement of system stability
Voltage Stability analysis by using SVC With Fuzzy Logic Controller in Multi ...paperpublications3
Abstract: Power system can be simulated and analyzed based on a mathematical model however; uncertainty still exists due to change of loads and an occurrence of fault. Recently, fuzzy theory highly flexible easily operated and revised, theory is a better choice, especially for a complicated system with many variables. Hence, this work aims to develop a controller based on fuzzy logic to simulate an automatic voltage regulator in transient stability power system analysis. By adding power system stabilizer for tuning of fuzzy logic stabilizing controller there is no need for exact knowledge of power system mathematical model. The fuzzy controller parameters settings are independent due to nonlinear changes in generator and transmission lines operating conditions. Because of that proposed fuzzy controlled power system stabilizer should perform better than the conventional controller. To overcome the drawbacks of conventional power system stabilizer (CPSS), numerous techniques have been proposed in the article. The conventional PSS's effect on the system damping is then compared with a fuzzy logic based PSS while applied to a single machine infinite bus power system.
The functions of an excitation system are
to provide direct current to the synchronous generator field winding, and
to perform control and protective functions essential to the satisfactory operation of the power system
The performance requirements of the excitation system are determined by
Generator considerations:
supply and adjust field current as the generator output varies within its continuous capability
respond to transient disturbances with field forcing consistent with the generator short term capabilities:
rotor insulation failure due to high field voltage
rotor heating due to high field current
stator heating due to high VAR loading
heating due to excess flux (volts/Hz)
Power system considerations:
contribute to effective control of system voltage and improvement of system stability
Starters of induction motor and protection equipmentsateesh kumar
Safety precautions of Electrical power supply
Starting methods of Induction machine
Protection equipment of 3-phase machines
Various operations of machines on Induction machine used in industry
In this work, a solution for the excitation system of a low-voltage synchronous
generator is designed. The excitation system is implemented with an auxiliary
winding utilizing the power in air-gap flux-density harmonics to supply the
automatic voltage regulator. A standard solution for the auxiliary winding and the
voltage regulator system is created.
Small-Signal (or Small Disturbance) Stability is the ability of a power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to small disturbances
such disturbances occur continually on the system due to small variations in loads and generation
disturbance considered sufficiently small if linearization of system equations is permissible for analysis
Corresponds to Liapunov's first method of stability analysis
Small-signal analysis using powerful linear analysis techniques provides valuable information about the inherent dynamic characteristics of the power system and assists in its robust design
In the past few years we have experienced big disturbances in
the power system which caused complete blackout and million
of users including industry have suffered big economical
losses. These disturbances cause big oscillations in active and
reactive power, low voltage, voltage instability and phase or
angular instability between the generated and consumed power
which results in loss of generation and load which effected both
the power generation and the end customers.
During the steady state condition, power systems operate on
the nominal frequency (50Hz or 60Hz). The complete synchronism
of nominal frequency and voltage at the sending and
receiving ends cause complete balance of active and reactive
power between generated and consumed active and reactive
powers. In steady state operating condition Frequency=
Nominal frequency (50 or 60 Hz) +/– 0.02 Hz and
Voltage=Nominal voltage +/– 5% [1].
Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection,
and the loss or application of large blocks of load result in
sudden changes to electrical power, which is due to the causes
shown
Performance Evaluation of Synchronous Generator under Sudden Loss of Excitationpaperpublications3
Abstract: Synchronous generators under sudden loss of excitation behave as an induction generator, supplying active power to the system and absorbing reactive power from the system. In general the armature current exceeds its rated value. Hence, the reference power is reduced in steps to keep the armature currents within limits. The voltage profile around the faulty machine becomes unacceptably poor and in addition there is exchange of pulsating power with the system. Hence, the general practice is to switch off the machine by the action of an offset type MHO-relay. Recently, the capacitive VAR-generation of a H.T. system has gone up due to addition of EHV/SHV lines, such that there is no or little problem in supplying the faulty machine with its required VAR. Also, the magnetizing current drawn by modern turbo generators has reduced much due to the use of smaller air-gaps for economic design of the rotor. The combined effect has been assessed, and it has been found that it is permissible to run the machine for a relatively long duration under LOE without staking on its health. It may be allowed to run the machine for 30-60 minutes under LOE, within which time the fault may be detected and removed and the machine resynchronized. However, this is not possible for hydro-generators drawing large magnetizing currents.
Synchronous generators require certain protection against loss of excitation because it can lead to harmful effect to a generator and main grid. Systems of powers are evolving with applications of new techniques to increase reliability and security, at the meantime techniques upgradation is being existed to save financial cost of a different component of power system, which affect protection ways this report discuss the way of loss of excitation protection scheme for an increase in a synchronous generator. It is obvious that when direct axis synchronous reactance has a high value, the coordination among loss of excitation protection and excitation control is not effective. This lead to restricting absorption capability of the reactive power generator. This report also reviews the suitable philosophy for setting the limiters of excitation and discusses its effect on loss of excitation protection and system performance. A protection scheme is developed to allow for utilization of machine capability and power swing blocking is developed to increase the reliability when power swing is stable.
Rotor earth fault protection of electric generatorCS V
As the field is operated ungrounded, a single fault does not cause any flow of current or affect the operation of the electric generator. However, a single rotor earth fault increases the stress to the ground in the field
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
In a power system, Low Frequency Oscillations (LFOs) are dangerous and make system unstable. These oscillations are referred to small signal stability and they are mainly due to lack of damping torque. This insufficient damping torque is because of high gain and low time constant of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR). AVR is useful for maintaining the terminal voltage of synchronous machine as constant. While doing so, it will make the system damping torque as negative. For providing required damping torque thereby minimizing the LFOs, Power System Stabilizer is used in conjunction with AVR. In this paper for SMIB system, the stability is studied with the help of eigen values before and after placement of PSS with optimized PSS parameters using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Cat Swarm Optimization (CSO). The simulation work is performed in the MATLAB/SIMULINK and corresponding results are presented and analyzed.
Rotor earth fault protection of electric generatormytechinfo
As the field is operated ungrounded, a single fault does not cause any flow of current or affect the operation of the electric generator. However, a single rotor earth fault increases the stress to the ground in the field
IRJET-Review on Power Quality Enhancement in weak Power Grids by Integration ...IRJET Journal
Prathmesh Mayekar, Mahesh Wagh, Nilkanth Shinde "Review on Power Quality Enhancement in weak Power Grids by Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Volume2,issue-01 April 2015.e-ISSN:2395-0056, p-ISSN:2395-0072. www.irjet.net
Abstract
During Last decade power quality problems has become more complex at all level of power system. With the increased use of sophisticated electronics, high efficiency variable speed drive, power electronic controllers and also more & more non-linear loads, Power Quality has become an increasing concern to utilities and customers. The modern sensitive, Non-linear and sophisticated load affects the power quality. This paper deals with the issues of low power quality in weak power grids. Initially the various power quality issues are discussed with their definition or occurrence and then finally the solution to mitigate this power quality issues are discussed. The innovative solutions like integration of renewable energy systems along with energy storage to enhance power quality by interfacing with custom power devices are explained in detail. Nearly all sorts of solution for mitigating power quality issue require some sort of DC source for providing active power, which can be supplied by renewable energy source. Also the various energy storage systems are studied.
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Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
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Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
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Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
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Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
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Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
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micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
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Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
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[1339309 x journal of electrical engineering] loss of excitation of synchronous generator
1. Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, VOL 68 (2017), NO1, 54–60
Loss of excitation of synchronous generator
Vladim´ır Kriˇstof,
∗
Mari´an Meˇster
∗∗
This paper presents results of study of loss-of-excitation phenomena simulations. Loss of excitation is a very common fault
in synchronous machine operating and can be caused by short circuit of the field winding, unexpected field breaker open or
loss-of-excitation relay mal-operation. According to the statistic [1], the generator failure due to loss-of-excitation accounts
for 69 % of all generator failures. There has been concern over possible incorrect operation of the relay when operating the
generator in the under-excited region, during stable transient swings and during major system disturbances. This article can
serve as inputs for system operators in preparation of operation area or protection relaying area.
K e y w o r d s: loss of excitation, excitation system, synchronous generator, stability
1 Introduction
The loss of synchronism (stability) of synchronous gen-
erator and the subsequent transition to asynchronous op-
eration is a very serious and unfavorable operating condi-
tion. It occurs if the machine is not able to transmit the
electrical power (Pe ) corresponding to supplied mechan-
ical power (Pm ). This could be caused by the following
reasons:
– loss of excitation of synchronous generator (significant
decrease of internal electromotive force),
– weakening of the transmission grid (eg line outages),
– increasing of the transmitted power (threat for static
stability),
– etc.
Asynchronous operation of synchronous generator is ana-
lyzed eg in [2]. This article deals with the loss of excitation
of synchronous generator.
2 Excitation systems of synchronous machines
The essential function of excitation system is to supply
direct current for the power of synchronous machine ex-
citation winding. Furthermore, it has several protection
and control functions. The excitation system consists of
two relatively independent components — excitation reg-
ulator (automatic voltage regulator) and the exciter it-
self [3]. The exciter power makes up generally 0.2–0.8 %
of the generator power. The exciter voltage generally does
not exceed 1 kV so that its winding does not need addi-
tional insulation [2].
Basically there are static and rotating exciters. In ro-
tating exciters, the excitation current is obtained from
direct current generators (eventually alternative current
generators equipped with rectifiers). Since direct current
sources do not provide the necessary power, they are con-
nected into cascade. This is however followed by increas-
ing of equivalent exciter time constant (and thus worsen-
ing of exciter dynamics).
Basic components of static excitation systems are
thyristor rectifiers, controlled with excitation regulator
by means of thyristor ignition impulse circuits. This can
be performed in two ways via the transformer, namely
either from an independent source (so called independent
excitation) or directly from the generator (so called de-
pendent excitation). The main benefit of static excitation
systems is the speed with which the excitation voltage re-
sponds to the change of regulator voltage.
The excitation systems of synchronous machines are
subject of following requirements:
– keep the generator in a condition when it is possible
by (long) lines to transmit the power close to the limit
line power (ie enable the generator operation in the
area of so called artificial stability [4]),
– ensure sufficient dynamic stability reserve and damp-
ing of generator power swings after failure,
– maintain stability during change of properties of elec-
tric lines or grid to which the generator is connected,
– easily and reliably measure the parameters according
to which regulation occurs,
– high operating reliability.
An integral part of the excitation system is apart from
the exciter itself also the excitation regulator. The pri-
mary task of the excitation regulator is to maintain the
required voltage on generator terminals. In addition, the
excitation regulator generally fulfills most of the following
supplementary functions [3, 5]:
– limiter of rotor and stator current: protects generator
before stator or rotor circuit overloading,
– under-excitation limit control: main aim is to prevent
machine de-excitation (under-excitation) to the degree
∗
Power System Management s.r.o., Ondavsk´a 5, 040 01 Koˇsice, Slovakia, kristof.vladimir@gmail.com
∗∗
Vchodoslovensk´a distribuˇcn´a,
a.s., Mlynsk´a 31, 040 01 Koˇsice, Slovakia, marian.mester@gmail.com
DOI: 10.1515/jee-2017-0007, Print (till 2015) ISSN 1335-3632, On-line ISSN 1339-309X c 2017 FEI STU
2. Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 68 (2017), NO1 55
90°
Pe (pu)
d
180°
0.2
0.6
1.0
1.4
1.8
Mechanical
power Pm
UB = 100 %
80 %
60 %
40 %
0° d(0)
Fig. 1. Power – angle characteristic for individual values of excita-
tion voltage UB
Out of step protection
R
x
xd
xd/2’
x xd t/2 +’
Loss of excitation
protection
Fig. 2. Measured trajectory in the impedance plane during loss of
excitation
where threat of its static stability arises, stator wind-
ing terminals warm up, etc,
– power system stabilizer: dampens electromechanical
swings that originate as result of commutations in the
grid,
– secondary regulator of reactive power: maintains reac-
tive power on desired value.
From the above presented facts it is obvious that excita-
tion systems are important components of both the gen-
erator as well as the electricity grid. Therefore, it is de-
sirable that they provide the highest possible operating
reliability. The outages or failures in excitation systems
can have very unfavorable operating consequences.
3 Loss of excitation protection
Loss of excitation of synchronous generator can be
caused by several factors, such as power supply outage,
exciter damage or short circuit in the excitation winding.
Regardless of the reason the loss of excitation represents a
high risk with regard to synchronous generator damage.
In addition, outage of synchronous generator with high
unit power represents a significant risk for the stability
of electricity grid. During loss of excitation the current in
excitation winding decreases (exponentially). Proportion-
ally also the internal electromotive force and the electro-
magnetic relation between the stator and rotor decrease.
This is reflected in gradual decrease of reactive power on
generator terminals. When the under-excitation limit is
achieved, the loss of synchronism occurs (the relation be-
tween the stator and rotor is already very week at this
time). This whole process is similar to loss of static sta-
bility of synchronous machine. The development of loss
of synchronism after loss of excitation can simply be ex-
plained by power characteristics. For the electric power
supplied with generator to grid under stabilized condi-
tions the following applies
Pe =
EGES
X
sin δ (1)
where EG is internal voltage of generator, ES – grid
voltage, X – transmission reactance and δ is rotor angle
(angle between EG and ES ).
The intersection between the turbine mechanical power
(Pm ) and power curve (P − δ) defines the operating ro-
tor angle (sometimes so called load angle). Decreasing
internal voltage of generator results in decreased power
curve (Fig. 1). As the power curve decreases the rotor an-
gle increases and gets close to the limit operating point
(δcrit = 90◦
). At this point the electric power supplied
by generator reaches its maximum level (for respective
operating conditions). The following subsequent decrease
of the power curve as result of loss of excitation will
cause that generator will no longer be able to transmit
the electric power corresponding to the mechanical power
of turbine. The imbalance (excessive mechanical power of
turbine) will be reflected in the generator rotor speeding
up. Generator speeding up will be then reflected in the
decreasing turbine power (corresponding to turbine reg-
ulator statics). Under certain circumstances, when the
decrease of the excitation voltage is successfully stopped
by machine operator, the new balanced operating point
(with worse operating conditions) will be achieved. The
resulting generator rotations are determined by turbine
regulator statics and grid “toughness” (in synchronous
operation of extensive grid the rotations generally do
not change, whereas in island mode operation the fre-
quency/rotations deviation can reach up to 5 % before
the machine is disconnected from the grid).
The loss of excitation is a transient phenomenon of
medium speed with the time interface of several seconds
(3 to 8 seconds according to [6]). The loss of excitation
represents a threat mainly from the following reasons [7]:
– stator overloading as result of significant supply of re-
active power from the grid (0.4 to 1.9-multiple of Sn ),
– warming up of rotor winding influenced by induced
currents,
– extensive swings of active power, which are typical for
asynchronous operation.
The loss of excitation can have adverse effect not only
on the generator itself, but also on the whole grid and
adjacent generators — mainly if they are connected to
3. 56 V. Kriˇstof , M. Meˇster: LOSS OF EXCITATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
High
load
R
x
xd
xd/2’
Low
load
1.0 pu
0
Zone 1
Zone 2
Impedance locus during
loss of excitation
R
x
xs
xd/2’
1.1 xd
0
Zone 1
Zone 2
Directional
element
R
x
xs
xd/2’
xd
0
Zone 1
Zone 2 R
x
5% xq
xq
0
Fig. 3. Impedance patterns of loss of excitation protection
G2 G3
G1
Z1 Z2
16.5 kV
230 kV
230 kV230 kV
18 kV 230 kV 230 kV
Z3
230 kV 13.8 kV
Fig. 4. 9-node test grid IEEE
common point with the generator that lost excitation (i.e.
generators in one power plant). As was presented above
in the text, if generator lost excitation it changes into
significant consumer of reactive power. If this generator
is not shut down, the adjacent generators start increasing
the production of reactive power up to the limit when
their limiters of rotor and stator currents act. The effect
of loss of excitation on adjacent generators is analyzed in
more details in [8].
If not even the grid can cope with increased supply of
reactive power, it can cause overloading and subsequent
the transmission lines outages in cascades. Significant de-
crease of voltage in individual nodes of the grid and the
resultant threat of voltage collapse could have another
adverse effect.
Operators of the transmission grids shall for reasons
of planning the operation, development or maintenance
of safe and reliable supplies of electric energy perform
extensive calculations. Calculations of dynamic stability
of grid after loss of excitation of important generators
within the grid should also be considered. Since dynamic
simulations are time consuming, use of so called screening
technique appears to be more suitable [6]. This technique
applies classic calculation of power system load flow with
the aim to determine critical machines, or nodes in the
grid based on so called grid screens where loss of excita-
tion of generator could have adverse effects. Following the
identification of critical nodes, simulations on dynamic
models for specific examples shall be performed for pur-
poses of detailed analysis, proposal of protection settings
during loss of excitation or other necessary safety mea-
sures.
4 Loss of excitation protection
Loss of excitation protection is the so called impedance
type of protection. Their first installations reach back to
50-ties of the last century. The impedance principle is
with good results used also nowadays, since it has high
ability to detect loss of excitation and at the same time
is very reliable. However, there is an area of generator
operation when this type of protection can function im-
properly. These are the cases when generator operated
in under excited condition, during stable transient power
swings in the grid and during significant system outages
with frequency drop [8].
Example of measured impedance on generator termi-
nals is shown on Fig. 2. It can be seen that the impedance
trajectory seen by the protection on machine terminals
crosses the characteristic of loss of excitation protection
and enters into it. This excites the impulse for protection
4. Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 68 (2017), NO1 57
-0.8
-0.4
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(pu)
Time (s)
NT
UG
QG
PG
Fig. 5. Courses of values of generator No. 2 during loss of excitation
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
(pu) IB
UB
Fig. 6. Courses of values of generator No. 2 during loss of excitation
Im (Z)
Re (Z)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.8
-0.6
-0.2 0 0.4 0.8 1.2
Fig. 7. Impedance measured with protection during loss of excita-
tion
impulse component and as long as the impedance stays
in operation zone of protection for some specified period,
the protection issues command to shut down the syn-
chronous generator. This shut down command is issued
with time delay of 1 to 2 seconds in order to prevent un-
desirable protection operation during some swing effects
in the grid.
Typical operation characteristics of loss of excitation
protection are presented in Fig. 3. The characteristics
shown on Fig. 2a and b are defined by the IEEE stan-
dard [9]. The characteristic (b) has an extra directional
element built in in order to prevent undesirable opera-
tion of protection during some swing effects in the grid
or close faults (i.e. during short circuit on terminals of
block transformer). The characteristic (c) is taken over
from IEEE, it is modified and used in China [10]. Finally,
the characteristic (d) is an example of older type of pro-
tection D21 used also in our power system [2].
5 Simulation on dynamic model
The loss of excitation of synchronous generator and
the operation of protection during loss of excitation can
be demonstrated on the following example. For simula-
tion purposes the network simulator MODES (see [11])
was used. As the test grid the 9–node IEEE grid taken
from [12] was used.
In the reference article [10] similar simulations of the
loss of excitation were performed using different methods.
For simulation purposes the following two were used:
– short circuit in excitation winding (Ub = 0),
– disconnection of excitation winding (Ib = 0).
In MODES the loss of excitation according to first
method is simulated by intervention in the scenario. By
the command Par2 the exciter parameters change in
time. By this intervention Ub = 0 is forced to the ex-
citer set.
Second method (Ib = 0) can be simulated by forc-
ing Un = 0 to the exciter set and at the same time
by change of the generator parameter T d0′
→ 0. This
will cause a stepwise increase of excitation winding re-
sistance RBUD → ∞. This method is obvious from the
following PARK formulas that are used in network simu-
lator MODES to describe the complete generator model
(“PARK” model)
T ′
d0 ∗ E′◦
q = UB + (Xd − X′
d) ∗ Id − E′
q ,
T ′
q0 ∗ E′◦
d = −(Xq − X′
q) ∗ Iq − E′
d ,
T ′′
d0 ∗ E′′◦
q = E′
q + (X′
d − X′′
d ) ∗ Id − E′′
q ,
T ′′
q0 ∗ E′′◦
d = E′
d − (X′
q − X′′
q ) ∗ Iq − E′′
d ,
(2)
where E′
q , E′
d , E′′
q , E′′
d are phasors projections of elec-
tromotive forces into axis d and q, Id , Iq are stator
currents projections, UB is excitation voltage, T ′
d0 , T ′′
d0 ,
T ′′
q0 are time constants of synchronous machine in no load
condition, Xd , X′
d , X′′
d are synchronous, transient and
subtransient reactance in direct axis, Xq , X′
q are syn-
chronous and transient reactance in quadrature axis.
It is obvious that the first formula is the most decisive
for excitation modelling. The time constant T ′
d0 is deter-
mined by the ratio L/R. From this it is obvious that the
disconnection of excitation winding will simulate a con-
dition when T ′
d0 → 0 or RBUD → ∞. As base values the
nominal values of stator voltage, current and excitation
voltage in no load condition were selected. Under this
assumption the electromotive force behind synchronous
5. 58 V. Kriˇstof , M. Meˇster: LOSS OF EXCITATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Time (s)
UG
QG
PG
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 8. Courses of values of generator No. 1 during loss of excitation
QG
PG
Time (s)
(pu)
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NT
UG
Fig. 9. Courses of values of generator No. 2 during loss of excitation
(pu)
IB
UB
Time (s)
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 10. Courses of values of generator No. 2 during loss of excita-
tion
Im (Z)
Re (Z)
0.2
-0.2
-0.6
-1.0
-1.4
0.5 1 1.5-0.5 0
Fig. 11. Impedance measured with protection during loss of exci-
tation
(pu)
PG1
Time (s)-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
PG3
PG2
Fig. 12. Courses of active powers of generators
reactance Eq equals to excitation current Ib . It applies
the following
Eq = IB = E′
q − (Xd − X′
d) ∗ Id . (3)
Let’s assume that on generator No. 2 at the time of 1 s
there occurs the loss of excitation as result of short cir-
cuit in excitation winding. The courses of relevant values
are presented in Figs. 5 and 6, where PG stands for ac-
tive power of generator, QG is reactive power of genera-
tor, UG is voltage on generator terminals, NT is turbine
power, IBUD is excitation current and UBUD is excitation
voltage.
From the courses presented in Figs. 5 and 6 it is ob-
vious that after loss of excitation the machine starts to
take reactive power from the grid and at the time just
after the 4th
second the machine loses synchronism. This
is obvious from the saw-tooth courses of values (powers,
voltage) that are typical for asynchronous operation. The
impedance measured with protection in Fig. 7 responds
well with its quality to the impedance course in the ref-
erence article [10].
Figure 8 shows the courses of values of generator No. 1.
From the presented courses it is obvious that generator
No.1 responded to failure of generator No. 2 by increas-
ing the production of active power (influence of rotations
regulation) and also reactive power. However, since gen-
erator No. 2 was not disconnected from the grid it also
caused swings of remaining two machines operating in the
grid.
Figure 9 shows the courses of relevant values for gen-
erator No. 2 for the scenario when the excitation winding
was disconnected (ie the second method (Ib = 0)).
When comparing the courses of values during loss of
excitation it is obvious that the second method (i.e. dis-
6. Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 68 (2017), NO1 59
connection of excitation winding) is less favorable and ex-
citation decreases faster and subsequently generator loses
synchronism. The following figure shows the patterns of
active powers of generators G1 to G3 for the case that
protection acts during loss of excitation at the time t=9
s. It is clear that the protection shuts down generator
G2 on time and this has significant importance from the
perspective of maintaining the stability of remaining gen-
erators operating in the grid.
6 Salient pole (hydrogenerator)
vs cylindrical (turbogenerator)
The publication [13] explains that the hydrogenerator
should be immediately shut down after loss of excitation.
The protection acts on signal, switch, de-excitation and
quick release of the turbine. However, the protection will
not shut down the turbogenerator immediately. It acts
on automatics during loss of excitation (ANSI 40). The
automatics acts on turbine regulator and decreases the
generator power. Since it is heated up it enables the op-
eration of generator in above synchronous rotations for
some time. This is how operators or excitation regula-
tor get time and can take an early action to eliminate the
cause (if it is possible) and thus prevent unnecessary shut
down of generator. If it is not possible to eliminate the
cause until the specified period, the automatics will shut
down the generator.
We will try to analyze this situation in more detail.
Hydroelectric generators are synchronous machines with
salient poles where xd = xq . The generally applicable
relation for calculation of electric active power supplied
by generator into the grid, specified also above in this
article, is simplified. Fully covered relation, described in
per units, can be expressed as (in accordance with [14])
pe =
ubuS
x
sin δ + u2
s
xd − xq
2xdxq
sin 2δ . (4)
This relation consists of two elements. First is the torque,
or power of synchronous machine that is proportional to
excitation voltage (first part of equation). Second is so
called reluctance power (second part) that is usually ne-
glected in calculations. However, if it is considered and
ub = 0, ie we assume the loss of excitation occurred, we
determine there is reluctance power on the machine shaft.
With detailed analysis of asynchronous and synchronous
machine in excited and non-excited condition we can con-
clude the following:
1) Asynchronous machine: has squirrel cage rotor
with regular arrangement. During operation with asyn-
chronous rotations neither swings nor power changes oc-
cur during constant load.
2) Synchronous machine in excited condition: by in-
creasing the power up to the stability limit only the in-
ternal machine angle (rotor angle) increases. Once this
limit is crossed synchronism loss and mechanical shocks
on the shaft and turbine occur. These shocks have slip
frequency.
3) Synchronous machine in non-excited condition: its
behavior is somewhere between the two previous exam-
ples. The machine continues to operate as asynchronous
machine, ie with slip. It has obviously zero synchronous
torque determined with the magnetic field of rotor. How-
ever, there still operates the already mentioned reluctance
torque that is proportional to the difference of longitudi-
nal and transverse reactance of the machine. During each
slip the swing (shock) originates, the intensity of which is
also dependent on the difference of longitudinal and trans-
verse reactance. This means that the average torque and
power on the shaft remain approximately equally big as
at the time before loss of excitation. The machine supplies
asynchronous power (similarly as asynchronous machine)
in the grid. The immediate power and torque of the ma-
chine swing around this median at each slip by the value
of reluctance power. If we consider the machine is turbo-
generator, ie machine with cylindrical rotor, that has a
very small difference between longitudinal and transverse
reactance, the immediate value of power and torque of
the machine will slightly swing. In case of hydroelectric
generator, ie machine with salient poles, the swing will
be apparent, since there is significant difference between
the machine reactances.
From this analysis it is obvious that the hydroelectric
generator shall be shut down as soon as possible after loss
of excitation. Turbogenerator can operate with approved
asynchronous operation for some time, as long as it is al-
lowed by the manufacturer. However, the question is why
to keep such machine in non-excited condition further in
operation. This depends on several factors:
– operating method of the whole grid,
– importance of machine that lost excitation protection,
– will the outage of this machine be a threat for the grid
stability?
– can the machine supplying lower power for some time
improve the grid stability?
Basically, there are two viewpoints with respect to this
issue. If the machine is shut down later, the grid stability
will face a smaller threat, yet there will be higher risk
of rotor overheating and machine damage. On the other
hand, if the machine is shut down earlier, it will be bet-
ter for the machine itself, yet with worse consequences
for the grid stability. Practically, not even turbogener-
ators are allowed to operate in asynchronous operation
for above stated reason in order not to cross the allowed
warming of rotor parts or damper (amortisseur) windings.
Generally, it is subject of agreement of the grid operator,
generator operator and generator manufacturer whether
such machine is disconnected from the grid immediately
or asynchronous operation is allowed for some time. Fi-
nally, this time information should be provided by the
manufacturer in type tests.
7. 60 V. Kriˇstof , M. Meˇster: LOSS OF EXCITATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
7 Conclusion
Article deals with loss of excitation of synchronous ge-
nerator. It describes physical nature of this phenomenon,
protection devices against loss of excitation and also
shows possibility of using of network simulator MODES
for loss of excitation analysis.
The article emphasizes the need of this type of calcula-
tions in real operation of transmission systems because of
the loss of synchronism (stability) of synchronous genera-
tor and the subsequent transition to asynchronous opera-
tion is a very serious and unfavorable operating condition.
Loss of synchronism can damage faulted generator but
also can cause problems with stability (angle, voltage) in
power system. In last chapter article analyzes possibility
of operation when generator loses synchronism. There are
three type of machine operation analyzed. This analysis
shows that in case of turbogenerator further operation of
generator must be allowed by producer of machine and
also by operator of transmission system. In case of hydro-
generator further operation is not allowed in any case.
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Received 18 November 2016
Vladim´ır Kriˇstof was born on July 1985 in Koˇsice, Slo-
vakia. He received the MSc and PhD in Power System Engi-
neering from Technical University in Koˇsice, Faculty of Elec-
trical Engineering and Informatics, Department of Electric
Power Engineering. He is currently Power system calculation
specialist in company Power System Management, Ltd. He
was a member of scientific teams on two scientific projects.
He is also author or co-author of 2 university books and more
than 20 scientific and technical papers. His work is focused
in the field of power system stability, short-circuit currents,
power quality and wide area monitoring system.
Mari´an Meˇster born in 1973, received the MSc and PhD
in Power Engineering from Technical University in Koˇsice.
Since 1998 he teaches at Technical University in Koˇsice, Fac-
ulty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Department
of Electric Power Engineering. He is currently Head of Dis-
tribution System Operation Section in distribution company
V´ychodoslovensk´a distribuˇcn´a, a.s. He is also author or co-
author of 5 books and more than 70 scientific and technical
papers. He is focused on research in the field of stability of
power system, short-circuit current and digital relays.