KX36 is a single-lobed kimberlite pipe located in central Botswana within the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. It consists of three main kimberlite facies: Black 1 coherent kimberlite, Black 2 coherent kimberlite, and Green coherent kimberlite. Petrographic analysis revealed that KX36 comprises hypabyssal macrocrystic kimberlite and transitional macrocrystic kimberlite. Black 1 coherent kimberlite appears to be the smallest volumetrically and restricted to the top of the pipe. Green coherent kimberlite cuts through Black 2 coherent kimberlite, indicating it is the youngest facies. Overall,
Resource evaluation of the KX36 kimberlite, central BotswanaJames AH Campbell
Resource evaluation of the KX36 kimberlite, central Botswana.
M. T. Mokgaotsane,1* T. Hough,1 A. Rogers,2 and J. Davidson2
1Petra Diamonds Botswana (Pty) Ltd
2 Petra Diamonds SA (Pty) Ltd SAIMM 2015
KX36–rediscovering the diamond exploration potential of the central Kalahari ...James AH Campbell
KX36 Rediscovering the diamond exploration potential of the central Kalahari in Botswana.
A.J. Rogers*, T.G. Hough†, and J.M. Davidson*
Petra Diamonds, SAIMM July 2013
Resource evaluation of the KX36 kimberlite, central BotswanaJames AH Campbell
Resource evaluation of the KX36 kimberlite, central Botswana.
M. T. Mokgaotsane,1* T. Hough,1 A. Rogers,2 and J. Davidson2
1Petra Diamonds Botswana (Pty) Ltd
2 Petra Diamonds SA (Pty) Ltd SAIMM 2015
KX36–rediscovering the diamond exploration potential of the central Kalahari ...James AH Campbell
KX36 Rediscovering the diamond exploration potential of the central Kalahari in Botswana.
A.J. Rogers*, T.G. Hough†, and J.M. Davidson*
Petra Diamonds, SAIMM July 2013
contents -
1. soil morphology
2. soil macromorphology
3. soil micromorphology
4. techniques used in micromorphology study
5. some terms, definations and concept
6. soil mineral material
7. soil organic materials
8. application
Geochemistry and Genesis of Kammatturu Iron Ores of Devagiri Formation, Sandu...IJMER
The Greenstone belts of Karnataka are enriched in BIFs in Dharwar craton, where Iron
formations are confined to the basin shelf, clearly separated from the deeper-water iron formation that
accumulated at the basin margin and flanking the marine basin. Geochemical data procured in terms of
major, trace and REE are plotted in various diagrams to interpret the genesis of BIFs. Al2O3, Fe2O3 (T),
TiO2, CaO, and SiO2 abundances and ratios show a wide variation. Ni, Co, Zr, Sc, V, Rb, Sr, U, Th,
ΣREE, La, Ce and Eu anomalies and their binary relationships indicate that wherever the terrigenous
component has increased, the concentration of elements of felsic such as Zr and Hf has gone up. Elevated
concentrations of Ni, Co and Sc are contributed by chlorite and other components characteristic of basic
volcanic debris. The data suggest that these formations were generated by chemical and clastic
sedimentary processes on a shallow shelf. During transgression, chemical precipitation took place at the
sediment-water interface, whereas at the time of regression. Iron ore formed with sedimentary structures
and textures in Kammatturu area, in a setting where the water column was oxygenated.
Seismic Reflection Surveys in Search for Iron Oxide Copper-Gold (IOCG) Depositsiosrjce
Seismic reflection method can delineate very complex geological structures hence it might be very
effective for detecting the presence of Iron Oxide Copper-Gold (IOCG) deposits. Despite this superior
attributes, there exist a real problem for exploration beyond the immediate vicinity of a known deposit. All
previous studies have focused upon high resolution detection of mineralization and the hosting structures at
mine scale. No argument for “regional” exploration have been proposed probably because a cost benefit
analysis has never be conducted at such scale to proceed with such exploration venture. In this study, we
analyze the feasibility of such regional exploration by modelling a Vulcan IOCGU deposit scenario were a 2D
seismic survey with relatively sparse source-receiver geometry was used to detect the presence of a possible
intrusive package within 2km depth range. The modelling results demonstrates that seismic reflection method
using 10m geophones and 20m shot spacing can be used to image deposit within the depth of 2km. The
presence of reflections was visibly observed especially at the edges of intrusive packages hence it is suggested
that application of seismic reflection methods perhaps will remains the best alternative and most viable method
for exploring deep seated IOCG
IRON ORE DEPOSITS IN EGYPT ; EGYPTIAN IRON ORE DEPOSITS; Iron ore deposit of sedimentary nature; Sinai: Gabal Halal iron ore deposit; Western Desert:; Aswan iron Ore Deposits; Bahariya iron Ore Deposits; The Banded Iron ore deposits (BIFs), Geologic Setting BIFs, General Characteristics of the Egyptian Banded Iron Ores; Are the Egyptian Banded Iron Ores Unique?; Genesis of Egyptian Banded Iron Formation
Pyrite framboid size distribution of the Grey Shales (Yorkshire UK) as an ind...iosrjce
The pyrite framboid size distribution of 26 samples from the Grey Shales were analysed to determine
the water column redox history of the sediments. The pyrite framboids range from 4.46µm to 8.76µm in
diameter which is indicative of framboids nucleation and growth within an oxic to dysoxic water column. In
contrast to the higher oxygenation shown by the framboid size distribution pattern, the paleoecologies of the
sediments indicate severe depletion of oxygenated conditions. This variance may have been due to a fluctuating
redox interface leading to brief periods of oxygenation or size sorting from storm events that probably favoured
the preservation of larger size framboids.
contents -
1. soil morphology
2. soil macromorphology
3. soil micromorphology
4. techniques used in micromorphology study
5. some terms, definations and concept
6. soil mineral material
7. soil organic materials
8. application
Geochemistry and Genesis of Kammatturu Iron Ores of Devagiri Formation, Sandu...IJMER
The Greenstone belts of Karnataka are enriched in BIFs in Dharwar craton, where Iron
formations are confined to the basin shelf, clearly separated from the deeper-water iron formation that
accumulated at the basin margin and flanking the marine basin. Geochemical data procured in terms of
major, trace and REE are plotted in various diagrams to interpret the genesis of BIFs. Al2O3, Fe2O3 (T),
TiO2, CaO, and SiO2 abundances and ratios show a wide variation. Ni, Co, Zr, Sc, V, Rb, Sr, U, Th,
ΣREE, La, Ce and Eu anomalies and their binary relationships indicate that wherever the terrigenous
component has increased, the concentration of elements of felsic such as Zr and Hf has gone up. Elevated
concentrations of Ni, Co and Sc are contributed by chlorite and other components characteristic of basic
volcanic debris. The data suggest that these formations were generated by chemical and clastic
sedimentary processes on a shallow shelf. During transgression, chemical precipitation took place at the
sediment-water interface, whereas at the time of regression. Iron ore formed with sedimentary structures
and textures in Kammatturu area, in a setting where the water column was oxygenated.
Seismic Reflection Surveys in Search for Iron Oxide Copper-Gold (IOCG) Depositsiosrjce
Seismic reflection method can delineate very complex geological structures hence it might be very
effective for detecting the presence of Iron Oxide Copper-Gold (IOCG) deposits. Despite this superior
attributes, there exist a real problem for exploration beyond the immediate vicinity of a known deposit. All
previous studies have focused upon high resolution detection of mineralization and the hosting structures at
mine scale. No argument for “regional” exploration have been proposed probably because a cost benefit
analysis has never be conducted at such scale to proceed with such exploration venture. In this study, we
analyze the feasibility of such regional exploration by modelling a Vulcan IOCGU deposit scenario were a 2D
seismic survey with relatively sparse source-receiver geometry was used to detect the presence of a possible
intrusive package within 2km depth range. The modelling results demonstrates that seismic reflection method
using 10m geophones and 20m shot spacing can be used to image deposit within the depth of 2km. The
presence of reflections was visibly observed especially at the edges of intrusive packages hence it is suggested
that application of seismic reflection methods perhaps will remains the best alternative and most viable method
for exploring deep seated IOCG
IRON ORE DEPOSITS IN EGYPT ; EGYPTIAN IRON ORE DEPOSITS; Iron ore deposit of sedimentary nature; Sinai: Gabal Halal iron ore deposit; Western Desert:; Aswan iron Ore Deposits; Bahariya iron Ore Deposits; The Banded Iron ore deposits (BIFs), Geologic Setting BIFs, General Characteristics of the Egyptian Banded Iron Ores; Are the Egyptian Banded Iron Ores Unique?; Genesis of Egyptian Banded Iron Formation
Pyrite framboid size distribution of the Grey Shales (Yorkshire UK) as an ind...iosrjce
The pyrite framboid size distribution of 26 samples from the Grey Shales were analysed to determine
the water column redox history of the sediments. The pyrite framboids range from 4.46µm to 8.76µm in
diameter which is indicative of framboids nucleation and growth within an oxic to dysoxic water column. In
contrast to the higher oxygenation shown by the framboid size distribution pattern, the paleoecologies of the
sediments indicate severe depletion of oxygenated conditions. This variance may have been due to a fluctuating
redox interface leading to brief periods of oxygenation or size sorting from storm events that probably favoured
the preservation of larger size framboids.
The chemistry of clay in the drilling industryAnushka112464
The chemistry of clay in the drilling proceedings and the various kinds of clay structures that can be formed and used in the industry. This could for various purposes and take into consideration several factors. The pdf goes through these in good detail. It also contains numericals pertaining to the aforementioned topics. It also provides the reader with the solution. It is well illustrated and contains the necessary graphs.
The chemistry of clay in the drilling proceedings and the various kinds of clay structures that can be formed and used in the industry. This could for various purposes and take into consideration several factors. The pdf goes through these in good detail. It also contains numericals pertaining to the aforementioned topics. It also provides the reader with the solution. It is well illustrated and contains the necessary graphs.
The continental crust covers nearly a third of the Earth’s surface, extends vertically from the Earth’s surface to the Moho discontinuity.
It is less dense than oceanic crust.
Compositionally is dominating by silicate elements
Models for the differentiation of the continental crust shows when and how it was formed
Reconciling the sedimentary and igneous records indicates that it may take up to one billion years for a new crust to dominate the sedimentary record.
The continental crust of the Earth differs from the crust of other planets in the Solar System
Its formation modified the composition of the mantle and the atmosphere
It supports life
And it remains a sink for CO2
Evaluating the composition of new continental crust can provide important clues as to how and when it may have been generated. Which is required understanding the differentiation processes of igneous (granites) and sedimentary rocks
SAIMM Young Professional Conference 2015 - Kwartelspan Rooikoppie StudyRichard Graeme Horn
Kwartelspan Rooikoppie Geological Model
The Kwartelspan Bulk Sampling Project, which was located on the southern banks of the Middle Orange River approximately 60km outside of the town of Douglas and 150km from the town of Kimberley, focused solely on the sampling of the fluvial-alluvial derived deflation gravel locally known as Rooikoppie. This provided a unique opportunity to classify both the Rooikoppie and the calcrete surface on which the Rooikoppie is deposited, with the aim of being create a geological model for this unclassified deposit type thus allowing one to be able to forecast grades.
The Rooikoppie was classified into three categories based on the clast sizes observed namely, a Cobble-Pebble Rooikoppie (CP), a Pebble-Cobble Rooikoppie (PC), and a Pebble-Calcrete Rooikoppie (PCalc)
The solution cavities, otherwise known as makondos, observed within the calcrete can be classified into three categories (fig. 2) based on the steepness of the steepness of the faces of the calcrete namely, Type 1 which has calcrete faces dipping between 45 degrees and 90 degrees, Type 2 which has faces dipping between 45 degrees and 10 degrees, Type 3 which dips at less than 10 degrees and generally forms a flat surface.
Figure 2: A - Type 1 Makondos. B - Type 2 Makondos. C - Type 3 Makondos
Geological mapping of the Kwartelspan Bulk Project showed that the upper most terrace, which is a plateau, consists of a PC Rooikoppie. The Rooikoppie located on the south dipping slope, although the Rooikoppie classification scheme failed to show it, contains a PC that is generally much coarse with larger Pebble clasts being observed than on the Upper Terrace. The remainder of the Rooikoppie on this slope is CP. The remainder of the Rooikoppie found on the project was PCalc.
SAIMM Extended Abstract
Kwartelspan Rooikoppie Geological Model
The mining of these different Rooikoppies, which had different underlying makondos, produces different grades. Only areas mined to completion (makondos had all the Rooikoppie removed) were considered. A summary of the pits sampled, and their respective grades, can be found in the table below.
The better producing pits had two factors in common, the finer Rooikoppie variant PC and Type 1 makondos. This can be attributed to the colluvial movement of Rooikoppie which separates the coarser Rooikoppie (CP) from the finer Rooikoppie (PC). This assists in the separation of finer diamonds from the coarser diamonds with the finer diamonds being sorted into the PC, and the coarser into the CP. However the separation alone isn’t enough as the Rooikoppie needs to be entrained in a system that further preserves the diamondiferous PC. The Type 1 makondos, with its steep sides allows entrainment of di
British Columbia’s MINFILE database lists more than 90 rare metal occurrences hosted by carbonatites, nepheline syenites, rare element enriched pegmatites, skarns, massive sulphide deposits, sedimentary phosphate deposits and placer deposits. In approximately 25 of these occurrences, rare metals are considered the primary
commodities. The recent surge in interest has added a number of new occurrences.
Diamond exploration, mining, financing and driving entrepreneurial behaviour.James AH Campbell
A presentation entitled:
"Diamond exploration, mining, financing and driving entrepreneurial behaviour".
to the Antwerp World Diamond Council and Gordon Institute of Business ('GIBS') global seminar entitled "From Mine to Finger. A deep dive into the world of diamonds". 7 February 2024 at GIBS.
Most of the participants are either entrepreneurs in the diamond downstream space or academics from both institutions.
Corporate Governance for South African Mining Companies (a practitioner's view)James AH Campbell
Corporate Governance for South African Mining Companies (a practitioner's view).
Compliance & Reporting in the Minerals Industry
15th September 2023
University of the Witwatersrand
(MINN7052A)
Attracting Funds to Develop the Diamond Potential of Southern AfricaJames AH Campbell
Attracting Funds to Develop the Diamond Potential of Southern Africa
JAHCampbell
24 Aug 2023
Presentation to the Kimberely International Diamond Conference.
Prospecting for Solutions: Challenges facing the South African Mining IndustryJames AH Campbell
Prospecting for Solutions: Challenges facing the South African Mining Industry
James Campbell
Presentation to Drexel University MBA group in Johannesburg on 11 May 2023.
Is there any overlap between Corporate Governance & Public Reporting?James AH Campbell
Is there any overlap between Corporate Governance & Public Reporting?
Presentation to the Geological Society of South Africa.
10th October 2022, Johannesburg.
Prospecting for Solutions: Challenges facing the South African Mining IndustryJames AH Campbell
Prospecting for Solutions: Challenges facing the South African Mining Industry.
Society of Economic Geologists, SA Chapter.
6th October 2022, University of the Witwatersrand.
Corporate Governance for South African Mining Companies (a practitioner's view)James AH Campbell
Corporate Governance for South African Mining Companies (a practitioner's view).
Compliance & Reporting in the Minerals Industry
27th September 2022,
University of the Witwatersrand
The Future of Botswana's Diamond Resources
James AH Campbell
Botswana Resources Infrastructure and Energy Forum ('BRIEF')
Gaborone, Botswana
16-17 May 2022
Volcanoes Presentation with material chiefly drawn from the Geological Society of the UK.
Presented to Reddam House Waterfall learners on 14 March 2022
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate Pathway
11 IKC Geology of KX36 kimberlite, central Botswana
1. 11th
International Kimberlite Conference Extended Abstract No. 11IKC-4674, 2017
1
Geology of KX36 Kimberlite, Central Botswana
S. Lobatlamang, and M. T. Mokgaotsane,
Petra Diamonds Botswana (Pty) Ltd
sebanka.lobatlamang@petradiamonds.com, maureen.mokgaotsane@petradiamonds.com
Introduction
KX36 kimberlite pipe is situated in the
southeastern part of Central Kalahari Game
Reserve (CKGR), Botswana, atleast 60 km
from the known Gope and Kikao kimberlite
fields (Figure 1). The kimberlite appears to be
the only one in the area, a very unusual
scenario as most kimberlites occur in clusters.
KX36 kimberlite is a single lobed pipe with a
surface area of approximately 5ha with
circular – subcircular plan views and steep
margins. The kimberlite was emplaced into the
Karoo Supergroup, which comprised the older
sedimentary rocks (300 – 185 Ma) overlain by
the flood basalts (185Ma). The Karoo
Supergroup rocks are overlain by
approximately 80m of Kalahari Group
sediments.
Figure 1: Location Map showing the position of
KX36 kimberlite in the Central Kalahari Game
Reserve, Botswana.
General Kimberlite Geology
KX36 pipe is dominated by three main
facies/units of kimberlite, which have been
interpreted as (a) Black 1 Coherent Kimberlite
(Black 1 CK), (b) Black 2 Coherent
Kimberlite (Black 2 CK) and (c) Green
Coherent Kimberlite (Green CK). In general,
the difference between the different units
within the kimberlite is very subtle. All the
three units have the same type of mantle
peridotites (constituting less than 1% in each
unit) and crustal xenoliths, with the latter
averaging 10% across all the units (in hand
specimen).
Black 1 Coherent Kimberlite (Black 1 CK)
Black 1 coherent kimberlite is described as a
greyish black, coherent, macrocrystic
kimberlite with distinctive red, altered olivine
macrocrysts. The kimberlite is also
charecterised by pervasive secondary sub-
horizontal calcite veining which tends to break
into thin discs along these veins (see figure 2
below). Downhole geophysical logging shows
this unit to be relatively magnetic and highly
conductive.
Figure 2: Core picture Showing Black 1 coherent
kimberlite from KX36 Kimberlite.
Black 2 Coherent Kimberlite (Black 2 CK)
Black 2 coherent kimberlite is also a greyish
black, highly olivine macrocrystic kimberlite
with the olivines showing a relatively lower
degree of alteration compared to Black 1
coherent kimberlite (see figure 3 below). This
unit is more competent than Black 1 coherent
kimberlite and does not seem to break into thin
discs even when intensely veined by
secondary calcite. Downhole geophysical
logging shows Black 2 coherent kimberlite to
be relatively magnetic and has a higher density
(similar to that of basalt) than the Black 1
2. 11th
International Kimberlite Conference Extended Abstract No. 11IKC-4674, 2017
2
coherent kimberlite. Black 2 and Black 1
coherent kimberlites are generally similar and
may actually be one and the same thing except
for the subtle differences that may be
attributed to secondary features.
Figure 3: Core picture Showing Black 2 coherent
kimberlite from KX36 Kimberlite.
Green Coherent Kimberlite (Green CK)
Green coherent kimberlite is a green grey
competent, highly macrocrystic coherent kimberlite
with a distinctive green matrix and large brown
olivines (see figure 4 below). This unit is generally
conductive and less magnetic than Black 1 and
Black 2 coherent kimberlites .
Figure 4: Core picture Showing Green coherent
kimberlite from KX36 Kimberlite.
Mantle Xenoliths
Peridotite mantle xenoliths, mainly garnet
lhezolite and garnet harzburgite (see figure 5)
can be observed in all types kimberlite facies
with the latter slightly more abundant. In
general peridotite mantle xenoliths constitute
not more than 1% in each kimberlite type.
Figure 5: Core picture showing garnet harzburgite
in Green coherent kimberlite from KX36
Kimberlite.
Crustal Xenoliths
Crustal xenoliths comprise basement
granitoids, rare feldspar porphyry, marid and
basalt, which is the most common crustal
xenolith within KX36 kimberlite. Crustal
xenoliths abundance as counted on total core is
generally not more than 10% with an average
size of about 5cm. Basalt xenoliths of up to
1metre have been observed in places. It is
worth noting that there is no correlation
between crustal xenolith abundance, type or
size between the different kimberlite facies.
KX36 Petrography
A total of 55 core samples from KX36
kimberlite were sent to Dr. Mike Skinner for
petrographic analysis between 2008 and 2012.
KX36 kimberlite can generally be described as
an ilmenite- deficient Group 1, macrocrystic
hypabyssal phlogopite - montecellite
kimberlite. The kimberlite comprises
numerous and highly complex textures on a
microscopic scale, as is typical of hypabyssal
kimberlites. It is also crosscut by secondary
carbonate veins. The country rock xenoliths
are usually altered to varying degrees.
Typically, the macrocrystic olivine is
completely altered, but the serpentinized
pseudomorphs after olivine clearly preserve
the original macrocrystic texture. The
groundmass of the kimberlite is typically fine-
grained, crystalline, and invariably micaceous
(phlogopite). Based on the grain size of the
groundmass (euhedral opaque spinels up to
0.07 mm), this kimberlite was petrographically
rated as high interest with respect to diamond
potential.
Petrographic analysis revealed the existence of
two principal types of kimberlite facies that
can be classified as coherent (hypabyssal)
macrocrystic kimberlite and coherent
(transitional) macrocrystic kimberlite. The
matrix varies from uniform to segregation-
textured and comprises mainly of calcite and
serpentine, with minor chlorite.
Hypabyssal kimberlite (Black 1 and Black 2
CK)
The most common type of the hypabbyssal
facies is a variably altered monticellite-
phlogopite kimberlite with variable
proportions of country rock xenoliths ranging
from 8 to 20 vol.%, far more than what is
observed in hand specimen, indicating that
3. 11th
International Kimberlite Conference Extended Abstract No. 11IKC-4674, 2017
3
there are abundant very small (1mm) crustal
xenoliths.
Figure 6: photomicrograph – serpentinized olivine
grains and dark basalt xenoliths set in a uniform
groundmass consisting of fine green monticellite
pseudomorphs, opaque spinels and serpentine
(white).
Transitional Kimberlite (Green CK)
Two subtypes of transitional hypabyssal
kimberlite have been identified in KX36. The
one type, which is dominant, is characterized
by segregationary structures, the presence of
common to abundant microlitic diopside, and
relatively abundant country rock xenoliths
(from 16 to 28 vol.%) (see figure 7). The other
transitional type is characterized by prominent,
larger sized, globular segregationary
structures, with no microlitic diopside, and
few country rock xenoliths (see figure 8).
Figure 7: Altered olivine grains mantled by very
fine grained microlitic diopside that also occurs
within the general groundmass.
Figure 8: “Globules” of altered olivine grains and
dark basalt xenoliths mantled by fine groundmass
segregated by fine clear serpentine – Globular
segregationary texture.
Conclusions
Petrographic analysis reveals that KX36
comprises two major kimberlite types. The
first major type is the Black Coherent
hypabyssal type that is essentially a
montecellite-phlogopite kimberlite. In hand
specimen, Black coherent kimberlite is further
subdivided into two subtypes - Black 1
coherent kimberlite and Black 2 coherent
kimberlite, where Black 2 coherent kimberlite
is the less altered type. The second major type
is the transitional Green coherent kimberlite,
distinguished in thin section by having a
segregationary texture with common to
abundant microlitic diopside.
Black 1 coherent kimberlite appears to be
mostly restricted to the top part of the
kimberlite and seems to be volumetrically
small compared to Black 2 and Green coherent
kimberlite. It is also evident that Green
coherent kimberlite is a later phase as it
appears to cut through Black 2 coherent
kimberlite.
REFERENCES
Carney, J.N., Aldiss, D.T., and Lock, N.P. (1994). The geology of Botswana. Bulletin 37. Geological
Survey of Botswana.
Robey, J (2014). KX36 – Logging and petrography: Final Report.
Skinner, E.M.W. (2013). Petrography of drill core from KX36. Grahamstown. South Africa.