0134484592 ch30

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Art History
Sixth Edition
Chapter 30
European and American Art,
1715–1840

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
30.a Identify the visual hallmarks of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-
century European and American art for formal, technical, and expressive
qualities.
30.b Interpret the meaning of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century
European and American works of art based on their themes, subjects,
and symbols.
30.c Relate eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century European and
American art and artists to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
30.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to eighteenth- and early
nineteenth-century European and American art, artists, and art history.
30.e Interpret a work of eighteenth- or early nineteenth-century European
and American art using the art historical methods of observation,
comparison, and inductive reasoning.
30.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an
argument or an interpretation of a work of eighteenth- or early
nineteenth-century European and American art.

John Singleton Copley THOMAS MIFFLIN AND SARAH MORRIS (MR. AND MRS.
MIFFLIN)
1773. Oil on canvas, 61-5/8" × 48" (156.5 × 121.9 cm).
Philadelphia Museum of Art. © 2016. Photo Art Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 30-01]

Industrial, Intellectual, and Political
Revolutions (1 of 2)
• This was an age of revolution and radical change in society, thought,
and politics with worldwide consequence.
• When the state failed to protect and facilitate the rights of the people to
be freed from political shackles, the solution was to change it; this
thought justified both the American and French Revolutions.

Industrial, Intellectual, and Political
Revolutions (2 of 2)
• A reverential attitude toward scientific inquiry developed that extended
to studies of the natural world.
• The Industrial Revolution began to replace land-based power of the
aristocracy.
• Romanticism developed as a counter to Enlightenment rationalism and
explored emotions, imagination, and intuition.

Rococo
• The term combines the Italian word barocco (possibly the source of
"baroque") and the French word rocaille (a form of decoration using
shells and pebbles).
• This movement developed in France around 1715 and spread quickly
across Europe.
• Stylistically, it was refined and fanciful.

EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
During the eighteenth century, three major artistic styles—Rococo, Neoclassicism, and
Romanticism—flourished in Europe and North America. [Map 30-01]

Rococo Salons (1 of 2)
• The center of aristocratic social life, the salons of courtiers became
famous for intimate, fashionable, and intellectual gatherings.
– Accomplished, educated women hosted these salons on a weekly
basis.

Rococo Salons (2 of 2)
• Designed by Germain Boffrand, the Salon de la Princesse in the Hôtel
de Soubise combines gold across expanses of white and pastels,
mirror reflections, delicate ornament in stucco, and boiseries (carved
wood panels).
– Pictorial themes were taken from Classical love stories.

Germain Boffrand SALON DE LA PRINCESSE, HÔTEL DE SOUBISE
Paris. Begun 1732.
© Hervé Champollion/akg-images. [Fig. 30-02]

Painting (1 of 5)
• Classical love stories served as themes for painting and sculpture.
– Featured motifs included putti, foliage, and fluffy clouds.

Painting (2 of 5)
• Watteau
– Jean-Antoine Watteau's The Signboard of Gersaint shows the
interior of an art shop.
 Memento mori and vanitas emblems throughout reflected the
fragility of human life.

Jean-Antoine Watteau THE SIGNBOARD OF GERSAINT
c. 1721. Oil on canvas, 5'4" × 10'1" (1.62 × 3.06 m).
Stiftung Preussische Schlössen und Gärten Berlin-Brandenburg, Schloss Charlottenburg.
© akg-images/Erich Lessing. [Fig. 30-03]

Painting (3 of 5)
• Watteau
– The Pilgrimage to Cythera
 The term fête galante, meaning elegant outdoor
entertainment, was coined to describe this piece.
 Beautifully dressed couples take part in dalliance on the
mythical island of love.
 This painting served as Watteau's examination canvas for
membership to the French Royal Academy.

Jean-Antoine Watteau PILGRIMAGE TO THE ISLAND OF CYTHERA
1717. Oil on canvas, 4'3" × 6'4-1/2" (1.3 × 1.9 m).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre)/Stéphane
Maréchalle. [Fig. 30-04]

Painting (4 of 5)
• Boucher
– François Boucher's career was supported by his wife and Madame
de Pompadour, eventually garnering him the title of First Painter to
the King.
– Girl Reclining: Louise O'Murphy reflects a contemporary
personality in a scene of daily life.
 The erotic details leave little to the imagination.

François Boucher GIRL RECLINING: LOUISE O'MURPHY
1751. Oil on canvas, 23-1/4" × 28-3/4" (59 × 73 cm).
Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne. Rheinisches Bildarchiv, Museen der Stadt Köln.
[Fig. 30-05]

Painting (5 of 5)
• Frangonard
– Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806), a follower of Boucher,
created a lush painting, The Swing, in 1767.
 A pretty young woman on a swing lifts her leg and gives an
unobstructed view up her skirt to her hidden lover below.
 The statue of Cupid with a shushing gesture maintains the
humorous yet risqué atmosphere.

Jean-Honoré Fragonard THE SWING
1767. Oil on canvas, 31-7/8 × 25-1/4" (81 × 64.2 cm).
The Wallace Collection, London. © Wallace Collection, London, UK/Bridgeman Images.
[Fig. 30-06]

Sculpture and Architecture (1 of 3)
• Clodion
– The erotic terra-cotta sculpture of Claude Michel (Clodion) was
criticized for being frivolous and immoral as the Rococo style fell
out of favor in France.
 He continued to sculpt in this style until the time of the French
Revolution.
– The Invention of the Balloon celebrated hot air balloons decorated
in the Rococo style.

Clodion THE INVENTION OF THE BALLOON
1784. Terra-cotta model for a monument, height 43-1/2" (110.5 cm).
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund and Frederick R. Harris Gift, 1944
(44.21a b). © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY.
[Fig. 30-07]

• Church Design and Decoration
– Neumann's design of the church dedicated to the Vierzehnheiligen
is exemplary.
 Recalling the Baroque church of San Carlo alle Quattro
Fontane, the plan contained six oval spaces around an ovoid
center.

PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE VIERZEHNHEILIGEN
Near Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany. c. 1743. [Fig. 30-08]

• Church Design and Decoration
– Neumann's design of the church dedicated to the Vierzehnheiligen
is exemplary.
 The viewer is surrounded by clusters of pillasters, columns,
and fanciful ornamentation.

Johann Balthasar Neumann INTERIOR, CHURCH OF THE VIERZEHNHEILIGEN
Near Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany. 1743–1772.
© Achim Bednorz, Cologne. [Fig. 30-09]

The Grand Tour and Neoclassicism in
Italy
• The Grand Tour was an extended visit to major cultural sites
throughout Europe offered to wealthy young European (mostly)
gentlemen into the nineteenth century.
• Italy, particularly Rome, was a primary destination.
– Inspiration drawn from Classical works would develop
Neoclassicism.

Grand Tour Portraits and Views (1 of 4)
• Allowing tourists to view and purchase the works of important masters
was beneficial for local Italian artists.
• Authentic works of antiquity could be displayed both to evidence the
cultural travels of a person and as inspiration for new works of art.

• Carriera
– Rosalba Carreira worked in pastel, a medium more versatile than
oil painting for producing portraits quickly.
– After eventually gaining admission to the French Royal Academy,
she specialized in portraits such as Gustavus Hamilton, 2nd
Viscount Boyne.

Rosalba Carriera GUSTAVUS HAMILTON, 2ND VISCOUNT BOYNE
1730–1731. Pastel on blue paper, 221⁄4 × 16-7⁄8″ (56.5 × 42.9 cm). Metropolitan
Museum, New York. © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art
Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 30-10]

• Canaletto
– Two kinds of painted city views rose to popularity.
 The capriccio was an imaginary landscape while the veduta
was a more naturalistic view of well-known locales.
– The Doge's Palace and the Riva degli Schiavoni was thought to
have been produced with the aid of a camera obscura due to its
accuracy.

Canaletto THE DOGE'S PALACE AND THE RIVA DEGLI SCHIAVONI
Late 1730s. Oil on canvas, 24-1/8" × 39-1/4" (61.3 × 99.8 cm).
National Gallery, London. Wynn Ellis Bequest 1876 (NG 940). © 2016. Copyright The
National Gallery, London/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 30-11]

• Piranesi
– Giovanni Battista Piranesi trained as an architect before producing
etched vedute of ancient Roman monuments.
– View of the Pantheon is a careful and well-informed study,
including small figures that relate the scale of this monument.

Giovanni Battista Piranesi VIEW OF THE PANTHEON, ROME
From the Views of Rome series, first printed in 1756.
Etching, 18-9/16" × 27-1/8" (47.2 × 69.7 cm).
Yale University Art Gallery, the Arthur Rose Collection. (2012.159.11.60). Image courtesy
Yale University Art Gallery. [Fig. 30-12]

Neoclassicism in Rome (1 of 3)
• Artists who contributed to the early Neoclassical movement were
drawn to study and work in Rome.
• Cardinal Albani sponsored a villa for the purpose of displaying his vast
collection of art and artifacts.
– His librarian Johann Winckelmann became the first art historian to
analyze the history of art by period styles.

• Mengs
– Anton Raphael Mengs's Parnassus was the first full expression of
Neoclassicism, featuring a scene from Classical mythology.
 The pose of Apollo was copied from the Apollo Belvedere in
the Vatican collection.

Anton Raphael Mengs PARNASSUS
Ceiling fresco in the Villa Albani, Rome. 1761.
© akg-images/Mondadori Portfolio/Sergio Anelli. [Fig. 30-13]

• Canova
– Antonio Canova was the leading Neoclassical sculptor of the late
eighteenth century.
– Pauline Borghese as Venus was an eroticized mythological
sculpture originally meant for Napoleon's brother-in-law, Prince
Camillo Borghese, but the recipient had it installed in a private
room.

Antonio Canova CUPID AND PSYCHE
1787–1793. Marble, 61 × 68" (1.55 × 1.73 m).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © Dist. RMN-Grand Palais/Raphaël Chipault. [Fig. 30-14]

Neoclassicism and Early Romanticism
in Britain
• Late eighteenth-century Neoclassical British artists revived civic virtue
through a lens of patriotism for the British nation.
• Romanticism describes both the style and attitude of the subjective,
emotional, and individual.
• Both styles existed side by side, at times without clear distinction.

The Classical Revival in Architecture
and Design (1 of 5)
• Buildings, utensils, poetry, and fashion all gained inspiration from
Classical elements.
• A group of architects led by Colen Campbell challenged the
extravagance of the Italian Baroque with a return to austerity and
simplicity.

and Design (2 of 5)
• Chiswick House
– The Villa Rotunda served as inspiration for this Neo-Palladian
house.
– Richard Boyle, the third Earl of Burlington, served as designer and
owner.
– William Kent designed the grounds, utilizing the style of an English
landscape garden, as well as the interior.

Richard Boyle (Lord Burlington) EXTERIOR VIEW OF CHISWICK HOUSE
West London, England. 1724–1729. Interior decoration (1726–1729) and new gardens
(1730–1740) by William Kent. © Achim Bednorz, Cologne. [Fig. 30-15a]

Richard Boyle (Lord Burlington) PLAN OF CHISWICK HOUSE
West London, England. 1724.
[Fig. 30-15b]

and Design (3 of 5)
• Stourhead
– Henry Hoare redesigned the grounds at Stourhead with the
assistance of Henry Flitcroft.
– The pictureseque style was meant to mimic compositional
devices of landscape painter Claude Lorrain.
 It was intentionally contrived to look natural and unkempt.

Henry Flitcroft and Henry Hoare THE PARK AT STOURHEAD
Wiltshire, England.
Laid out 1743, executed 1744–1765, with continuing additions.
Gail Johnson/Fotolia. [Fig. 30-16]

A CLOSER LOOK: Georgian Silver
Elizabeth Morley: George III toddy ladle, 1802; Alice and George Burrows: George III
snuffbox, 1802; Elizabeth Cooke: George III salver, 1767; Ann and Peter Bateman:
George III goblet, 1797; Hester Bateman: George III double beaker, 1790. National
Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC. Silver collection assembled by Nancy
Valentine. Purchased with funds donated by Mr. and Mrs. Oliver Grace and family.
[Fig. 30-17]

and Design (4 of 5)
• Decorative Arts
– Josiah Wedgewood was a talented chemist who developed
colored jasperware pottery.
– The Apotheosis of Homer features white figures against a blue
ground.
 The design was simplified in order to accommodate mass
production as well as the idealized notions of ancient Greek
art.

Josiah Wedgwood THE APOTHEOSIS OF HOMER
Made at the Wedgwood Etruria factory, Staffordshire, England. 1790–1795.
White jasperware body with a mid-blue dip and white relief, height 18" (45.7 cm).
Relief of The Apotheosis of Homer adapted from a plaque by John Flaxman, Jr., 1778.
Trustees of the Wedgwood Museum, Barlaston, Staffordshire, England. Photo ©
Wedgwood Museum/WWRD. [Fig. 30-18]

and Design (5 of 5)
• Decorative Arts
– He was also active in the effort to abolish slavery, evident in "Am I
not a man and a brother?"
 He commissioned a medallion for the British Committee to
Abolish the Slave Trade and sent copies to Benjamin Franklin,
then-president of the Philadelphia Abolition Society.

William Hackwood for Josiah Wedgwood "AM I NOT A MAN AND A BROTHER?"
1787. Black-and-white jasperware, 1-3/8" × 1-3/8" (3.5 × 3.5 cm).
Trustees of the Wedgwood Museum, Barlaston, Staffordshire, England. Photo ©
Wedgwood Museum/WWRD. [Fig. 30-19]

The Gothic Revival in Architecture and
Design
• Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto was regarded as the first
Gothic novel, setting the revival in motion.
– He remodeled his country house, Strawberry Hill, into a Gothic
castle.
 The Picture Gallery inside was inspired by engravings of
medieval architecture, in some places deviating to
accommodate Walpole's taste.

Horace Walpole and others STRAWBERRY HILL
Twickenham, England. 1749–1776.
Photo: Robert Neuman. [Fig. 30-20]

Horace Walpole, John Chute, and Richard Bentley PICTURE GALLERY SHOWING
FAN-VAULTED CEILING, STRAWBERRY HILL
After 1754.
© akg-images /A.F.Kersting. [Fig. 30-21]

Iron as a Building Material
• The bridge over the Severn River in England was the first large-scale
example of structural metal in bridge building.
• Requirements of engineering determined the form, but produced a new
aesthetic that would influence cast iron works leading up to the Eiffel
Tower.

Abraham Darby III SEVERN RIVER BRIDGE
Coalbrookdale, England. 1779.
© Dorling Kindersley. [Fig. 30-22]

Trends in British Painting (1 of 12)
• Portraits remained popular for the patrons with means to commission
them.
• A taste developed for subjects that reflected the social change,
embrace of natural beauty, and enthusiasm for technology that grew
within Britain.

• The Satiric Spirit
– William Hogarth invented moralizing paintings that the then turned
into prints to sell as a set to the public.
 The Marriage à la Mode series promoted marriage based on
love.
 The Marriage Contract shows a lord arranging for his son to
marry the daughter of a wealthy merchant, and the betrothed
couple is entirely loveless.

William Hogarth THE MARRIAGE CONTRACT
From Marriage à la Mode, 1743–1745.
Oil on canvas, 27-1/2" × 35-3/4" (69.9 × 90.8 cm).
National Gallery, London. © 2016. Copyright The National Gallery, London/Scala,
Florence. [Fig. 30-23]

• The Satiric Spirit
– Hogarth intended to create a distinctively British style without
obscure mythological references.
 Entertaining and amusing audiences while emphasizing the
downfalls of the aristocracy led to the popularity of his works.

• Portraiture
– Sir Joshua Reynolds was appointed the first president of the Royal
Academy.
– Combining his own taste for history paintings with patrons' desire
for portraits, he developed the Grand Manner style.
 Large scale and Classical details characterize this style.

Joshua Reynolds LADY SARAH BUNBURY SACRIFICING TO THE GRACES
1765. Oil on canvas, 7'10" × 5' (2.42 × 1.53 m).
The Art Institute of Chicago. Mr. and Mrs. W. W. Kimball Collection, 1922.4468.
© akg-images/De Agostini Picture Lib. [Fig. 30-24]

• Portraiture
– The emphasis on setting in Thomas Gainsborough's portrait of
Robert Andrews and Frances Carter almost turns it into a
landscape painting.
 Informal poses and natural landscapes were originally
introduced by Van Dyck in the 1620s.

Thomas Gainsborough ROBERT ANDREWS AND FRANCES CARTER
(MR. AND MRS. ANDREWS)
c. 1748–1750. Oil on canvas, 27-1/2" × 47" (69.7 × 119.3 cm).

• The Romance of Science
– An Experiment on a Bird in the Air-pump is Joseph Wright of
Derby's example of the Enlightenment fascination with the drama
and romance of science.
 In it, an experiment removed the air from a glass bowl until a
bird collapsed from lack of oxygen, but the bird is quickly
revived.

Joseph Wright of Derby AN EXPERIMENT ON A BIRD IN THE AIR-PUMP
1768. Oil on canvas, 6' × 8' (1.82 × 2.43 m).

• Academies and Academy Exhibitions
– History paintings were relegated to the highest place in the
Academy's hierarchy of genres.
– The competitive "Prix de Rome" enabled winners to study in Rome
for 3–5 years.
– Only seven women were admitted between 1648–1706, and
admission was limited to four thereafter.

Johann Zoffany ACADEMICIANS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY
1771–1772. Oil on canvas, 47-1/2" × 59-1/2" (120.6 × 151.2 cm).
The Royal Collection, Windsor Castle, England. Royal Collection Trust © Her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth II, 2016/. Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 30-27]

• History Painting
– Angelica Kauffmann embarked on an independent career in
history painting despite the trend of women specializing in
portraiture or still life.
 Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her Treasures illustrates a
moral lesson from ancient Republican Rome, and glorifies the
idealized "good mother."

Angelica Kauffmann CORNELIA POINTING TO HER CHILDREN AS HER TREASURES
c. 1785. Oil on canvas, 40 × 50" (101.6 × 127 cm).
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia. The Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams
Fund. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. Photo: Katherine Wetzel. [Fig. 30-28]

• History Painting
– American-born Benjamin West broke with tradition in his The
Death of General Wolfe.
 It was a "modern history" painting depicting a contemporary
subject in an elevated scene not meant to be perceived as an
objective recording.
 Poses suggest a Lamentation of the dead Christ.

Benjamin West THE DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE
1770. Oil on canvas, 4'11-1/2" × 7' (1.51 × 2.14 m).
National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. Transfer from the Canadian War Memorials, 1921.
Gift of the 2nd Duke of Westminster, Eaton Hall, Cheshire, 1918. National Gallery of
Canada, Ottawa. [Fig. 30-29]

• Romantic Painting
– John Henry Fuseli glorified Romanticism in works such as The
Nightmare, which was both irrational and erotic in its depiction of a
sleeping woman oppressed by a demon sitting on her chest.
 A horse bursting into the scene from the curtains adds
frightening effect.

John Henry Fuseli THE NIGHTMARE
1781. Oil on canvas, 39-3/4" × 49-1/2" (101 × 127 cm).
The Detroit Institute of Arts. Founders Society purchase with Mr. and Mrs. Bert L.
Smokler and Mr. and Mrs. Lawrence A. Fleischmann funds. Bridgeman Images.
[Fig. 30-30]

– Poet, painter, and printmaker William Blake was interested in
examining the nature of good and evil.
– The large print Newton was included in a series of prophetic prints
and depicted the epitome of eighteenth-century rationalism.

William Blake NEWTON
1795–c. 1805.
Color print finished in ink and watercolor, 18-1/8" × 23-5/8" (46 × 60 cm).
Tate, London. Photo © Peter Willi/ARTOTHEK. [Fig. 30-31]

– John Singleton Copley became a painter of modern history.
 Watson and the Shark is an example of a work with figures
inspired by Classical sources, but a gruesome subject.
– The inclusion of the African figure reflected a debate in
British Parliament about the American slave trade; it could
indicate Watson's sympathy for slaves.

John Singleton Copley WATSON AND THE SHARK
1778. Oil on canvas, 5'10-3/4" × 7'6-1/2" (1.82 × 2.29 m).
National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Ferdinand Lammot Belin Fund. Image courtesy
the National Gallery of Art, Washington. [Fig. 30-32]

Later Eighteenth-Century Art in France
• The Enlightenment threw out the extravagance of the Rococo style.
• French art and architecture held closer to Classical styles as the
Neoclassical movement took hold.

Architecture
• Jacques-Germain Soufflot's Panthéon exemplifies the Neoclassical
style of architecture in Paris.
– The building's ordered plan and sparse decoration reflect severity
and simplicity.
– Elements are drawn from ancient Roman temples, Wren's St.
Paul's Cathedral, and Chiswick House.

Jacques-Germain Soufflot PANTHÉON (CHURCH OF SAINTE-GENEVIÉVE), PARIS
1755–1792.
JonRob/Fotolia. [Fig. 30-33]

CUTAWAY ILLUSTRATION OF THE PANTHÉON
© Dorling Kindersley. [Fig. 30-34]

Painting (1 of 8)
• Denis Diderot was a leading detractor of Rococo in the 1760s.
– His Encyclopédie served as an archive of Enlightenment through
France.
– He believed that art's function was to "inspire virtue and purify
manners" that Rococo could never satisfy.

Painting (2 of 8)
• Chardin
– Jean-Siméon Chardin's Saying Grace illustrates a mother setting
the table for a meal in front of her two children.
 This genre painting extols the virtues of daily moral goodness
in order to live a proper political and familial life.

Jean-Siméon Chardin SAYING GRACE
c. 1740. Oil on canvas, 19 × 15-1⁄8″ (49 × 38 cm).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © Musée du Louvre, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais/Angèle
Dequier. [Fig. 30-35]

Painting (3 of 8)
• Greuze
– Jean-Baptiste Greuze specialized in reflecting Diderot's drame
bourgeois and "middle tragedy" through domestic genre paintings.
– The Village Bride appeals to the notion that poverty and virtue can
coexist.

Jean-Baptiste Greuze THE VILLAGE BRIDE, OR THE MARRIAGE, THE MOMENT
WHEN A FATHER GIVES HIS SON-IN-LAW A DOWRY
1761. Oil on canvas, 36" × 46 1/2" (91.4 × 118.1 cm).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre)/Franck Raux.
[Fig. 30-36]

Painting (4 of 8)
• Vigée-Lebrun
– Marie-Louise-Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun's Portrait of Marie Antoinette
with Her Children is in a more restrained style, depicting Marie
Antoinette as a "good mother" despite her reputation.

Marie-Louise-Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun PORTRAIT OF MARIE ANTOINETTE WITH HER
CHILDREN
1787. Oil on canvas, 9'-1/2" × 7'-5/8" (2.75 × 2.15 m).
Musée National du Château de Versailles. © Jean Feuillie/Centre des monuments
nationaux. [Fig. 30-37]

Painting (5 of 8)
• David
– Jacques-Louis David dominated French art for over 20 years
during the French Revolution and reign of Napoleon.
 The Oath of the Horatii was inspired by Pierre Corneille's
drama, Horace, but the scene occurs neither in the drama nor
any ancient text.
– It became an ironic emblem of the 1789 French
Revolution.

Jacques-Louis David OATH OF THE HORATII
1784–1785. Oil on canvas, 10'8-1/4" × 14' (3.26 × 4.27 m).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre)/ Gérard
Blot/Christian Jean. [Fig. 30-38]

Painting (6 of 8)
• David
– Death of Marat depicts not the violent stabbing of Jean-Paul
Marat, but the melodramatic aftermath.
 Marat's pose implies that he was a martyr for the people.
– David, a Jacobin, was arrested twice when the Jacobins lost
power, but re-emerged during the height of Napoleon's
ascendancy.

Jacques-Louis David DEATH OF MARAT
1793. Oil on canvas, 5'5" × 4'2-1/2" (1.65 × 1.28 m).
© Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels. © Royal Museums of Fine Arts of
Belgium, Brussels/Photo: J. Geleyns - Roscan. [Fig. 30-39]

Painting (7 of 8)
• Girodet-Trioson and Labille Guiard
– Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson's Portrait of Jean-Baptiste Belley was
a political statement.
 The subject was a former slave who had led the campaign to
abolish slavery in the colonies, particularly Saint-Domingue
(now Haiti).

Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson PORTRAIT OF JEAN-BAPTISTE BELLEY
1797. Oil on canvas, 5'2-1/2" × 3'8-1/2" (1.59 × 1.13 m).
Musée National du Château de Versailles. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (Château de
Versailles)/Gérard Blot. [Fig. 30-40]

Painting (8 of 8)
• Girodet-Trioson and Labille Guiard
– Adélaïde Labille-Guiard petitioned for the entry of women into the
French Academy in 1790.
– Her Self-Portrait with Two Pupils was submitted to the Salon of
1785.
 The only male in this painting is her father, shown in bust
behind her canvas—a role usually designated for women.

Adélaïde Labille-Guiard SELF-PORTRAIT WITH TWO PUPILS
1785. Oil on canvas, 6'11" × 4'11-1/2" (2.11 × 1.51 m).
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of Julia A. Berwind, 1953 (53.225.5).
© 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence.
[Fig. 30-41]

Sculpture
• Houdon
– Jean-Antoine Houdon was commissioned to make the portrait
statue of George Washington to be installed in the Virginia state
capitol building.
 The sculpture dresses Washington in modern clothes, but
poses him in a Classical manner.

Jean-Antoine Houdon GEORGE WASHINGTON
1788–1792. Marble, height 6'2" (1.9 m).
State Capitol, Richmond, Virginia. [Fig. 30-42]

Spain and Spanish America
• Spanish artists did not embrace Neoclassicism with as much
enthusiasm as the Baroque style.
• Court painter Francisco Goya shaped art at the end of the eighteenth
century.
• Colonial art and architecture intermingled Spanish Baroque with the
traditions of native peoples.

Goya (1 of 3)
• Francisco Goya (1746–1828) published a series of 80 etchings called
Los Caprichos that included The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters.
– The images are an attack on contemporary Spanish morals.
– Goya had to present the original metal plates to the king to insist
that the images were not intentionally critical of the monarchy.

Francisco Goya THE SLEEP OF REASON PRODUCES MONSTERS
No. 43 from Los Caprichos (The Caprices). 1796–1798; published 1799. Etching and
aquatint, 8-1/2" × 6" (21.6 × 15.2 cm). Yale University Art Gallery. Bequest of Ralph
Kirkpatrick, Hon. M.A. 1965 (1984.54.92.43). Image courtesy Yale University Art Gallery.
[Fig. 30-43]

Goya (2 of 3)
• The portrait of the Family of Charles IV reveals Goya's desire for a
more open Spain despite his allegiance to the king.
– It was painted to resemble Velásquez's Las Meninas, but the
figures seem bored and plain rather than regal.
– Despite this, the royal family was satisfied with the depiction.

Francisco Goya FAMILY OF CHARLES IV
1800. Oil on canvas, 9'2" × 11' (2.79 × 3.36 m).
Museo del Prado, Madrid. © 2016. Image copyright Museo Nacional del Prado. © Photo
MNP/Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 30-44]

Goya (3 of 3)
• The Third of May, 1808 depicts the murder of hundreds of Spanish
with its victims in blind terror.
– The sensational event, loose brushwork, lifelike poses,
unbalanced composition, and dramatic lighting reflect
Romanticism.

Francisco Goya THIRD OF MAY, 1808
1814–1815. Oil on canvas, 8'9" × 13'4" (2.67 × 4.06 m).
Museo del Prado, Madrid. © 2016. Image copyright Museo Nacional del Prado. © Photo
MNP/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 30-45]

The Art of the Americas Under Spain
(1 of 3)
• After the forced conversion of native peoples to Roman Catholicism,
Christian iconography mixed with indigenous symbols.
• Atrial crosses, such as the one in Mexico City, weaved the images
from illustrated Bibles with representations of sacrificial blood and the
tree of life, symbols common in indigenous art.

ATRIAL CROSS
Before 1556. Stone, height 11'3" (3.45 m).
Chapel of the Indians, Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City. © Jamie Lara. [Fig. 30-46]

(2 of 3)
• In 1754, Pope Benedict XIV declared the Virgin of Guadalupe to be the
patron saint of the Americas.
– Guadalupe was the location where a Mexican peasant named
Juan Diego claimed the Virgin Mary visited him to tell him to build
a church on a particular hill.

Sebastian Salcedo VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE
1779. Oil on panel and copper, 25" × 19" (63.5 × 48.3 cm).
Denver Art Museum. Funds contributed by Mr. and Mrs. George G. Anderman and an
anonymous donor (1976.56). [Fig. 30-47]

(3 of 3)
• Spanish architecture found its way to missionaries such as the Mission
San Xavier del Bac near Tuscon, Arizona.
– The people of the Pima nation prepared the site, which was built
upon by Velderrain in 1776.

MISSION SAN XAVIER DEL BAC
Near Tucson, Arizona. 1784–1797.
Paul Moore/Fotolia. [Fig. 30-48]

The Development of Neoclassicism and
Romanticism into the Nineteenth Century
• Neoclassicism and Romanticism existed side by side in European and
American art.
• Romanticism took a variety of forms with the common thread of
emotional expressiveness.
– Subject matter was dramatic and took cues from literature, current
events, nature, or the artist's imagination.

Developments in France (1 of 10)
• Paris attracted students due to the École des Beaux-Arts as well as
private instruction from ateliers.
• There was a divide between poussinistes and rubénistes as to whether
line or color was more important in art.
– The value of the preliminary sketch, esquisse, was hotly debated.

• The Grand Manner Paintings of David and Gros
– Four years before Napoleon became emperor, David painted
Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard, an idealized vision of the
emperor leading his troops across the Alps.
 Neoclassical delineation of forms meets the diagonals and
flowing draperies of the Baroque Grand Manner.

Jacques-Louis David NAPOLEON CROSSING THE SAINT-BERNARD
1800–1801. Oil on canvas, 8'11" × 7'7" (2.7 × 2.3 m).
Versailles, Châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (Château
de Versailles)/Franck Raux. [Fig. 30-49]

• The Grand Manner Paintings of David and Gros
– Antoine-Jean Gros worked in David's studio and eventually gained
commissions from Napoleon as well.
 Napoleon in the Plague House at Jaffa represents an actual
event in the Grand Manner.
 The scene is meant to incite veneration of Napoleon
specifically.

Antoine-Jean Gros NAPOLEON IN THE PLAGUE HOUSE AT JAFFA
1804. Oil on canvas, 17'5" × 23'7" (5.32 × 7.2 m).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre)/Thierry Le
Mage. [Fig. 30-50]

• Géricault
– Théodore Géricault's brief career was launched by the scandalous
painting of the "Medusa" shipwreck.
 Critics and royalists interpreted the painting as a political jibe at
the king.
 A debate was sparked about the point at which a work crosses
the line between art and political advocacy.

• Géricault
– Géricault painted a dramatic representation of the shipwreck of the
Medusa.
 In reality, 15 passengers survived by eating human flesh;
Géricault paints the moment when their rescue ship is spotted.
 Struggle of humanity against the elements is a greater theme
of the work.

Théodore Géricault THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA
1818–1819. Oil on canvas, 16'1" × 23'6" (4.9 × 7.16 m).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. © akg-images/Erich Lessing. [Fig. 30-51]

Théodore Géricault THE SIGHTING OF THE ARGUS
1818. Pen and ink on paper, 13-3/4" × 16-1/8" (34.9 × 41 cm).
Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lille. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais/Philipp Bernard. [Fig. 30-52]

Théodore Géricault THE SIGHTING OF THE "ARGUS"
1818. Pen and ink, sepia wash on paper, 8-1/8" × 11-1/4" (20.6 × 28.6 cm).
Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rouen. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais/Philipp Bernard. [Fig. 30-53]

Théodore Géricault STUDY OF HANDS AND FEET
1818–1819. Oil on canvas, 20-1/2" × 25-3/18" (52 × 64 cm).
Musée Fabre de Montpellier. Musée Fabre de Montpellier Agglomération.
Photo: Frédéric Jaulmes.[Fig. 30-54]

• Delacroix and Rude
– Eugène Delacroix became the leader of the Romantic movement.
 Liberty Leading the People is his most famous work,
summarizing the destiny of France after the fall of Napoleon.
– This is not the record of the massive July 1830 uprising,
but an imaginative re-creation taking the emotional climate
into account.

Eugène Delacroix LIBERTY LEADING THE PEOPLE: JULY 28, 1830
1830. Oil on canvas, 8'6-1/2" × 10'8" (2.6 × 3.25 m).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © Musée du Louvre, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais/Philippe
Fuzeau. [Fig. 30-55]

• Delacroix and Rude
– François Rude was commissioned for a sculpture to decorate the
main arcade on the triumphal arch on the Champs-Élysées.
– The sculpture, known as the Marsellaise, portrays Classical details
but an overall Romantic impact with a crowded, excited group of
figures.

François Rude DEPARTURE OF THE VOLUNTEERS OF 1792 (THE MARSEILLAISE)
Arc de Triomphe, Place de l'Étoile, Paris. 1833–1836.
Limestone, height approx. 42' (12.8 m).
© Kiev.Victor/Shutterstock. [Fig. 30-56]

• Ingres
– Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, trained by David, won the Prix
de Rome and eventually served as director of the French
Academy in Rome until 1841.
 His Large Odalisque shows a woman turning her naked body
away from her (assumed) master's gaze.
– Although the posture is Neoclassical, elongated,
anatomically incorrect lines of her back and hip reflect
Romanticism.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres LARGE ODALISQUE
1814. Oil on canvas, approx. 35" × 64" (88.9 × 162.5 cm).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre)/Thierry Le
Mage. [Fig. 30-57]

• Ingres
– Despite his distaste for portraiture, Ingres created a flattering and
credible representation of his subject in Portrait of Madame Désiré
Raoul-Rochette.
 The sitter's face is emphasized with careful shading; the
details in her clothing are subdued.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres PORTRAIT OF MADAME DÉSIRÉ RAOUL-ROCHETTE
1830. Graphite on paper, 12-5/8" × 9-1/2" (32.2 × 24.1 cm).
Cleveland Museum of Art. Purchase from the J. H. Wade Fund (1927.437).
Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 30-58]

Technique: Lithography
• In this technique, the artists draws on a flat surface with a crayonlike
instrument, then wipes the surface with water and an oil-based ink.
• Paper is pressed to the stone with a scraper and rolled through a
flatbed press.
• Daumier's The Print Lovers shows the trend growing among artists.

Honoré Daumier THE PRINT LOVERS
c. 1863–1865. Watercolor, black pencil, black ink, gray wash, 10-1/8" × 12-1/8" (25.8 ×
30.7 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre).
[Fig. 30-59]

TECHNIQUE: Lithography
Diagram of the lithographic process.

• Daumier
– Honoré Daumier was a skillful lithographer, portraying the
atrocities on Rue Transnonain wherein a riot squad killed
everyone in the building in which they believe a marksman was
hiding.

Honoré Daumier RUE TRANSNONAIN, LE 15 AVRIL 1834
1834. Lithograph, 11" × 17-3/8" (28 × 44 cm).
Yale University Art Gallery, Everett V. Meeks, B.A. 1901, Fund (1982.120.4).
Image courtesy Yale University Art Gallery. [Fig. 30-60]

Romantic Landscape Painting (1 of 7)
• Landscape painting was either tranquil or dramatic based on subject
matter.
• Romantic artists found the unpredictable, uncontrollable force of nature
as an analogy to human moods and emotions.

• Constable
– John Constable (1776–1837) specialized in scenes of rural
tranquility.
 The Hay Wain shows a slow-moving, carefully constructed
scene of England.
 The nostalgic landscape is comfortable, rural, and idyllic, in
contrast to the industrializing world around it.

John Constable THE HAY WAIN
1821. Oil on canvas, 51-1/4" × 73" (130.2 × 185.4 cm).
National Gallery, London. Gift of Henry Vaughan, 1886.
© 2016. Copyright The National Gallery, London/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 30-61]

• Turner
– The notion of the sublime according to Edmund Burke involves
feelings that transcend everyday feelings when one views
something that instills fascination mixed with fear.

• Turner
– Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851) manipulated colored
light and atmosphere in dramatic, moody storm settings.
 Snowstorm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps shows
figures reduced to specks as a vortex of wind, mist, and snow
become the subject.

Joseph Mallord William Turner SNOWSTORM: HANNIBAL AND HIS ARMY
CROSSING THE ALPS
1812. Oil on canvas, 4'9" × 7'9" (1.46 × 2.39 m).
Tate, London. © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Library. [Fig. 30-62]

• Turner
– The artist brought the sublime to a contemporary event in The
Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, 16th October
1834.
 Turner witnessed the event himself and made watercolor
sketches on the site from which to create the large-scale
painting.

Joseph Mallord William Turner THE BURNING OF THE HOUSES OF LORDS AND
COMMONS, 16TH OCTOBER 1834
Oil on canvas, 36-1/4" × 48-1/2" (92.1 × 123.2 cm).
Philadelphia Museum of Art. The John Howard McFadden Collection, 1928. © 2016.
Photo The Philadelphia Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 30-63]

• Cole and Friedrich
– Thomas Cole's The Oxbow was a dramatic, monumentally-scaled
painting of a view from Mount Holyoke, MA.
 The artist frequently worked from observation and this painting
represents a specific place and time.
 He contrasts two sides of the American landscape: the dense,
stormy wilderness and the congenial, pastoral valleys.

Thomas Cole THE OXBOW
1836. Oil on canvas, 51-1/2" × 76" (1.31 × 1.94 m).
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1908 (08.228).
© 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence.
[Fig. 30-64]

• Cole and Friedrich
– In Germany, Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840) used landscape
toward spiritual revelation.
 He was inspired by Kosegarten's writings and teachings,
believing landscape to be God's "Book of Nature."
 Abbey in an Oak Forest shows a funeral procession in the fog
with silhouetted tree branches a Gothic wall in ruins.

Caspar David Friedrich ABBEY IN AN OAK FOREST
1809–1810. Oil on canvas, 44" × 68-1/2" (111.8 × 174 cm).
Nationalgalerie, Berlin. © Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und
Geschichte, Berlin. Photo: Joerg P. Anders. [Fig. 30-65]

British and American Architecture
(1 of 6)
• Neoclassicism was often applied to secular public buildings for a
sense of grandeur and timelessness.
• Romanticism in architecture evoked the Gothic with its associations of
spirituality and community.

(2 of 6)
• Gothic Architecture
– The Houses of Parliament were erected in the Gothic Revival
style.
 Barry and Pugin devised a Classical plan with balanced
symmetry.
– For Pugin, Gothic was more of a principle than a style.
 It embodied two "great rules" of architecture regarding
convenience and ornamentation.

Charles Barry and Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT,
LONDON
1836–1860. Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England, London.
© S.Borisov/Shutterstock. [Fig. 30-66]

(3 of 6)
• Gothic Architecture
– Most early Gothic Revival buildings were Roman Catholic or
Anglican/Episcopalian churches.
 The Trinity Church in New York is an example.
 Details are rendered with historical accuracy, aside from the
vaults being plaster and not masonry.

Richard Upjohn TRINITY CHURCH, NEW YORK CITY
1839–1846.
Leo Sorel Photography. [Fig. 30-67]

(4 of 6)
• Neoclassical Architecture
– Neoclassical designs of national museums in European capitals
evoked them as temples of culture and expressions of
nationalism.
– The Altes Museum in Berlin features a façade comprised of 18
Ionic columns raised on a platform.
 Karl Friedrich Schinkel was commissioned to build it for the
royal art collection.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel ALTES MUSEUM, BERLIN
1822–1830.
© 2016. Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin.
Photo: Volker-H Schneider. [Fig. 30-68]

(5 of 6)
– Neoclassical style was utilized for the building of the U.S. Capitol
in Washington, D.C.
 Benjamin Henry Latrobe was hired to expand upon the
symbolism introduced by amateur architect, William Thornton.

Benjamin Henry Latrobe U.S. CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, DC
c. 1808. Engraving by T. Sutherland, 1825.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,Washington D.C.
Courtesy the Library of Congress. [Fig. 30-69]

(6 of 6)
– Thomas Jefferson designed his Virginia residence, Monticello, in
the 1770s as influenced by Roman architecture and British
Palladian villas.

Think About It (1 of 2)
• Summarize some of the key stylistic traits of French Rococo art and
architecture and explain how these traits relate to the social context of
salon life. Then analyze one Rococo work from this chapter and
explain how it is typical of the period style.
• Explain why artists as visually diverse as Delacroix and Friedrich can
be classified under the category of Romanticism. How useful is
"Romanticism" as a classifying term?

Think About It (2 of 2)
• How did the political climate during Francisco Goya's life affect his art?
Focus your answer on a discussion of Third of May, 1808 (Fig. 30–45).
• Discuss the relationship of the Enlightenment interest in archaeology
with the new movement of Neoclassicism in the eighteenth century.

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