The document discusses hematuria (blood in the urine) and proteinuria (protein in the urine), including their causes, evaluation, and approach to patients. Common causes of hematuria include infections, trauma, inflammation, tumors, structural abnormalities, and coagulation disorders. Evaluation may include urine analysis, blood tests, ultrasound, IVP, cystoscopy, renal angiogram or CT. For microscopic hematuria, patients are stratified as high or low risk depending on factors like age, smoking history, and symptoms. Proteinuria can be transient or persistent, with glomerular and tubular causes. It is measured through dipstick, protein-to-creatinine ratio, or 24-hour urine collection. Patients with isolated proteinuria
This document provides an overview of urinary tract infections (UTI). It begins with definitions and terminology related to UTI. It then discusses the classification, epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and conclusions regarding UTI. The document is intended as an educational seminar on UTI and contains detailed information on the topic in an outline format.
Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is a rare, severe kidney infection that results in scarring of the kidney. It is typically unilateral and associated with a nonfunctioning, enlarged kidney due to obstructive issues like kidney stones. It begins in the pelvis and calyces of the kidney and destroys the renal parenchyma and surrounding tissues. Treatment involves antibiotics to stabilize the patient before surgery, with nephrectomy being the treatment of choice for diffuse cases or partial nephrectomy for more segmental involvement.
This document discusses posterior urethral distraction defects (PFUDD) following pelvic fractures. It describes that a hematoma-fibrosis complex forms between the separated urethral ends rather than a simple stricture. Multimodality management including orthopedics may be needed. Imaging like retrograde urethrogram can show a characteristic S-bend deformity. A transpubic approach like the Waterhouse procedure combines perineal and abdominal incisions to allow a tension-free anastomosis but may cause complications like incontinence or impotence.
Hematuria refers to the presence of blood in the urine. A diagnosis requires red blood cells to be present in urine samples obtained at least a week apart. Hematuria can be classified as microscopic or macroscopic, intermittent or persistent, and by its location in the urinary tract. Potential causes include glomerular disease, tumors, infections, vascular abnormalities, stones and trauma. Evaluation involves urinalysis, urine culture, imaging tests like ultrasound and CT urography, and cystoscopy depending on risk factors. Treatment focuses on the underlying cause if identified, while asymptomatic microscopic hematuria often requires monitoring without intervention.
1) A 15-year-old female presented with headaches, palpitations, and increased sweating. Imaging found a 5.7 cm mass in her right adrenal gland.
2) Biopsy of the removed mass confirmed pheochromocytoma. Pheochromocytomas are rare tumors that produce catecholamines, causing high blood pressure.
3) She was given alpha-blockers preoperatively to lower her blood pressure. A right adrenalectomy was performed to remove the tumor, and she required blood transfusions and medications post-surgery to manage her blood pressure before being discharged.
Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte abnormality seen in hospitalized patients. It is caused by an imbalance of water in the body, resulting in a dilution of sodium concentration. The document discusses the various types of hyponatremia (hypovolemic, euvolemic, hypervolemic) based on extracellular fluid volume status and their underlying causes such as SIADH, heart failure, liver cirrhosis. It also covers the diagnostic evaluation, management principles, and treatment approaches for acute symptomatic and chronic hyponatremia which involves slow correction of sodium levels to avoid osmotic demyelination syndrome.
The document discusses hematuria (blood in the urine) and proteinuria (protein in the urine), including their causes, evaluation, and approach to patients. Common causes of hematuria include infections, trauma, inflammation, tumors, structural abnormalities, and coagulation disorders. Evaluation may include urine analysis, blood tests, ultrasound, IVP, cystoscopy, renal angiogram or CT. For microscopic hematuria, patients are stratified as high or low risk depending on factors like age, smoking history, and symptoms. Proteinuria can be transient or persistent, with glomerular and tubular causes. It is measured through dipstick, protein-to-creatinine ratio, or 24-hour urine collection. Patients with isolated proteinuria
This document provides an overview of urinary tract infections (UTI). It begins with definitions and terminology related to UTI. It then discusses the classification, epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and conclusions regarding UTI. The document is intended as an educational seminar on UTI and contains detailed information on the topic in an outline format.
Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is a rare, severe kidney infection that results in scarring of the kidney. It is typically unilateral and associated with a nonfunctioning, enlarged kidney due to obstructive issues like kidney stones. It begins in the pelvis and calyces of the kidney and destroys the renal parenchyma and surrounding tissues. Treatment involves antibiotics to stabilize the patient before surgery, with nephrectomy being the treatment of choice for diffuse cases or partial nephrectomy for more segmental involvement.
This document discusses posterior urethral distraction defects (PFUDD) following pelvic fractures. It describes that a hematoma-fibrosis complex forms between the separated urethral ends rather than a simple stricture. Multimodality management including orthopedics may be needed. Imaging like retrograde urethrogram can show a characteristic S-bend deformity. A transpubic approach like the Waterhouse procedure combines perineal and abdominal incisions to allow a tension-free anastomosis but may cause complications like incontinence or impotence.
Hematuria refers to the presence of blood in the urine. A diagnosis requires red blood cells to be present in urine samples obtained at least a week apart. Hematuria can be classified as microscopic or macroscopic, intermittent or persistent, and by its location in the urinary tract. Potential causes include glomerular disease, tumors, infections, vascular abnormalities, stones and trauma. Evaluation involves urinalysis, urine culture, imaging tests like ultrasound and CT urography, and cystoscopy depending on risk factors. Treatment focuses on the underlying cause if identified, while asymptomatic microscopic hematuria often requires monitoring without intervention.
1) A 15-year-old female presented with headaches, palpitations, and increased sweating. Imaging found a 5.7 cm mass in her right adrenal gland.
2) Biopsy of the removed mass confirmed pheochromocytoma. Pheochromocytomas are rare tumors that produce catecholamines, causing high blood pressure.
3) She was given alpha-blockers preoperatively to lower her blood pressure. A right adrenalectomy was performed to remove the tumor, and she required blood transfusions and medications post-surgery to manage her blood pressure before being discharged.
Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte abnormality seen in hospitalized patients. It is caused by an imbalance of water in the body, resulting in a dilution of sodium concentration. The document discusses the various types of hyponatremia (hypovolemic, euvolemic, hypervolemic) based on extracellular fluid volume status and their underlying causes such as SIADH, heart failure, liver cirrhosis. It also covers the diagnostic evaluation, management principles, and treatment approaches for acute symptomatic and chronic hyponatremia which involves slow correction of sodium levels to avoid osmotic demyelination syndrome.
This document provides an overview of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) including its etiology, pathology, clinical findings, and investigation. It notes that BPH begins as microscopic nodules in the transitional zone of the prostate that can grow and compress surrounding tissue. Common symptoms include urinary frequency, urgency, and nocturia. Evaluation involves assessment of lower urinary tract symptoms, digital rectal exam, urinalysis, post-void residual measurement, and in some cases urodynamic testing. BPH is a common condition among older men that results from changes in hormone levels and growth factors.
Topic laboratory and instrumental methods of studying the kidneys and urinar...ParasChoudhary16
The document summarizes various laboratory and instrumental methods used to study the kidneys and urinary system in children. It describes the anatomy and development of the kidneys, functions of the kidneys, diagnostic investigations including urinalysis, uroflowmetry, ultrasound, CT, MRI, voiding cystourethrogram, retrograde urethrogram, and CT urography. These methods are used to diagnose conditions like kidney stones, renal masses, reflux, obstruction, and anatomical abnormalities.
Red man syndrome (RMS) is a potential adverse reaction related to vancomycin administration. Symptoms include flushing, erythema, and pruritus of the upper body as well as chest or back pains and hypotension. Differential diagnosis includes anaphylaxis, which features wheezing, dyspnea, and angioedema. RMS is caused by vancomycin activating mast cells. Risk factors include certain antibiotics, opioids, plasma expanders, and mastocytosis. RMS can be prevented by administering vancomycin at concentrations less than 5 mg/ml at rates less than 10 mg/min, and premedicating with diphenhydramine and famotidine. Treatment involves
This document discusses acute renal failure (ARF), also known as acute kidney injury (AKI). It defines ARF, discusses its epidemiology and causes. The main causes of ARF are pre-renal (decreased blood flow/volume), renal (damage within the kidneys), and post-renal (obstruction of urine flow). The most common form of intrinsic ARF is acute tubular necrosis, often due to ischemia or nephrotoxins. Diagnosis involves lab tests of kidney function and urine analysis. Treatment focuses on identifying and reversing the underlying cause, maintaining fluid/electrolyte balance, and potentially initiating renal replacement therapy like dialysis.
This document discusses glomerular diseases, including their classification, clinical manifestations, and pathogenesis. It covers the following key points:
- Glomerular diseases are classified as primary (involving the glomeruli predominantly) or secondary (affecting the glomeruli due to systemic/hereditary diseases).
- Major clinical manifestations include proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension, and impaired renal function. The main glomerular syndromes discussed are nephritic, nephrotic, acute/chronic renal failure, and asymptomatic proteinuria/hematuria.
- The pathogenesis involves immunological mechanisms like antibody-mediated immune complex deposition, as well as non-immunological mechanisms. Injury
This document discusses neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction. It begins with an introduction and overview of classifications, causes, evaluation, and specific neurological disorders related to lower urinary tract dysfunction. Evaluation involves taking a thorough history, physical exam, bladder diary, lab tests including urine analysis and post-void residual, and urodynamic studies to assess storage and voiding functions. Lesions in different areas of the nervous system can result in distinct patterns of bladder dysfunction, with suprapontine lesions commonly causing storage issues and infrasacral lesions more often resulting in voiding problems. Treatment aims to protect the upper urinary tract and improve symptoms.
Acute kidney injury, previously known as acute renal failure, encompasses a wide spectrum of injury to the kidneys, not just kidney failure. The definition of acute kidney injury has changed in recent years, and detection is now mostly based on monitoring creatinine levels, with or without urine output. Acute kidney injury is increasingly being seen in primary care in people without any acute illness, and awareness of the condition needs to be raised among primary care health professionals.
Acute kidney injury is seen in 13–18% of all people admitted to hospital, with older adults being particularly affected. These patients are usually under the care of healthcare professionals practising in specialties other than nephrology, who may not always be familiar with the optimum care of patients with acute kidney injury. The number of inpatients affected by acute kidney injury means that it has a major impact on healthcare resources. The costs to the NHS of acute kidney injury (excluding costs in the community) are estimated to be between £434 million and £620 million per year, which is more than the costs associated with breast cancer, or lung and skin cancer combined.
This document discusses hematuria (blood in the urine). It defines hematuria and notes that not all red urine is necessarily hematuria, as there can be other causes of red or discolored urine unrelated to blood. The document then discusses potential causes of hematuria originating from the kidneys, ureters, bladder, prostate, urethra, and from general systemic factors. It provides details on evaluating a patient with hematuria, including relevant history, examination findings, and potential diagnostic tests.
This document describes uroflowmetry - a noninvasive test used to evaluate urine flow. It discusses the normal and abnormal flow patterns seen in uroflowmetry and their clinical significance. Uroflowmetry provides parameters like maximum flow rate, average flow rate and voided volume. It can detect bladder outlet obstruction, detrusor underactivity or overactivity. However, pressure-flow studies are needed to precisely define lower urinary tract function. Uroflowmetry is useful for screening and monitoring treatment response, though invasive therapy should not be based on uroflowmetry alone per AUA guidelines.
This document provides guidelines for the diagnosis and management of hyponatremia. It defines hyponatremia as a serum sodium concentration of less than 135 mEq/L. It notes that hyponatremia is commonly seen in hospitalized patients and can cause neurological symptoms if left untreated. The guidelines recommend a systematic approach to hyponatremia involving assessing volume status, urine and serum osmolality to determine the cause (hypovolemic, euvolemic, or hypervolemic), and correcting any underlying conditions and sodium levels slowly to avoid complications. Newer vasopressin receptor antagonists called vaptans can be useful for treating euvolemic or hypervolemic hy
Hematuria can be caused by various upper and lower urinary tract diseases. Common causes of glomerular hematuria include IgA nephropathy, Alport syndrome, and thin basement membrane disease. Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is associated with a preceding streptococcal infection. Membranous nephropathy presents with nephrotic syndrome. Goodpasture disease involves anti-GBM antibodies attacking the lungs and kidneys. Diagnosis involves urinalysis, renal biopsy, and identifying underlying causes or associations. Treatment depends on the specific condition but may include antibiotics, steroids, immunosuppressants, blood pressure control, and addressing complications.
This document provides guidelines for the management of injuries to the external genitalia from the Department of Urology at Govt Royapettah Hospital and Kilpauk Medical College in Chennai, India. It discusses the epidemiology, mechanisms, classifications, presentations, investigations, and management approaches for various types of injuries affecting the scrotum, testes, and penis. Key points covered include the importance of early surgical exploration for suspected testicular rupture or dislocation, techniques for repairing tunical injuries during penile fracture, and debridement/closure principles for lacerations or avulsions of scrotal or penile tissues.
This document discusses various acute urological conditions that commonly present as emergencies. It covers non-traumatic conditions like urinary retention, hematuria, renal colic, and infections as well as traumatic injuries. For each condition, it describes the typical presentation, important distinguishing features, investigations, differential diagnoses, and initial management approach. It provides a useful overview of how to evaluate and treat many urgent urological problems.
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) is characterized by a rapid loss of renal function over a short period of time. It is classified as primary or secondary RPGN based on its underlying causes. The pathogenesis involves crescent formation in glomeruli due to proliferation of cells and inflammation. Clinically, it presents with hematuria, proteinuria, hypertension, and declining kidney function. Diagnosis involves lab tests showing abnormalities in urine, blood counts, complement levels, and antibodies. Renal biopsy revealing crescentic lesions in glomeruli is diagnostic. Treatment depends on the specific type but often includes steroids, plasmapheresis and cyclophosphamide to slow kidney damage. Prognosis depends
1. The document provides an overview of renal anatomy and physiology, clinical manifestations of renal diseases, methods for estimating renal function, and common renal disease syndromes.
2. Key aspects of renal anatomy discussed include the structure and function of nephrons, the glomerular filtration barrier, and countercurrent exchange mechanisms.
3. Common clinical signs of renal diseases include edema, hypertension, flank pain, urinary abnormalities, and changes in estimated glomerular filtration rate.
4. Major renal disease syndromes covered are nephrotic syndrome, nephritic syndrome, acute renal failure, and chronic renal failure.
This document provides information about the department of urology at Govt Royapettah Hospital and Kilpauk Medical College in Chennai, including lists of moderators and professors. It then discusses the history, physiology, definition, subtypes, etiology, examination, investigations, and treatment of priapism. The treatment section focuses on approaches for ischemic vs non-ischemic priapism, including aspiration, drug injection, surgical shunting, and arterial embolization. Outcomes and algorithms for treatment are also presented.
Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) is a common surgery performed to relieve urinary symptoms caused by an enlarged prostate. Regional anesthesia such as spinal anesthesia is generally preferred over general anesthesia for TURP. Key complications during the procedure include hypotension from sympathetic blockade, hemorrhage, perforation of the bladder or prostate capsule, hypothermia from cold irrigation fluids, and potential for developing TURP syndrome from fluid absorption. Careful patient assessment, fluid management, and monitoring are important to help prevent complications during this common urological procedure.
This document discusses hematuria (blood in the urine) and obstructive uropathy (blockage of urine flow in the urinary tract). It covers evaluating hematuria through urinalysis, imaging tests, and cystoscopy. Common causes of hematuria include infections, stones, tumors, and glomerulonephritis. Obstructive uropathy can be congenital or acquired and cause changes to the urethra, bladder, ureters, and kidneys over time. Relieving the obstruction through surgery, stents, or nephrostomy is the main treatment approach.
This document provides an overview of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) including its etiology, pathology, clinical findings, and investigation. It notes that BPH begins as microscopic nodules in the transitional zone of the prostate that can grow and compress surrounding tissue. Common symptoms include urinary frequency, urgency, and nocturia. Evaluation involves assessment of lower urinary tract symptoms, digital rectal exam, urinalysis, post-void residual measurement, and in some cases urodynamic testing. BPH is a common condition among older men that results from changes in hormone levels and growth factors.
Topic laboratory and instrumental methods of studying the kidneys and urinar...ParasChoudhary16
The document summarizes various laboratory and instrumental methods used to study the kidneys and urinary system in children. It describes the anatomy and development of the kidneys, functions of the kidneys, diagnostic investigations including urinalysis, uroflowmetry, ultrasound, CT, MRI, voiding cystourethrogram, retrograde urethrogram, and CT urography. These methods are used to diagnose conditions like kidney stones, renal masses, reflux, obstruction, and anatomical abnormalities.
Red man syndrome (RMS) is a potential adverse reaction related to vancomycin administration. Symptoms include flushing, erythema, and pruritus of the upper body as well as chest or back pains and hypotension. Differential diagnosis includes anaphylaxis, which features wheezing, dyspnea, and angioedema. RMS is caused by vancomycin activating mast cells. Risk factors include certain antibiotics, opioids, plasma expanders, and mastocytosis. RMS can be prevented by administering vancomycin at concentrations less than 5 mg/ml at rates less than 10 mg/min, and premedicating with diphenhydramine and famotidine. Treatment involves
This document discusses acute renal failure (ARF), also known as acute kidney injury (AKI). It defines ARF, discusses its epidemiology and causes. The main causes of ARF are pre-renal (decreased blood flow/volume), renal (damage within the kidneys), and post-renal (obstruction of urine flow). The most common form of intrinsic ARF is acute tubular necrosis, often due to ischemia or nephrotoxins. Diagnosis involves lab tests of kidney function and urine analysis. Treatment focuses on identifying and reversing the underlying cause, maintaining fluid/electrolyte balance, and potentially initiating renal replacement therapy like dialysis.
This document discusses glomerular diseases, including their classification, clinical manifestations, and pathogenesis. It covers the following key points:
- Glomerular diseases are classified as primary (involving the glomeruli predominantly) or secondary (affecting the glomeruli due to systemic/hereditary diseases).
- Major clinical manifestations include proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension, and impaired renal function. The main glomerular syndromes discussed are nephritic, nephrotic, acute/chronic renal failure, and asymptomatic proteinuria/hematuria.
- The pathogenesis involves immunological mechanisms like antibody-mediated immune complex deposition, as well as non-immunological mechanisms. Injury
This document discusses neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction. It begins with an introduction and overview of classifications, causes, evaluation, and specific neurological disorders related to lower urinary tract dysfunction. Evaluation involves taking a thorough history, physical exam, bladder diary, lab tests including urine analysis and post-void residual, and urodynamic studies to assess storage and voiding functions. Lesions in different areas of the nervous system can result in distinct patterns of bladder dysfunction, with suprapontine lesions commonly causing storage issues and infrasacral lesions more often resulting in voiding problems. Treatment aims to protect the upper urinary tract and improve symptoms.
Acute kidney injury, previously known as acute renal failure, encompasses a wide spectrum of injury to the kidneys, not just kidney failure. The definition of acute kidney injury has changed in recent years, and detection is now mostly based on monitoring creatinine levels, with or without urine output. Acute kidney injury is increasingly being seen in primary care in people without any acute illness, and awareness of the condition needs to be raised among primary care health professionals.
Acute kidney injury is seen in 13–18% of all people admitted to hospital, with older adults being particularly affected. These patients are usually under the care of healthcare professionals practising in specialties other than nephrology, who may not always be familiar with the optimum care of patients with acute kidney injury. The number of inpatients affected by acute kidney injury means that it has a major impact on healthcare resources. The costs to the NHS of acute kidney injury (excluding costs in the community) are estimated to be between £434 million and £620 million per year, which is more than the costs associated with breast cancer, or lung and skin cancer combined.
This document discusses hematuria (blood in the urine). It defines hematuria and notes that not all red urine is necessarily hematuria, as there can be other causes of red or discolored urine unrelated to blood. The document then discusses potential causes of hematuria originating from the kidneys, ureters, bladder, prostate, urethra, and from general systemic factors. It provides details on evaluating a patient with hematuria, including relevant history, examination findings, and potential diagnostic tests.
This document describes uroflowmetry - a noninvasive test used to evaluate urine flow. It discusses the normal and abnormal flow patterns seen in uroflowmetry and their clinical significance. Uroflowmetry provides parameters like maximum flow rate, average flow rate and voided volume. It can detect bladder outlet obstruction, detrusor underactivity or overactivity. However, pressure-flow studies are needed to precisely define lower urinary tract function. Uroflowmetry is useful for screening and monitoring treatment response, though invasive therapy should not be based on uroflowmetry alone per AUA guidelines.
This document provides guidelines for the diagnosis and management of hyponatremia. It defines hyponatremia as a serum sodium concentration of less than 135 mEq/L. It notes that hyponatremia is commonly seen in hospitalized patients and can cause neurological symptoms if left untreated. The guidelines recommend a systematic approach to hyponatremia involving assessing volume status, urine and serum osmolality to determine the cause (hypovolemic, euvolemic, or hypervolemic), and correcting any underlying conditions and sodium levels slowly to avoid complications. Newer vasopressin receptor antagonists called vaptans can be useful for treating euvolemic or hypervolemic hy
Hematuria can be caused by various upper and lower urinary tract diseases. Common causes of glomerular hematuria include IgA nephropathy, Alport syndrome, and thin basement membrane disease. Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is associated with a preceding streptococcal infection. Membranous nephropathy presents with nephrotic syndrome. Goodpasture disease involves anti-GBM antibodies attacking the lungs and kidneys. Diagnosis involves urinalysis, renal biopsy, and identifying underlying causes or associations. Treatment depends on the specific condition but may include antibiotics, steroids, immunosuppressants, blood pressure control, and addressing complications.
This document provides guidelines for the management of injuries to the external genitalia from the Department of Urology at Govt Royapettah Hospital and Kilpauk Medical College in Chennai, India. It discusses the epidemiology, mechanisms, classifications, presentations, investigations, and management approaches for various types of injuries affecting the scrotum, testes, and penis. Key points covered include the importance of early surgical exploration for suspected testicular rupture or dislocation, techniques for repairing tunical injuries during penile fracture, and debridement/closure principles for lacerations or avulsions of scrotal or penile tissues.
This document discusses various acute urological conditions that commonly present as emergencies. It covers non-traumatic conditions like urinary retention, hematuria, renal colic, and infections as well as traumatic injuries. For each condition, it describes the typical presentation, important distinguishing features, investigations, differential diagnoses, and initial management approach. It provides a useful overview of how to evaluate and treat many urgent urological problems.
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) is characterized by a rapid loss of renal function over a short period of time. It is classified as primary or secondary RPGN based on its underlying causes. The pathogenesis involves crescent formation in glomeruli due to proliferation of cells and inflammation. Clinically, it presents with hematuria, proteinuria, hypertension, and declining kidney function. Diagnosis involves lab tests showing abnormalities in urine, blood counts, complement levels, and antibodies. Renal biopsy revealing crescentic lesions in glomeruli is diagnostic. Treatment depends on the specific type but often includes steroids, plasmapheresis and cyclophosphamide to slow kidney damage. Prognosis depends
1. The document provides an overview of renal anatomy and physiology, clinical manifestations of renal diseases, methods for estimating renal function, and common renal disease syndromes.
2. Key aspects of renal anatomy discussed include the structure and function of nephrons, the glomerular filtration barrier, and countercurrent exchange mechanisms.
3. Common clinical signs of renal diseases include edema, hypertension, flank pain, urinary abnormalities, and changes in estimated glomerular filtration rate.
4. Major renal disease syndromes covered are nephrotic syndrome, nephritic syndrome, acute renal failure, and chronic renal failure.
This document provides information about the department of urology at Govt Royapettah Hospital and Kilpauk Medical College in Chennai, including lists of moderators and professors. It then discusses the history, physiology, definition, subtypes, etiology, examination, investigations, and treatment of priapism. The treatment section focuses on approaches for ischemic vs non-ischemic priapism, including aspiration, drug injection, surgical shunting, and arterial embolization. Outcomes and algorithms for treatment are also presented.
Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) is a common surgery performed to relieve urinary symptoms caused by an enlarged prostate. Regional anesthesia such as spinal anesthesia is generally preferred over general anesthesia for TURP. Key complications during the procedure include hypotension from sympathetic blockade, hemorrhage, perforation of the bladder or prostate capsule, hypothermia from cold irrigation fluids, and potential for developing TURP syndrome from fluid absorption. Careful patient assessment, fluid management, and monitoring are important to help prevent complications during this common urological procedure.
This document discusses hematuria (blood in the urine) and obstructive uropathy (blockage of urine flow in the urinary tract). It covers evaluating hematuria through urinalysis, imaging tests, and cystoscopy. Common causes of hematuria include infections, stones, tumors, and glomerulonephritis. Obstructive uropathy can be congenital or acquired and cause changes to the urethra, bladder, ureters, and kidneys over time. Relieving the obstruction through surgery, stents, or nephrostomy is the main treatment approach.
2. Bevezetés
Meghatározás:
a hashártya heveny vagy idült gyulladása, amelyet fertőzéses,
kémiai, traumás vagy sugárzó tényezők válthatnak ki
sebészi acut hasi megbetegedés
az élettel összeegyeztethetetlen toxico-septicus shock
kialakulásához vezet
3. Anatómia és fiziológia
1700-2000 cm2
felszívódás (víz, fehérje, cukor), kiválasztás (fibrin)
virtualis tér – 75-150 ml szerózus folyadék – zsigerek
elcsúszása, mobilitása
3 rész
supramezocolicus – jobb és bal hepato-phrenicus,
phreno-gastro-splenicus, gastro-duodeno-subhepaticus,
bursa omentalis
submezocolicus – jobb és bal colo-parietalis, jobb és
bal mezenterico-colicus
medence - Douglas
4. valódi tér - ascites, vér, genny, gyomor-bél tartalom
transszudátum (pl. ascites)
passzív módon kialakult folyadékgyülem
oka: helyi hemodinamikai változások (portális
hipertenzió)
plazmához hasonló az összetétele
exudátum
aktív módon kialakult folyadékgyülem
oka: kapillárisok permeabilitásának a fokozódása
fibrint, nyákot és sejtes elemeket tartalmaz
hashártyagyulladás esetén termelődik
5.
6. Epidemiológia
• leggyakoribb sebészi sürgősségi ellátást igénylő
megbetegedés
• 95%-ban szekunder forma
• halálozási aránya napjainkban is 15% körüli
• 32% colorectalis
• 31% appendicularis
• 18%-ban gastro-duodenalis
7. Etiológia
Primer peritonitis
• a gyomor-bél traktus continuitasa nem sérült;
• a peritonitist előidéző fertőzési góc nem a hasüregben található;
• a kórokozók vérrel, nyirokkal, transmuralisan vagy genitalis felszálló
úton jut a hashártyára;
• kezdetben monobakteriális;
• a kialakulásában szerepet játszó kórokozók a következők:
pneumococcus, meningococcus, streptococcus, staphylococcus,
gonococcus és Escherichia coli.
8. Szekunder peritonitis
• a hashártya contaminatioja direkt úton történik;
▫ üreges szerv perforatio – gyomor és patkóbél fekély, gyomor és
vastagbél daganat, heveny appendicitis, heveny cholecystitis,
vastagbél diverticulitis, Crohn betegség;
▫ nőgyógyászati eredetű – pyosalpingitis, méh perforatio;
▫ hasi parenchymás szervek (máj, lép, hasnyálmirigy, vese)
tályogjainak rupturája a hasüregbe;
▫ penetráló hasi sérülések;
▫ műtét utáni anastomosis elégtelenség;
▫ iatrogen – endoscopia, beöntés
• a fertőzés mindig polimicrobialis, rendszerint endogen;
• leggyakoribb kórokozók: Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis,
Bacteroides fragilis, Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas sp., Proteus sp.,
Clostridium sp., stb.
9. Tercier peritonitis
• hasüregi fertőzés látszólagos gyógyulását követően, túlzott
szisztémás gyulladásos válasz formájában nyilvánul meg,
amikor a hasüreg lehet steril vagy fakultatív patogen
kórokozókat tartalmazhat.
Hasüregi tályogok
• lokalizált peritonitis, amely kialakulhat az előbb említett
peritonitisek bármelyike után.
14. Tünettan
Fájdalom
▫ legjellegzetesebb tünet
▫ gyomorfekélyperforáció - hirtelen jelentkezik, késszúrásszerü
▫ perforált vakbélgyulladás - intenzitása fokozatosan erősödik,
hányás és láz társul hozzá
▫ jellege – állandó
▫ punctum maximuma
▫ epigastrium – fekélyperforáció
▫ jobb hipochondrium – epehólyaggyulladás
▫ jobb fossa iliaca - appendicitis
15. ▫ sugárzás – ha érintett a rekeszizom peritoneuma akkor
a jobb vagy bal vállba, lapockák közti területre
▫ váltakozása, fokozódása testmozgára - antalgiás pozició
16. Hányás
◦ nem jellegzetes a kezdeti szakaszban, de általában jelen van
◦ kínzó jellegű
◦ kezdetben táplálékot tartalmaz, majd epés (reflex
mechanizmus), késöbb pedig fecaloid (paraliticus
mechanizmus)
◦ kiszáradáshoz és klórvesztességhez vezet
◦ késői fázisban erőteljes
Bélműködés léállása
◦ Stockes törvény
◦ álhasmenés – gyerek, postoperatív peritonitis
Csuklás
o késői tünet, n. phrenicus iritációja váltja ki
17. Objektiv tünetek és jelek
Megtekintésre
▫ hasfali izomcontractio miatt deszkahas – nem vesz részt a
légzőmozgásokban, behúzodott, feszes
▫ distensio – késői fázisban
Tapintásra
• provokált fájdalom punctum maximuma utal a peritonitisz
kialakulásának a helyére
• BLUMBERG jel – a hasfal lassú és mély betapintását követő
hirtelen dekompresszióra jelentkező fájdalom
18. • hasfali izomvédekezés – tapintásra jelentkező hasizom
contractura, amely kezdetben lokalizált majd általánossá válik
• legfontosabb klinikai jel az első 24 órában
• generalizált izomcontractura – deszkahas
• bőr hyperaesthesia
Kopogtatásra
Mandel jel, csengettyű jel
Hallgatózás
• késői fázisban – hasi csend
Rectalis, vaginalis betapintás
Douglas ordítása
19. Általános tünetek
• láz
• általában magas 38-39°
• hiányozhat idős és gyenge ellenállású betegek esetében
• hidegrázás
• ismétlödő
• pulzus
• szapora, késői szakaszban filiformis
• vérnyomás – shock esetén csökkent
• nehézlégzés, felszines, rövid gyors légzés
• peritonitises facies
• sápadt, földszinű, hidegverejtékes bőr
• hegyes orr
• beesett szemek, előredomborodó áll
• orrszárnyak mozgása légzéskor
20. Paraklinikai vizsgálatok
• általában leukocytosis (>12.000/mm3), de lehet normális vagy
leukopenia is felléphet idős gyenge ellenállású betegeknél
• hematokrit emelkedett – hemokoncentráció
• urea emelkedett – vese elégtelenség
• hidroelektrolitikus zavarok (Cl, Na, K)
• kezdetben hipocloraemiás alcalosis, majd metabolicus acidosis
• késői szakaszában alvadási zavarok léphetnek fel, amely a disseminalt
intravascularis coagulopathia kialakulására utal.
23. Kórisme
• hirtelen jelentkező, brutális hasi fájdalom;
• hasi izomvédekezés;
• hasi izomcontractura;
• pneumoperitoneum.
24. Etiológiai diagnózis
Primer peritonitis
• a felnőttek spontán peritonitise
▫ a cirrhoticus betegek ascitesének a felülfertőződése;
▫ a punctio során nyert asciteses folyadék több mint 250/µl
fehérvérsejtet tartalmaz és savas a pH-ja;
▫ a monobakteriális fertőzést beta-haemolyticus
streptococcusok vagy pneumococcus okozza;
• a gyerekek spontán peritonitise
▫ lupusos és vesebeteg újszülöttek és csecsemők
megbetegedése;
25. • peritonealisan dializált betegek peritonitise
▫ gyakori szövődmény;
▫ a contaminatio a katéteren keresztül jön létre;
▫ leggyakrabban Staphylococcus epidermidis a fertőzést
kiváltó kórokozó;
• tbc-s peritonitis
▫ hőemelkedés, láz, éjszakai izzadás, gyengeség, fogyás és
hasi distensio vagy tömöttség jellemzi;
▫ hasi izomcontractura nem jellemző;
▫ a hashártyán és a csepleszen szétszórt tbc-s gümők
láthatók (el kell különíteni a carcinomatosistól).
26. Szekunder peritonitis
• appendicularis perforatio;
• gastroduodenalis (fekély vagy daganat) perforatio;
• biliaris peritonitis;
• vékonybél perforatio;
• vastagbél perforatio – stercoralis peritonitis;
• genitalis eredetű peritonitis;
• postpartum peritonitis;
• műtét utáni peritonitis – anastomosis elégtelenség a leggyakoribb oka.
27. Differenciál diagnózis
Belgyógyászati acut hasi megbetegedések
• vesecolica;
• ólom colica;
• gastroduodenalis fekélybetegség fájdalmas szakasza;
• porphyria.
Ál-sebészi acut hasi megbetegedések
• hátsó fali szívinfarctus;
• pericarditis;
• tüdőembólia;
• basalis tüdőgyulladás;
• pleuresia;
• herpes zoster;
• typhusos láz;
• mesenterialis adenitis.
Más acut hasi megbetegedések
• bélcsavarodás;
• hasnyálmirigy gyulladás;
• entero-mesenterialis infarctus;
• hasi zsigerek csavarodása.
28. Szövődmények
• lefolyása gyors, kezeletlen esetekben az elhalálozás 2-3 nap alatt
bekövetkezik
• szív-érrendszeri zavarok – tachycardia, gyors és gyenge pulzus,
alacsony vérnyomás a kialakult hypovolaemia, vasodilatatio és
csökkent ejectios fractio miatt;
• veseműködési zavarok – oligo-anuria a hypovolaemia és csökkent
glomerularis filtratio miatt;
• légzési zavarok – acut légzési elégtelenség lép fel, a hasi
izomcontractura és későbbiekben a distensio miatt, amely a légzési
mozgások amplitudójának csökkenéséhez vezet; a szervezet a légzési
mozgások számának az emelésével próbál kompenzálni – tachypnoe;
• neurológiai zavarok – nyugtalanság, zavartság és delirium jelentkezik a
septicus encephalopatia és agyi hypoxia következtében.
29. Kezelés
Műtéti előkészítés (max. 6 óra)
• sürgősség
• monitorizálás – gyomorszonda, vizeletszonda, O2, perfúzió
• antibioterápia
• félüllő pozició
• hidroelektrolitikus egyensúly biztosítása
• idős kor – hyperhidratálás – tüdő ödéma
Sebészi kezelés
Alapelvek
▫ a beavatkozás optimális idejének a megválasztása
▫ peritonitis kezelése
▫ a peritonitis kiváltó okának a kezelése
• sürgősség – előkészítés – a beavatkozás idejének az eltolódása ne menjen a
beteg kárára
• a műtéti beavatkozás általában nyitott úton végezhető, de bizonyos esetekben
(pl. appendicularis-, gastroduodenalis perforatio és genitalis eredetű
peritonitis) a laparoscopos módszer is alkalmazható;
30. A peritonitis kiváltó okának a kezelése
▫ a megbetegedett szerv eltávolítása – appendix, petevezeték, epehólyag
▫ perforatio elvarrása – fekély, vékonybél, vastagbél
▫ az érintett szerv részleges eltávolítása – gyomor resectio, vékonybél resectio,
vastagbél resectio
• a peritonealis üreg kezelése – átmosás
• drénezés
• lavage – súlyos, előrehaladott peritonitis
• nyitott hasi kezelés
• halasztott varrat
Műtét utáni kezelés
▫ intenzív terápia
▫ hidroelektrolitikus egyensúly
▫ antibioterápia
▫ dréncsövek eltávolítása
▫ a műtéti seb ellátása
31. Antibiotikum terápia
• kezdetben empirikus antibiotikum terápiát lehet
alkalmazni, amely változtatható az antibiogram alapján;
• a kezdeti antibiotikum társítás általában magába foglal egy
cefalosporint (cefazolin, cefuroxim, ceftriaxon, cefotaxim),
ciprofloxacint és metronidazolt;
• előzetes kórházi kezelésben részesült betegek, valamint
reinterventio esetén carbapenem és monobactam
származékokat használunk (imipenem, meropenem,
piperacillin-tazobactam).
32. Létfunkciók fenntartása
• a tápcsatorna tehermentesítésével (táplálék- és
folyadékfogyasztás szüneteltetésével, valamint
nasogastricus szonda behelyezésével) javítható a
légzésfunctio és elkerülhető az aspiratio;
• folyadék- és electrolitpótlás, energetikai szükséglet
biztosítása a biokémiai paraméterek és diuresis
függvényében;
• a légzési elégtelenség megelőzése és legyőzése érdekében
oxigénterápia és szükség esetén mesterséges lélegeztetés
alkalmazandó.