10.2 inherritance
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This document discusses inheritance and related concepts. It defines key terms like linked genes, which are genes located on the same chromosome. When genes are linked, they may assort independently during meiosis leading to recombinants. It also discusses polygenic inheritance where multiple genes influence traits, often resulting in continuous variation. The document provides examples of dihybrid crosses using Punnett squares and sex-linked inheritance from Thomas Morgan's experiments with fruit flies. Homework includes defining terms and working exercises on linked genes and dihybrid crosses.
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3.4 inheritance
Mendel discovered inheritance principles through pea plant experiments. Gametes contain one allele per gene. During meiosis, alleles separate and recombine in offspring. Dominant alleles mask recessives. Many human genetic diseases are recessive traits on autosomes, though some are dominant, codominant, or sex-linked. Punnett squares can predict offspring genotypes from parental alleles. Test crosses determine if an individual is homozygous or heterozygous dominant. Multiple alleles exist for some traits like blood type.
17 syllabus statements
This document outlines concepts related to inheritance and genetics from a chemistry syllabus, including:
1) Definitions of inheritance, chromosomes, genes, alleles, and related concepts like dominant and recessive alleles.
2) An explanation of how genetic information is passed from DNA to mRNA to proteins.
3) Descriptions of mitosis, meiosis, and their roles in cell replication and sexual reproduction.
4) Explanations of monohybrid inheritance patterns, including use of Punnett squares and definitions of genotype and phenotype.
10.2 inheritance
Genes located on the same chromosome (linked genes) do not assort independently during meiosis. Linked genes are inherited together and do not follow Mendel's law of independent assortment. Recombination during meiosis can result in new combinations of linked alleles. Chi-squared tests are used to determine if differences between observed and expected phenotypic ratios are statistically significant. Polygenic traits like human height show continuous variation due to environmental influences and effects of multiple genes.
IB Biology Genetics 2015
Genes are segments of DNA that influence specific characteristics and occupy positions on chromosomes. The Human Genome Project sequenced the entire base sequence of human genes, finding around 20,500 genes. New alleles are formed through mutations that change one or a few DNA bases, such as the single base substitution causing sickle cell anemia by replacing glutamic acid with valine in the hemoglobin protein.
B9 syllabus statements
This document contains syllabus statements about inheritance, cell division, monohybrid inheritance, variation and selection. It defines key genetic terms like chromosome, gene, allele, genotype and phenotype. It describes the processes of mitosis, meiosis and how they relate to cell reproduction and gamete formation. It also outlines monohybrid crosses and Mendel's laws of inheritance. Finally, it discusses sources of genetic variation like mutation and how natural selection can act on this variation.
IB Biology 3.5 genetic modifcation and biotechnology
Here is a possible design for an experiment to assess one factor affecting the rooting of stem cuttings:
- Plant species chosen: Coleus canina (common name cut-leaf coleus), which is known to form roots readily from stem cuttings.
- Factor to be tested: Effect of auxin treatment on root formation.
- Materials: Coleus canina stem cuttings, water, rooting hormone powder containing auxin (IBA).
- Methods: Take stem cuttings of uniform size and remove lower leaves. Dip half the cuttings in auxin powder solution and half in water only. Insert all cuttings in potting soil. Maintain soil moisture and observe over 4 weeks.
IB Biology 3.1 genes
1) A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific characteristic and is located at a specific position on a chromosome.
2) Alleles are different forms of the same gene that differ by one or a few DNA bases. Mutations introduce new alleles.
3) The human genome project determined the entire DNA sequence of human genes, consisting of about 23,000 protein-coding genes. Understanding the genome provides benefits like more precise medical treatments.
3.4 slides inheritance
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s that demonstrated genes are inherited in predictable patterns. He showed that traits can be dominant or recessive, and that offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each parent. His work established the foundations of modern genetics but was largely ignored until the early 1900s. Many human genetic diseases are caused by recessive alleles and can be predicted through inheritance patterns and Punnett squares. Examples include cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. Radiation and mutagens can increase mutation rates and cause genetic disorders or cancer.
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3.4 inheritance
Mendel discovered inheritance principles through pea plant experiments. Gametes contain one allele per gene. During meiosis, alleles separate and recombine in offspring. Dominant alleles mask recessives. Many human genetic diseases are recessive traits on autosomes, though some are dominant, codominant, or sex-linked. Punnett squares can predict offspring genotypes from parental alleles. Test crosses determine if an individual is homozygous or heterozygous dominant. Multiple alleles exist for some traits like blood type.
17 syllabus statements
This document outlines concepts related to inheritance and genetics from a chemistry syllabus, including:
1) Definitions of inheritance, chromosomes, genes, alleles, and related concepts like dominant and recessive alleles.
2) An explanation of how genetic information is passed from DNA to mRNA to proteins.
3) Descriptions of mitosis, meiosis, and their roles in cell replication and sexual reproduction.
4) Explanations of monohybrid inheritance patterns, including use of Punnett squares and definitions of genotype and phenotype.
10.2 inheritance
Genes located on the same chromosome (linked genes) do not assort independently during meiosis. Linked genes are inherited together and do not follow Mendel's law of independent assortment. Recombination during meiosis can result in new combinations of linked alleles. Chi-squared tests are used to determine if differences between observed and expected phenotypic ratios are statistically significant. Polygenic traits like human height show continuous variation due to environmental influences and effects of multiple genes.
IB Biology Genetics 2015
Genes are segments of DNA that influence specific characteristics and occupy positions on chromosomes. The Human Genome Project sequenced the entire base sequence of human genes, finding around 20,500 genes. New alleles are formed through mutations that change one or a few DNA bases, such as the single base substitution causing sickle cell anemia by replacing glutamic acid with valine in the hemoglobin protein.
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This document contains syllabus statements about inheritance, cell division, monohybrid inheritance, variation and selection. It defines key genetic terms like chromosome, gene, allele, genotype and phenotype. It describes the processes of mitosis, meiosis and how they relate to cell reproduction and gamete formation. It also outlines monohybrid crosses and Mendel's laws of inheritance. Finally, it discusses sources of genetic variation like mutation and how natural selection can act on this variation.
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Here is a possible design for an experiment to assess one factor affecting the rooting of stem cuttings:
- Plant species chosen: Coleus canina (common name cut-leaf coleus), which is known to form roots readily from stem cuttings.
- Factor to be tested: Effect of auxin treatment on root formation.
- Materials: Coleus canina stem cuttings, water, rooting hormone powder containing auxin (IBA).
- Methods: Take stem cuttings of uniform size and remove lower leaves. Dip half the cuttings in auxin powder solution and half in water only. Insert all cuttings in potting soil. Maintain soil moisture and observe over 4 weeks.
IB Biology 3.1 genes
1) A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific characteristic and is located at a specific position on a chromosome.
2) Alleles are different forms of the same gene that differ by one or a few DNA bases. Mutations introduce new alleles.
3) The human genome project determined the entire DNA sequence of human genes, consisting of about 23,000 protein-coding genes. Understanding the genome provides benefits like more precise medical treatments.
3.4 slides inheritance
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s that demonstrated genes are inherited in predictable patterns. He showed that traits can be dominant or recessive, and that offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each parent. His work established the foundations of modern genetics but was largely ignored until the early 1900s. Many human genetic diseases are caused by recessive alleles and can be predicted through inheritance patterns and Punnett squares. Examples include cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. Radiation and mutagens can increase mutation rates and cause genetic disorders or cancer.
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This document provides a summary of key concepts in genetics and heredity. It discusses chromosomes, DNA, genes, alleles, mutations, meiosis, Mendelian inheritance, and more. Some key points include:
- Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins like histones. Genes are segments of DNA that control traits.
- Mutations involve changes in DNA base pairs and can cause conditions like sickle cell anemia.
- Meiosis produces gametes and involves pairing of homologous chromosomes, crossing over, and two cell divisions. This introduces genetic variation.
- Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment describe inheritance patterns he observed in pea plants. His work formed the basis of classical
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Chromosomes replicate and pair up during meiosis. Crossing over can lead to an exchange of DNA between homologous non-sister chromatids. This produces new combinations of alleles and chiasmata may form at points of exchange. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate and random orientation leads to independent assortment. Sister chromatids then separate in meiosis II, resulting in four haploid cells each with a unique combination of alleles.
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1. Linkage occurs when genes located on the same chromosome fail to assort independently during meiosis. This causes traits to be inherited together in offspring.
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3. Morgan's studies of fruit flies provided the first evidence that linkage is due to genes being located on the same chromosome. Crossing over during meiosis can lead to new combinations of linked genes.
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The document discusses genetic linkage and mapping in Drosophila melanogaster. It describes how Thomas Morgan showed that two genes, white eye (w) and miniature wing (m), are linked on the X chromosome through test crosses. Recombination between linked genes occurs through crossing over during meiosis. Genetic mapping uses recombination frequencies between genes to determine their relative positions and distances on chromosomes in map units (centimorgans). A three-point test cross can detect double crossovers and more accurately determine map distances between closely linked genes.
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- Mutations involve changes in DNA base pairs and can cause conditions like sickle cell anemia.
- Meiosis produces gametes and involves pairing of homologous chromosomes, crossing over, and two cell divisions. This introduces genetic variation.
- Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment describe inheritance patterns he observed in pea plants. His work formed the basis of classical
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Chromosomes replicate and pair up during meiosis. Crossing over can lead to an exchange of DNA between homologous non-sister chromatids. This produces new combinations of alleles and chiasmata may form at points of exchange. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate and random orientation leads to independent assortment. Sister chromatids then separate in meiosis II, resulting in four haploid cells each with a unique combination of alleles.
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Genes are segments of DNA that influence or directly code for specific traits. A gene occupies a specific locus on a chromosome and can exist in different allelic forms that differ slightly in their DNA sequence. New alleles are formed through mutations in genes over time. A notable example is sickle cell anemia, which is caused by a single base substitution mutation leading to a change in the hemoglobin polypeptide. The human genome project mapped the entire DNA sequence of humans, identifying around 23,000 genes, though much non-coding DNA was also found to have important functions.
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This document provides an overview of fundamentals of genetics. It discusses that humans have 23 chromosome pairs, 30,000-40,000 genes, and over 3 billion base pairs. The human genome project was completed in 2000. Genetics is studied to understand chromosomal abnormalities in pregnancies that can cause fetal loss, birth defects, or genetic diseases. Inheritance patterns can be monogenic/Mendelian including autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked, or polygenic/multifactorial. Genetic testing is used for diagnosis, carrier detection, early intervention and prevention of disease.
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Similar to 10.2 inherritance
Linkage and crossing over
1. Linkage occurs when genes located on the same chromosome fail to assort independently during meiosis. This causes traits to be inherited together in offspring.
2. Bateson and Punnett first reported linkage in 1906 while studying flower color and pollen shape in peas. They observed a deviation from expected Mendelian ratios, indicating linkage between the genes.
3. Morgan's studies of fruit flies provided the first evidence that linkage is due to genes being located on the same chromosome. Crossing over during meiosis can lead to new combinations of linked genes.
Genetic linkage
The document discusses genetic linkage and mapping in Drosophila melanogaster. It describes how Thomas Morgan showed that two genes, white eye (w) and miniature wing (m), are linked on the X chromosome through test crosses. Recombination between linked genes occurs through crossing over during meiosis. Genetic mapping uses recombination frequencies between genes to determine their relative positions and distances on chromosomes in map units (centimorgans). A three-point test cross can detect double crossovers and more accurately determine map distances between closely linked genes.
Linkage and crossing over
This document discusses linkage and crossing over in genetics. It begins by outlining Mendel's laws of inheritance and then describes how Bateson and Punnett discovered linkage between genes for flower color and pollen shape in peas through deviations from expected Mendelian ratios. Morgan later showed with Drosophila experiments that linkage occurs when genes are located near each other on the same chromosome. The document then explains that crossing over during meiosis results in new combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes, allowing genes to be reshuffled between generations. Linkage maps can be constructed by measuring the frequency of recombination between gene pairs, with less recombination indicating closer proximity on the chromosome.
Genetic linkage
Morgan conducted experiments in Drosophila melanogaster that discovered genetic linkage. He crossed a white-eyed, miniature-winged female to a wild-type male. In the F2 generation, most flies showed the parental phenotypes of white eyes and miniature wings, or wild-type eyes and wings. However, some flies showed non-parental phenotypes of white eyes and normal wings, or wild-type eyes and miniature wings, demonstrating genetic recombination between the two linked genes. This provided evidence that genes on the same chromosome may assort together during meiosis but can also undergo crossing over, resulting in new combinations of alleles. Morgan's discovery established the chromosomal theory of inheritance and allowed the field of genetics to construct genetic maps
Linkageandcrossingover 101216024248-phpapp01
1. Morgan's experiments with Drosophila showed that genes located close together on the same chromosome (linked genes) tend to be inherited together more often than expected by Mendel's law of independent assortment.
2. Crossing over during meiosis can lead to new combinations of linked genes, with the frequency of crossing over determining how far apart genes are on the genetic map.
3. Sturtevant used recombination frequencies between traits to construct the first genetic map, with map units called centimorgans representing a 1% chance of crossing over.
Linkage and Crossing over (Sanjay Chetry).pptx
Linkage
1. Linkage ensures to keep the genes in a chromosome to inherit together
2. The strength of linkage between two genes is inversely proportional to the distance between them in the chromosome
3. The strength of linkage between two genes increases with the decrease in distance between them.
4. The strength of linkage decrease with increase in distance between the genes.
5. Linkage ensures the maintenance of parental trait in the offspring.
6. Linkage reduces the chance of creation of variability with sexual reproduction.
Crossing Over
1. Crossing over facilitates the separation of genes present chromosome and segregate into different gametes.
2. The chance of crossing over between two genes is directly proportional to the distance between them in the chromosome
3. The chance of crossing over between two genes decreases with the decrease in the distance between them.
4. The chance of crossing increases with increase in distance between the genes.
5. The crossing over causes alterations in the parental traits in the offspring.
6. Crossing over increases the chance of variability with sexual reproduction.
linkage
This document provides an overview of linkage in genetics. It discusses how Sutton and Boveri proposed the chromosomal theory of inheritance, where genes located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together. It then summarizes Bateson and Punnett's pioneering experiments in 1906 that first discovered linkage between genes controlling flower color and pollen shape in sweet peas. The document outlines different phases and types of linkage, how linkage can be detected through test crosses, and the significance of linkage for plant breeding and genetics research.
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This document discusses several key concepts in genetics including:
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Central Dogma of Molecular Biology:
DNA replication.
Transcription and RNA synthesis.
Translation and protein synthesis.
Genetic Material:
Structure of DNA and RNA.
Genetic code and codons.
Mendelian Genetics:
Principles of inheritance (laws of segregation and independent assortment).
Punnett squares and genetic crosses.
Terms: genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance:
Incomplete dominance.
Codominance.
Polygenic inheritance.
Chromosomes and Cell Division:
Overview of mitosis and meiosis.
Chromosome structure and organization.
Sex chromosomes and sex determination.
Genetic Variation:
Mutation types (point mutations, insertions, deletions).
Causes of mutations (chemical, radiation, genetic).
Genetic Disorders:
Single gene disorders (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia).
Chromosomal disorders (e.g., Down syndrome, Turner syndrome).
Multifactorial disorders and gene-environment interactions.
Human Genome Project:
Purpose and goals.
Achievements and implications for medicine.
Molecular Genetics:
DNA sequencing techniques.
Recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering.
Genetic Counseling and Testing:
Purpose and process of genetic counseling.
linkage and crossing over
This document discusses linkage and crossing over in genetics. It begins by defining linkage as genes located on the same chromosome staying together during inheritance. Linkage is discovered when genes are inherited together more often than expected by chance. Crossing over occurs when genetic material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes, allowing for new combinations of genes. The document then discusses different aspects of linkage and crossing over, including how they were discovered, characteristics, mechanisms, factors that affect them, and differences between the two concepts. It provides examples to illustrate concepts like complete versus incomplete linkage.
12-LINKAGE_CROSSING-OVER_AND_GENE_MAPPING_IN_EUKARYOTES copy-1.ppt
This document discusses genetic linkage and mapping techniques in eukaryotes. It defines linkage as genes failing to assort independently due to being located near each other on the same chromosome. Morgan's experiments with Drosophila showed that alleles can be inherited together or recombine during meiosis. The frequency of recombination between two linked genes provides their genetic distance in centimorgans on a linkage map. Techniques for mapping genes include testcrosses, estimating recombination frequencies in two-point and three-point crosses, and correcting for double crossovers.
1. Meiosis And Dihybrid Cross
The document discusses meiosis, genetic crosses, and inheritance patterns. It begins by outlining meiosis and its role in genetic variation. It then discusses dihybrid crosses and Mendel's results, which showed independent assortment and ratios of 9:3:3:1. The document further explains linkage, recombination frequency, and genetic maps. It concludes by covering sex-linked inheritance and examples like color blindness and hemophilia.
Bacterial gene mapping
This document discusses bacterial gene mapping techniques. It describes how interrupted conjugation can be used to map genes by determining the order and time at which donor alleles enter recipient bacterial cells. Recombination between donor and recipient DNA during conjugation allows for mapping analysis. Higher resolution mapping can be done by measuring recombinant frequencies between specific genes to determine smaller map distances. Interrupted conjugation experiments provide an initial rough map that is refined through additional experiments measuring recombinant frequencies between different gene combinations.
linkage.pptx
Gene which are located on the same chromosome and are transmitted together in the offsprings are called linked genes. This phenomenon of inheritance of linked genes together so as to retain the parental combinations in the offsprings is known as linkage.
The characters controlled by linked genes are called linked characters.
All those which located in a single chromosome constitute a linked group.
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Chapter 3 chromosomal basis of inheritance
lesson 3
bio botany ,botany ,12th ,12th biobotany ppt ,12th botany ppt ,tn text book ,study materials ,12th study materials, Chapter 3 chromosomal basis of inheritance
Genetics
The document discusses genetics and related concepts. It defines genetics as the study of genes and heredity. It covers key topics like heredity and variation, genetic terminology, branches of genetics including molecular genetics and population genetics, and the importance of genetics in fields like medicine, agriculture and evolution. The document is intended to provide information on genetics and related concepts for students.
Modes of inheritance-Dr.Gourav
This document discusses different modes of inheritance for genetic disorders including chromosomal disorders, single gene disorders, and multifactorial inheritance. It provides examples of genetic disorders like hemophilia A and color blindness that are inherited through X-linked recessive inheritance. Key concepts covered include pedigree analysis, Punnett squares, and terminology used in genetics such as genotype, phenotype, dominant, and recessive.
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AP Biology Ch 12 gene linkage groups and chromosome maps
1. The document discusses linkage groups and chromosome mapping in genetics. It provides examples of crosses involving fruit flies that demonstrate genes located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together, while genes on different chromosomes assort independently.
2. The document explains how observing recombinant vs parental offspring types allows geneticists to determine if genes are linked and calculate the distance between genes on a chromosome.
3. It provides practice problems demonstrating crosses to determine linkage and asks the reader questions about linkage and chromosome mapping concepts.
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GENETICS & MALOCCLUSION - II /orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy
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More from lucascw
6.6 hormones, homeostasis, and reproduction
Insulin, glucagon, thyroxine, leptin, melatonin, and reproductive hormones help regulate homeostasis and reproduction. Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels. Thyroxine regulates metabolism. Leptin regulates appetite. Melatonin regulates circadian rhythms. Reproductive hormones like testosterone and estrogen influence sexual development and control the menstrual cycle through feedback mechanisms. New technologies like IVF involve manipulating hormone levels to induce superovulation and establish pregnancies.
10.3 gene pools and speciation
This document discusses gene pools, speciation, and mechanisms of reproductive isolation. It defines key terms such as allele frequency, gene pool, and types of reproductive isolation like geographical, temporal, and behavioral isolation. Mechanisms of speciation discussed include gradual divergence of isolated populations and abrupt speciation. Examples of natural selection pressures like directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection are provided, as well as speciation through polyploidy in plants. The document contrasts theories of gradualism and punctuated equilibrium in the rate of speciation. Homework questions are assigned related to defining terms and challenging concepts.
10.1 meiosis
Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division that results in four haploid cells from one original diploid cell. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate and non-sister chromatids may exchange DNA through crossing over. This leads to new combinations of parental alleles in offspring. Meiosis II then separates the sister chromatids, resulting in four unique gametes. Independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis contributes further to genetic variation between offspring.
3.5 part 2
Gene transfer involves taking a gene from one organism and placing it into another. Examples given are genes from fish that have been inserted into plants to make them resistant to freezing, and Bt corn which contains genes from Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria that produce toxins killing insect pests. Cloning techniques allow for precise copying of genes. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences, allowing genes to be removed and inserted into other organisms using DNA ligase. Transgenic plants and animals are created this way, with potential uses including producing crops resistant to pests or dairy animals with higher milk output. Cloning can also be used for therapeutic purposes like stem cell research. There is debate around the ethics of altering organisms' genetic identities
3.5 part 1
The document discusses polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and how it is used to amplify small amounts of DNA, allowing researchers to generate large quantities of identical DNA copies. It explains the basic steps in PCR, including separating DNA strands, adding primers and nucleotides, and repeating the process for multiple cycles to exponentially replicate the target DNA. The document also describes some common applications of PCR like DNA profiling, gene cloning, and detecting genetically modified organisms.
3.2 chromosomes
Chromosomes are linear DNA molecules found in eukaryotes that are associated with histone proteins and carry genetic information. Prokaryotes like bacteria have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes in the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are usually diploid, containing two copies of each chromosome, while gametes like eggs and sperm are haploid with one copy. The number and structure of chromosomes is consistent within a species but can vary between species. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes, with females typically having two X chromosomes and males having one X and one Y chromosome.
3.1 genes (2)
A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein which influences a heritable characteristic. Genes are located on chromosomes at a specific locus and can exist in different alleles that vary in their DNA sequence by one or a few bases. Mutations, or permanent changes in DNA, can occur via mutagens and result in new alleles. The genome is the complete set of genetic material of an organism, such as the human genome which was fully sequenced by the Human Genome Project in 2003.
7.3 translation
Translation is the process by which the genetic code carried by mRNA is used to synthesize proteins. It involves three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, the small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA start codon along with initiator tRNA. In elongation, amino acids are added one by one to form the polypeptide chain. Termination occurs when a stop codon enters the ribosomal A site and the protein is released. The primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures of proteins are determined by the sequence of amino acids and various bonding interactions.
7.2 transcription
This document discusses transcription and gene expression. It begins by explaining that transcription occurs from 5' to 3' as RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing mRNA molecule. It then provides understandings about transcription in eukaryotes including that nucleosomes help regulate it, mRNA is modified after transcription through splicing and addition of a cap and tail. Finally, it explains that gene expression is regulated through factors that bind DNA and affect transcription as well as through DNA methylation and modification of chromatin structure.
6.3 defense against infectious diseases
The document summarizes the body's primary defenses against infectious disease. The skin and mucous membranes form the first line of defense through physical and chemical barriers. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting initiated by platelets. Phagocytic white blood cells provide non-specific immunity by ingesting pathogens. Lymphocytes produce specific antibodies in response to antigens that provide long-term immunity. Antibiotics target bacterial rather than viral or eukaryotic cells. Overuse of antibiotics can lead to resistant bacterial strains.
7.1 dna structure and replication
DNA contains the genetic information that is passed from parents to offspring. It is made up of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds to form a double helix structure. DNA replication involves unwinding of the helix by helicase, addition of RNA primers by primase, and synthesis of new DNA strands in the 5' to 3' direction by DNA polymerase. The leading strand is replicated continuously while the lagging strand involves discontinuous synthesis of Okazaki fragments that are later joined by DNA ligase.
6.2 bloodflow
The document describes the structure and function of the blood system, including the three main types of blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins), how blood flows through the circulatory system from the heart to tissues and back again, and some pathologies that can occur like atherosclerosis and heart attacks. The heart functions as a pump to circulate blood through the arteries and veins, with capillaries allowing for exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste between the blood and body tissues. Valves in the veins and heart prevent backflow of blood and ensure forward circulation.
6.1 digestion
The document discusses the process of digestion and absorption in the small intestine, including how enzymes break down macromolecules, how villi and microvilli increase absorption surface area, and how different transport methods absorb breakdown products across the intestinal epithelium into capillaries and lacteals. It also provides examples of homework assignments related to the topic, such as producing a diagram of the digestive system and explaining starch digestion and transport to the liver.
2.7 replication, transcription, translation
1. DNA replication is semi-conservative. Helicase unwinds the DNA double helix, DNA polymerase links nucleotides to form new strands using the existing strands as templates.
2. Transcription creates mRNA from DNA templates using RNA polymerase.
3. Translation uses the genetic code to synthesize polypeptides from mRNA. tRNAs with anticodons complementary to mRNA codons carry amino acids which are linked by the ribosome.
2.5 enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering their activation energy. They have an active site that binds to specific substrate molecules. The rate of enzymatic reactions is affected by temperature, pH, and substrate concentration. Temperature and pH can cause enzymes to denature and lose their structure and function. Immobilized enzymes are used widely in industry, such as lactase to produce lactose-free milk for those who are lactose intolerant. Students should design experiments to test how temperature, pH, and substrate concentration impact enzyme activity rates.
2.4 proteins
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptides. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by genes. There are 20 common amino acids that make up proteins, though some organisms have exceptions. Proteins have a variety of functions in living organisms and each person has a unique set of proteins.
2.3 carbohydrates and lipids
This document discusses carbohydrates and lipids. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples of monosaccharides like glucose and examples of disaccharides like sucrose. It discusses cellulose, starch, and glycogen as important polysaccharides. It also defines saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, as well as cis and trans fatty acid isomers. Triglycerides are formed from fatty acids and glycerol. Lipids provide more energy storage than carbohydrates. The document also provides formulas for calculating body mass index.
2.1 molecules to metabolism
The document discusses key concepts in molecular biology and metabolism. It explains that life is based on carbon compounds like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Metabolism is defined as the set of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in cells and organisms, including both anabolism, the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, and catabolism, the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones. Macromolecules are formed from monomers through condensation reactions, and broken down through hydrolysis reactions. Examples of molecular structures are provided for glucose, ribose, a fatty acid, and an amino acid.
8.3 photosynthesis
The document summarizes photosynthesis, including both the light-dependent and light-independent reactions. It explains that the light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes and produce ATP and NADPH through the absorption of light by photosystems. The light-independent reactions take place in the chloroplast stroma and use ATP and NADPH to produce glucose through the Calvin cycle. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to efficiently carry out these two stages of photosynthesis through the stacking of thylakoids and positioning of the stroma.
2.2 properties of water
This document discusses the properties of water molecules and how those properties allow water to serve important functions. It covers the following key points:
1) Water molecules are polar due to their molecular structure, and they form hydrogen bonds between each other. This explains water's cohesive, adhesive, thermal, and solvent properties.
2) Substances can be either hydrophilic ("water-loving") if they are polar, or hydrophobic ("water-fearing") if they are nonpolar. Polar substances like glucose and phospholipids can dissolve in water due to hydrogen bonding.
3) Water has high specific heat and heat of vaporization, allowing it to effectively absorb and release heat. This contributes to temperature regulation
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Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
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Austrian-Slovenian HPC Meeting 2024 – ASHPC24, Seeblickhotel Grundlsee in Austria, 10–13 June 2024
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The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically young
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptx
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptx
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Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
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1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
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10.2 inherritance
- 2. Understandings Applications/Skills Gene loci are said to be linked if on the same chromosome. Unlinked genes segregate independently as a result of meiosis. Variation can be discrete or continuous. The phenotypes of polygenetic characteristics tend to show continuous variation. Chi-squared tests are used to determine whether the difference between observed and expected frequency distribution is statistically significant. A: Morgan’s discovery of non-Mendelian ratios in Drosophila. A: Completion/analysis of Punnett squares for dihybrid traits. A: Polygenetic traits such as human height may also be influenced by environmental factors S: Calculation of the predicted genotypic/phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes. S: Identification of recombinants in crosses involving two linked genes. S: Use of a chi-squared test on data from dihybrid crosses.
- 3. Guidance Alleles are usually shown side by side in dihybrid crosses (TtBb)). In representing crosses involving linkage, it is more common to show them as vertical pairs. TB tb This format will be used in examination papers or students will be given sufficient information
- 4. Dihybrid Cross Examines 2 traits Punnett square has 16 boxes PpTt x ppTt Purple and tall? Purple and short? White and tall? White and short?
- 5. Thomas Hunt Morgan Discovered sex linked traits by experimenting with fruit flies. Wild type trait- red eyes Recessive trait- white eyes All female offspring of a red-eyed male were red-eyed, whereas all male offspring of a white-eyed female were also white-eyed Morgan described this distribution as 'sex- limited’ inheritance and inferred it was caused by the gene for eye color being located on a sex chromosome (i.e. X-linked)
- 6. Linked Genes On the same chromosome Ex: body color and wing length in flies GL , GL, gl gl GL gl (G-grey; g-black; L-long; l- short)
- 7. A cross between two parents that are true breeding will result in offspring that are heterozygous for both traits (F1 generation) If recombinants appear in the F2 generation, crossing over must have occurred in meiosis.
- 8. Polygenetic Inheritance Two or more genes influence a trait Phenotypes tend to be gradients (continuous variation) Ex: Eye color
- 10. Homework Define the following: Linked genes Recombinant Linkage group Continuous variation Homozygous Discontinuous variation Heterozygous True breeding Exercises 4-6 on pg 437 Read 10.3