This document summarizes the structure and function of macromolecules. It discusses the four main classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Carbohydrates include sugars and polymers like starch and cellulose. Sugars are made of monosaccharides that can join to form disaccharides or polysaccharides. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Lipids include fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Macromolecules are essential to the structure and function of living organisms.

1. Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules

2. The Molecules of Life Overview: Another level in the hierarchy of biological organization is reached when small organic molecules are joined together Atom ---> molecule ---  compound

3. Macromolecules Are large molecules composed of smaller molecules Are complex in their structures Figure 5.1

4. Macromolecules Most macromolecules are polymers , built from monomers Four classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic acids Lipids

5. A polymer Is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks called monomers Specific monomers make up each macromolecule E.g. amino acids are the monomers for proteins

6. The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers Monomers form larger molecules by condensation reactions called dehydration synthesis (a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer HO H 1 2 3 HO HO H 1 2 3 4 H H 2 O Short polymer Unlinked monomer Longer polymer Dehydration removes a water molecule, forming a new bond Figure 5.2A

7. The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers Polymers can disassemble by Hydrolysis (addition of water molecules) (b) Hydrolysis of a polymer HO 1 2 3 H HO H 1 2 3 4 H 2 O H HO Hydrolysis adds a water molecule, breaking a bond Figure 5.2B

8. Although organisms share the same limited number of monomer types, each organism is unique based on the arrangement of monomers into polymers An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers

9. Carbohydrates Serve as fuel and building material Include both sugars and their polymers (starch, cellulose, etc.)

10. Sugars Monosaccharides Are the simplest sugars Can be used for fuel Can be converted into other organic molecules Can be combined into polymers

11. Examples of Monosaccharides H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH HO C H HO C H H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH C O C O H C OH H C OH H C OH HO C H H C OH C O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C O O O O Aldoses Glyceraldehyde Ribose Glucose Galactose Dihydroxyacetone Ribulose Ketoses Fructose Figure 5.3 Triose sugars (C 3 H 6 O 3 ) Pentose sugars (C 5 H 10 O 5 ) Hexose sugars (C 6 H 12 O 6 )

12. Monosaccharides May be linear Can form rings H H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH H C O C H 1 2 3 4 5 6 H OH 4 C 6 CH 2 OH 6 CH 2 OH 5 C H OH C H OH H 2 C 1 C H O H OH 4 C 5 C 3 C H H OH OH H 2 C 1 C OH H CH 2 OH H H OH HO H OH OH H 5 3 2 4 (a) Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between the linear and ring structures greatly favors the formation of rings. To form the glucose ring, carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen attached to carbon 5. OH 3 O H O O 6 1 Figure 5.4

13. Disaccharides Consist of two monosaccharides Are joined by a glycosidic linkage (a bond between an O atom and two different H atoms from different base molecules – see diagram on nest slide)

14. Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation) Reactions & Hydrolysis Reactions These are the two most common types of reactions that occur in living organisms. Dehydrations (Condensation) reactions join monomers (or small molecules) together to form larger molecules by removing a water molecule Hydrolysis reactions break apart larger, macromolecules in to smaller molecules (monomers) by adding a water molecule and breaking a glycosidic linkage.

15. Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose. The bonding of two glucose units forms maltose. The glycosidic link joins the number 1 carbon of one glucose to the number 4 carbon of the second glucose. Joining the glucose monomers in a different way would result in a different disaccharide. Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose. Sucrose is a disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose. Notice that fructose, though a hexose like glucose, forms a five-sided ring. H 2 O CH 2 OH Glucose Fructose Sucrose H HO H H OH H OH O H OH CH 2 OH H H O H HO H OH O H CH 2 OH CH 2 OH HO OH H CH 2 OH H OH H O H OH CH 2 OH H HO O H O 1 2 1–2 glycosidic linkage H H HO H H OH H OH O H OH CH 2 OH H O H H OH H OH O H OH CH 2 OH H H 2 O H HO OH H CH 2 OH H OH H O H OH H CH 2 OH H OH H O H OH O 1 4 1– 4 glycosidic linkage Glucose Glucose Maltose OH H

16. Polysaccharides Polysaccharides Are polymers of sugars Serve many roles in organisms

17. Storage Polysaccharides Starch Is a polymer consisting entirely of glucose monomers Is the major storage form of glucose in plants Chloroplast Starch Amylose Amylopectin 1  m (a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide Figure 5.6

18. Glycogen Consists of glucose monomers Is the major storage form of glucose in animals Mitochondria Giycogen granules 0.5  m (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide Glycogen Figure 5.6

19. Structural Polysaccharides Cellulose Is a polymer of glucose

20. Has different glycosidic linkages than starch (c) Cellulose: 1– 4 linkage of  glucose monomers H O O CH 2 OH H OH H H OH OH H H HO 4 C C C C C C H H H HO OH H OH OH OH H O CH 2 OH H H H OH OH H H HO 4 OH CH 2 OH O OH OH HO 4 1 O CH 2 OH O OH OH O CH 2 OH O OH OH CH 2 OH O OH OH O O CH 2 OH O OH OH HO 4 O 1 OH O OH OH O CH 2 OH O OH O OH O OH OH (a)  and  glucose ring structures (b) Starch: 1– 4 linkage of  glucose monomers 1  glucose  glucose CH 2 OH CH 2 OH 1 4 4 1 1 Figure 5.7 A–C

21. Is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells Plant cells 0.5  m Cell walls Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall  Microfibril CH 2 OH CH 2 OH OH OH O O OH O CH 2 OH O O OH O CH 2 OH OH OH OH O O CH 2 OH O O OH CH 2 OH O O OH O O CH 2 OH OH CH 2 OH OH O OH OH OH OH O OH OH CH 2 OH CH 2 OH OH O OH CH 2 OH O O OH CH 2 OH OH Glucose monomer O O O O O O Parallel cellulose molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl groups attached to carbon atoms 3 and 6. About 80 cellulose molecules associate to form a microfibril, the main architectural unit of the plant cell wall . A cellulose molecule is an unbranched  glucose polymer. OH OH O O OH Cellulose molecules

22. Cellulose is difficult to digest Cows have microbes in their stomachs to facilitate this process Figure 5.9

23. Chitin, another important structural polysaccharide Is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods Can be used as surgical thread (c) Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible surgical thread that decomposes after the wound or incision heals. (a) The structure of the chitin monomer. O CH 2 OH OH H H OH H NH C CH 3 O H H (b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods. This cicada is molting, shedding its old exoskeleton and emerging in adult form. OH Figure 5.10 A–C

24. Lipids Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules Lipids Are the one class of large biological molecules that do not always consist of polymers Share the common trait of being hydrophobic

25. Fats Are constructed from two types of smaller molecules, a single glycerol and usually three fatty acids Vary in the length and number and locations of double bonds they contain

26. Fats Are constructed from two types of smaller molecules, a single glycerol and usually three fatty acids Fatty Acids have a “carboxyl” group at the end of the chain

27. Fats Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat molecule

28. “ Fatty” Acids Vary in the length, number and locations of double bonds they contain

29. Saturated fatty acids Have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible Have no double bonds (a) Saturated fat and fatty acid Stearic acid Figure 5.12

30. Unsaturated fatty acids Have one or more double bonds (b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acid cis double bond causes bending Oleic acid Figure 5.12

31. Phospholipids Have only two fatty acids Have a phosphate group instead of a third fatty acid

32. Phospholipid structure Consists of a hydrophilic “head” and a hydrophobic “tail” CH 2 O P O O O CH 2 CH CH 2 O O C O C O Phosphate Glycerol (a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model Fatty acids (c) Phospholipid symbol Hydrophobic tails Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tails – Hydrophilic head CH 2 Choline + Figure 5.13 N(CH 3 ) 3

33. The structure of phospholipids results in a bilayer arrangement found in cell membranes Hydrophilic head WATER WATER Hydrophobic tail Figure 5.14

34. Steroids Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings HO CH 3 CH 3 H 3 C CH 3 CH 3 Figure 5.15

35. Steroids Steroids include estrogen, progesterone and testosterone. Estrogen and progesterone are made primarily in the ovary and in the placenta during pregnancy Testosterone is made in the testes.Testosterone is also converted into estrogen to regulate the supply of each, in the bodies of both females and males.

36. One steroid, cholesterol Is found in cell membranes and prevents them “freezing” Is a precursor for some hormones HO CH 3 CH 3 H 3 C CH 3 CH 3 Figure 5.15

37. Proteins Proteins have many structures , resulting in a wide range of functions Proteins do most of the work in cells and act as enzymes Proteins are made of monomers called amino acids

38. An overview of protein functions

39. Enzymes Are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding up chemical reactions Substrate (sucrose) Enzyme (sucrase) Glucose OH H O H 2 O Fructose 3 Substrate is converted to products. 1 Active site is available for a molecule of substrate, the reactant on which the enzyme acts. Substrate binds to enzyme. 2 2 4 Products are released. Figure 5.16

40. Polypeptides Polypeptides Are polymers (chains) of amino acids A protein Consists of one or more polypeptides

41. Amino acids Are organic molecules possessing both carboxyl and amino groups Differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups

42. Twenty Amino Acids 20 different amino acids make up proteins O O – H H 3 N + C C O O – H CH 3 H 3 N + C H C O O – CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 C C O O – H H 3 N + CH CH 3 CH 2 C H H 3 N + CH 3 CH 3 CH 2 CH C H H 3 N + C CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 C H 3 N + H C O O – CH 2 C H 3 N + H C O O – CH 2 NH H C O O – H 3 N + C CH 2 H 2 C H 2 N C CH 2 H C Nonpolar Glycine (Gly) Alanine (Ala) Valine (Val) Leucine (Leu) Isoleucine (Ile) Methionine (Met) Phenylalanine (Phe) C O O – Tryptophan (Trp) Proline (Pro) H 3 C Figure 5.17 S O O –

43. O – OH CH 2 C C H H 3 N + O O – H 3 N + OH CH 3 CH C C H O – O SH CH 2 C H H 3 N + C O O – H 3 N + C C CH 2 OH H H H H 3 N + NH 2 CH 2 O C C C O O – NH 2 O C CH 2 CH 2 C C H 3 N + O O – O Polar Electrically charged – O O C CH 2 C C H 3 N + H O O – O – O C CH 2 C C H 3 N + H O O – CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 NH 3 + CH 2 C C H 3 N + H O O – NH 2 C NH 2 + CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 C C H 3 N + H O O – CH 2 NH + NH CH 2 C C H 3 N + H O O – Serine (Ser) Threonine (Thr) Cysteine (Cys) Tyrosine (Tyr) Asparagine (Asn) Glutamine (Gln) Acidic Basic Aspartic acid (Asp) Glutamic acid (Glu) Lysine (Lys) Arginine (Arg) Histidine (His)

44. Amino Acid Polymers Amino acids Are linked by peptide bonds

45. Protein Conformation and Function A protein’s specific conformation (shape) determines how it functions

46. Four Levels of Protein Structure Primary structure Is the unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide Figure 5.20 – Amino acid subunits + H 3 N Amino end o Carboxyl end o c Gly Pro Thr Gly Thr Gly Glu Seu Lys Cys Pro Leu Met Val Lys Val Leu Asp Ala Val Arg Gly Ser Pro Ala Gly lle Ser Pro Phe His Glu His Ala Glu Val Val Phe Thr Ala Asn Asp Ser Gly Pro Arg Arg Tyr Thr lle Ala Ala Leu Leu Ser Pro Tyr Ser Tyr Ser Thr Thr Ala Val Val Thr Asn Pro Lys Glu Thr Lys Ser Tyr Trp Lys Ala Leu Glu Lle Asp

47. Secondary structure Is the coiling or folding of the polypeptide into a repeating configuration Includes the  helix (coiled) and the  pleated (folded) sheet O C  helix  pleated sheet Amino acid subunits N C H C O C N H C O H R C N H C O H C R N H H R C O R C H N H C O H N C O R C H N H H C R C O C O C N H H R C C O N H H C R C O N H R C H C O N H H C R C O N H R C H C O N H H C R C O N H H C R N H O O C N C R C H O C H R N H O C R C H N H O C H C R N H C C N R H O C H C R N H O C R C H H C R N H C O C N H R C H C O N H C H H Figure 5.20

48. Tertiary structure Is the overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide Results from interactions between amino acids and R groups CH 2 CH O H O C HO CH 2 CH 2 NH 3 + C - O CH 2 O CH 2 S S CH 2 CH CH 3 CH 3 H 3 C H 3 C Hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interactions Polypeptide backbone Hyrdogen bond Ionic bond CH 2 Disulfide bridge

49. Quaternary structure Is the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits Polypeptide chain Collagen  Chains  Chains Hemoglobin Iron Heme

50. Review of Protein Structure Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary + H 3 N Amino end Amino acid subunits  helix

51. Sickle-Cell Disease: A Simple Change in Primary Structure Sickle-cell disease Results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin

52. Fibers of abnormal hemoglobin deform cell into sickle shape. Primary structure Secondary and tertiary structures Quaternary structure Function Red blood cell shape Hemoglobin A Molecules do not associate with one another, each carries oxygen. Normal cells are full of individual hemoglobin molecules, each carrying oxygen     10  m 10  m     Primary structure Secondary and tertiary structures Quaternary structure Function Red blood cell shape Hemoglobin S Molecules interact with one another to crystallize into a fiber, capacity to carry oxygen is greatly reduced.  subunit  subunit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 2 1 Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin . . . . . . Figure 5.21 Exposed hydrophobic region Val Thr His Leu Pro Glul Glu Val His Leu Thr Pro Val Glu

53. What Determines Protein Conformation? Protein conformation Depends on the physical and chemical conditions of the protein’s environment Temperature, pH, etc. affect protein structure

54. Denaturation is when a protein unravels and loses its native conformation (shape) Denaturation Renaturation Denatured protein Normal protein Figure 5.22

55. The Protein-Folding Problem Most proteins Probably go through several intermediate states on their way to a stable conformation Denaturated proteins no longer work in their unfolded condition Proteins may be denaturated by extreme changes in pH or temperature

56. Chaperonins Are protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other proteins Hollow cylinder Cap Chaperonin (fully assembled) Steps of Chaperonin Action: An unfolded poly- peptide enters the cylinder from one end. The cap attaches, causing the cylinder to change shape in such a way that it creates a hydrophilic environment for the folding of the polypeptide. The cap comes off, and the properly folded protein is released. Correctly folded protein Polypeptide 2 1 3 Figure 5.23

57. X-ray crystallography Is used to determine a protein’s three-dimensional structure Figure 5.24 X-ray diffraction pattern Photographic film Diffracted X-rays X-ray source X-ray beam Crystal Nucleic acid Protein (a) X-ray diffraction pattern (b) 3D computer model

58. Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information Genes Are the units of inheritance Program the amino acid sequence of polypeptides Are made of nucleotide sequences on DNA

59. The Roles of Nucleic Acids There are two types of nucleic acids Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

60. Deoxyribonucleic Acid DNA Stores information for the synthesis of specific proteins Found in the nucleus of cells

61. DNA Functions Directs RNA synthesis (transcription) Directs protein synthesis through RNA (translation) 1 2 3 Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm via nuclear pore Synthesis of protein NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM DNA mRNA Ribosome Amino acids Polypeptide mRNA Figure 5.25

62. The Structure of Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids Exist as polymers called polynucleotides (a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid 3’C 5’ end 5’C 3’C 5’C 3’ end OH Figure 5.26 O O O O

63. Each polynucleotide Consists of monomers called nucleotides Sugar + phosphate + nitrogen base Nitrogenous base Nucleoside O O O   O P CH 2 5’C 3’C Phosphate group Pentose sugar (b) Nucleotide Figure 5.26 O

64. Nucleotide Monomers Nucleotide monomers Are made up of nucleosides (sugar + base) and phosphate groups (c) Nucleoside components Figure 5.26 CH CH Uracil (in RNA) U Ribose (in RNA) Nitrogenous bases Pyrimidines C N N C O H NH 2 CH CH O C N H CH HN C O C CH 3 N HN C C H O O Cytosine C Thymine (in DNA) T N HC N C C N C CH N NH 2 O N HC N H H C C N NH C NH 2 Adenine A Guanine G Purines O HOCH 2 H H H OH H O HOCH 2 H H H OH H Pentose sugars Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA) OH OH CH CH Uracil (in RNA) U 4’ 5 ” 3’ OH H 2’ 1’ 5 ” 4’ 3’ 2’ 1’

65. Nucleotide Polymers Nucleotide polymers Are made up of nucleotides linked by the–OH group on the 3´ carbon of one nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5´ carbon on the next

66. Gene The sequence of bases along a nucleotide polymer Is unique for each gene

67. The DNA Double Helix Cellular DNA molecules Have two polynucleotides that spiral around an imaginary axis Form a double helix

68. The DNA double helix Consists of two antiparallel nucleotide strands 3’ end Sugar-phosphate backbone Base pair (joined by hydrogen bonding) Old strands Nucleotide about to be added to a new strand A 3’ end 3’ end 5’ end New strands 3’ end 5’ end 5’ end Figure 5.27

69. A,T,C,G The nitrogenous bases in DNA Form hydrogen bonds in a complementary fashion (A with T only, and C with G only)

70. DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution Molecular comparisons Help biologists sort out the evolutionary connections among species

71. The Theme of Emergent Properties in the Chemistry of Life: A Review Higher levels of organization Result in the emergence of new properties Organization Is the key to the chemistry of life