Survey 1 ch16

Copyright © 2018, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Art History
Sixth Edition
Chapter 16
Romanesque Art

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
16.a Identify the visual hallmarks of Romanesque art for formal,
technical, and expressive qualities.
16.b Interpret the meaning of works of Romanesque art based on their
themes, subjects, and symbols.
16.c Relate Romanesque art and artists to their cultural, economic, and
political contexts.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
16.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts relevant to Romanesque art,
artists, and art history.
16.e Interpret a work of Romanesque art using the art historical methods
of observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.
16.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an
argument or an interpretation of a work of Romanesque art.

CHRIST AND DISCIPLES ON THE ROAD TO EMMAUS
Cloister of the abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos, Castilla y Leon, Spain. c. 1100.
Pier relief, figures nearly life-size.
Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 16-01]

Romanesque Europe
• During the eleventh century, William the Conqueror became England's
new king and replaced Anglo-Saxon nobility with Norman nobles.
• By the end of the twelfth century, exceptionally intelligent and
aggressive rulers had begun to create national states.

EUROPE IN THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD
Although a few large political entities began to emerge in places like England and
Normandy, Burgundy, and León/Castile, Europe remained a land of small economic
entities. Pilgrimages, monasticism, and crusades acted as unifying international forces.
[Map 16-01]

Political, Economic, and Social Life
• Europe remained a largely agricultural society, with land being the
primary source of wealth and power.
• Patterns of political and social dependencies varied from community to
community.
• Life was difficult and nobody was immune to warfare, famine, or
disease.

The Church (1 of 3)
• Christian rulers spread the religion throughout Europe.
• As a result, secular and religious authority became intertwined.
• Monasteries were the center of European culture.
• Pilgrimages and crusades also became popular.

The Church (2 of 3)
• Monasticism
– Monks and nuns provided valuable social services.
– Monasteries were landholders, and abbots and priors played a
large part in political power structure.
– Reform movements sought to return to austerity in the wake of
Benedictine communities.

The Church (3 of 3)
• Pilgrimages
– The holy places of Jerusalem, Rome, and Santiago de
Compostela received many visitors enticed by relics and
spectacular works of religious art.
• Crusades
– The Western Church launched a series of holy wars against
Islamic powers.
– Consequences were far-reaching.

Romanesque Architecture (1 of 2)
• Meaning "in the Roman manner," this term describes early medieval
European architecture.
• Architecture included solid masonry walls with rounded arches and
vaults.
• It was a period of great building activity born from the desire to glorify
the house of the Lord and his saints.

Romanesque Architecture (2 of 2)
• The Romanesque style is considered the first trans-European
movement.
• Timber remained common in construction, but Romanesque builders
turned to stone masonry for its valuable durability and strength.

"First Romanesque" (1 of 2)
• Patronized by Cound Guifred, the Benedictine monastery of Saint-
Martin-du-Canigou is an all-masonry church.
• This complex is capped by a massive stone tower.

SAINT-MARTIN-DU-CANIGOU
French Pyrenees. 1001–1026.
© akg-images/Stefan Drechsel. [Fig. 16-02]

"First Romanesque" (2 of 2)
• The Church of Sant Vincenç, Cardona
– This church in the castle of Cardona was consecrated 1040 and
exemplifies the "First Romanesque" style.
– Masons added strip buttresses on the exterior to strengthen the
walls.
– The interior features a series of transverse arches.
– Bay division became a standard.

INTERIOR, CHURCH OF SANT VINCENÇ, CARDONA
Spain. 1020s–1030s.
Archivo Fotográphico Oronoz, Madrid. [Fig. 16-03]

Art and Its Contexts: The Pilgrim's
Journey to Santiago
• Aymery Picaud wrote a travel book providing advice of local customs
and basic phrases for pilgrims on their way to Santiago de
Compostela.
– Bad food and poisoned water, bandits, and dishonest merchants
could impede pilgrims from completing their journey.
• Picaud described various routes and sites of note along the way.

THE PILGRIMAGE ROUTES TO SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA
[Map 16-02]

Pilgrimage Churches (1 of 3)
• Architecture focused on castles and churches to house relics that
would accommodate large crowds.
• Romanesque churches varied in design and building material.

• The Cathedral of St. James in Santiago de Compostela
– Builders designed the "pilgrimage plan" was used to control traffic
within the church.
– Barrel vaults, groin vaults, and halfbarrel vaults cover the nave,
side aisles, and galleries respectively.
– The cathedral had no doors and was open day and night.

PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. JAMES, SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA
Galicia, Spain. 1078–1122; western portions later. View from the east.
Kathy Mrozek. [Fig. 16-04a]

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. JAMES, SANTIAGO DE
COMPOSTELA
Galicia, Spain. 1078–1122; western portions later. View from the east.
Kathy Mrozek. [Fig. 16-04b]

• The Cathedral of St. James in Santiago de Compostela
– Santiago was admired for its excellent construction in its time.
 Considering pilgrims arrived after weeks or months of difficult
travel, it was particularly important for the church to be
impressive.

NAVE INTERIOR, CATHEDRAL OF ST. JAMES, SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA
1078–1122. View toward the choir.
© akg-images/Andrea Jemolo. [Fig. 16-05]

Relics and Reliquaries
• The Church decided that every altar required a relic.
• Owning and displaying relics from well-known heroes of the church
enhanced the prestige of a community.
• Theft of relics occurred often but was called as "holy robbery," and new
owners argued the saint had communicated to them to do it.

RELIQUARY STATUE OF SAINTE FOY (ST. FAITH)
Abbey church, Conques, France. Late 9th or 10th century with later additions.
Silver gilt over a wood core, with gems and cameos of various dates. Height 33" (85 cm).
Church Treasury, Conques. © akg-images/Erich Lessingthird. [Fig. 16-06]

Cluny (1 of 3)
• Cluny had an independence from the pope in Rome that allowed it to
keep its wealth.
• The monastery was a city unto itself.
• Some 200 monks observed the traditional eight Benedictine Hours of
the Divine Office daily.
• Churches were notable for fine stone masonry.

Cluny (2 of 3)
• The Third Church at Cluny
– At 550 feet long, this rebuild made it the largest of its time when it
was completed in 1130.
– The church was a basilica with five aisles, double transepts with
chapels, and an ambulatory and radiating chapels around the high
altar.

Cluny (3 of 3)
• The Third Church at Cluny
– Despite its grandeur, this monastery was suppressed during the
French Revolution and sold stone by stone.
 Today, only one transept arm from the original church still
stands.

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE ABBEY OF CLUNY
Burgundy, France. 1088–1130. View from the east.
Stephen Conlin © Dorling Kindersley. [Fig. 16-07]

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE INTERIOR LOOKING EAST,
THIRD ABBEY CHURCH AT CLUNY
1088–1130. From Kenneth John Conant, Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture, 800
to 1200. Yale University Press, fig. 103.
Reproduced courtesy of Yale University Press, London. [Fig. 16-08]

The Cistercians (1 of 2)
• Cistercians spurned Cluny's elaborate liturgical practices and aspects
of art such as figural sculpture in cloisters.
• They advocated strict mental and physical discipline and secluded
themselves from the outside world.

The Cistercians (2 of 2)
• Fontenay
– The Abbey of Fontenay is the best-preserved early Cistercian
monastery.
– Pointed arches, usually associated with Gothic architecture,
appear here due to a regional trend in Burgundy.
– Harmonious proportions were at the heart of this design.

PLAN OF THE ABBEY OF NOTRE-DAME, FONTENAY
Burgundy, France. 1139–1147. [Fig. 16-09a]

CHURCH INTERIOR OF THE ABBEY OF NOTRE-DAME, FONTENAY
Burgundy, France. 1139–1147. Looking toward the choir.
© akg-images/Paul M.R. Maeyaert. [Fig. 16-09b]

Art and Its Contexts: St. Bernard and Theophilus:
The Monastic Controversy over the Visual Arts
• Bernard of Clairvaux believed that artists were creating absurd forms
that were unnecessary to art in monasteries.
• Theophilus reassured artists that God would have delighted in
embellishments and that artists worked under the direction and
authority of the Holy Spirit.

Regional Styles in Romanesque
Architecture (1 of 7)
• The Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption in Pisa
– Maritime power Pisa called for a new cathedral to be build in
Mary's honor.
– Exteriors in Tuscany were richly decorated with marble.
– The complex added a baptistery, campanile, and walled burial
ground to the original cruciform basilica.

CATHEDRAL COMPLEX, PISA
Tuscany, Italy. Cathedral, begun 1063; baptistery, begun 1153; campanile, begun 1174;
Campo Santo, 13th century.
Folco Quilici © Fratelli Alinari. [Fig. 16-10]

• The Benedictine Church of San Clemente in Rome
– The columns are spolia, leftovers from Roman buildings.
– The liturgical choir for the monks extended into the nave itself.
– A baldachin covers the main altar in the apse.

INTERIOR, CHURCH OF SAN CLEMENTE, ROME
Consecrated 1128.
© akg-images/Erich Lessing. [Fig. 16-11]

• The Benedictine Church of San Clemente in Rome
– Mosaics line the semidome of the apse.
 In the example, stags drink from streams that flow from the
base of the cross.
 The subjects recall Early Christian art, but artists have
suppressed a sense of lifelike illusionism in favor of
ornamental patterns.

STAGS DRINKING FROM STREAMS FLOWING UNDER THE CRUCIFIED CHRIST
Detail of mosaics in the apse of the church of San Clemente, Rome.
Consecrated 1128.
© Dagli Orti G./De Agostini Picture Library, licenced via Alinari. [Fig. 16-12]

• The Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe
– Without galleries or clerestory windows, the nave and aisles rise to
equal height.
– The barrel vault is unbroken by transverse arches and becomes
an ideal surface for paintings.
 Tower of Babel embodies the energy and narrative vigor that
characterizes Romanesque art.

ABBEY CHURCH OF SAINT-SAVIN-SUR-GARTEMPE
Poitou, France.
Choir c. 1060–1075; nave c. 1095–1115.
© Achim Bednorz, Cologne. [Fig. 16-13]

TOWER OF BABEL
Detail of painting in nave vault, abbey church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, Poitou,
France. c. 1115.
© akg-images/De Agostini Picture Lib. [Fig. 16-14]

• Saint Climent in Taull
– The painter of the apse of San Climent in Taull has almost
recreated a Byzantine image of Christ in Majesty.
 It has been updated with a taste of geometry and ornamental
form, with stripes of color in the background.
 Elongated oval faces and large staring eyes show Byzantine
influence.

CHRIST IN MAJESTY
Detail of apse fresco, church of San Climent, Taull, Catalunya, Spain. Consecrated 1123.
MNAC–Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona.
© akg-images/Album/Oronoz. [Fig. 16-15]

• Speyer and Durham
– Compound piers mark each nave bay, alternating with smaller
piers to support the vaults of aisle bays.
– Groin vaults relieve stress on the side walls and allow for large
windows.
– The exterior emphasizes Ottonian and Carolingian influence.

INTERIOR, SPEYER CATHEDRAL
Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
As remodeled c. 1080–1106.
© akg-images/Bildarchiv Monheim. [Fig. 16-16]

EXTERIOR, SPEYER CATHEDRAL
c. 1080–1106 and second half of the 12th century.

• Speyer and Durham
– Durham Cathedral
 Although it has been altered since its construction, the
Cathedral's nave retains Norman Romanesque character.
 Enormous compound piers form rhythmic alternation.
 Carved ornamentation would have originally been painted.

PLAN OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL
Northern England. 1087–1133. Original east end replaced by a Gothic choir,
1242–c. 1280. [Fig. 16-18a]

INTERIOR OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL
Northern England. 1087–1133. Original east end replaced by a Gothic choir,
1242–c. 1280. Vault height about 73' (22.2 m).
© akg-images/A.F.Kersting. [Fig. 16-18b]

Secular Architecture
• Communities used much of their resources to build castles and
churches.
• Dover Castle was an exhibition of military power as well as an
example of defensive structures in years to come.
– The Great Tower, later known as a keep, stood in a courtyard.
– Moats and a drawbridge further removed the complex from
enemies.

DOVER CASTLE
Southern England. © Arcaid Images/Alamy Stock Photo. [Fig. 16-19]

Elements of Architecture:
The Romanesque Church Portal
• Important imagery appeared on the tympanum directly above the
door.
• Archivolts frame the tympanum, supported by the jambs on both
sides.
• Occasionally, a center pier called the trumeau supported the lintel
and archivolts.

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE: The Romanesque Church Portal

Romanesque Sculpture
• Romanesque sculptors transformed façades into narratives projected
symbolic and didactic programs to the outside world.
• Innovative portals are among the greatest artistic achievements of the
period.
• Figural sculpture appeared at entrances and inside churches
themselves.

Wiligelmo at the Cathedral of Modena
• Eleventh-century sculptor Wiligelmo was inspired by Roman
sarcophagi in his west façade relief of Modena cathedral.
– The Creation and Fall of Adam and Eve shows deft undercutting
and emotional depth.
 God appears to the far left in a mandorla, or body halo.

Wiligelmo CREATION AND FALL OF ADAM AND EVE, WEST FAÇADE, MODENA
CATHEDRAL
Emilia, Italy. Building begun 1099; sculpture c. 1099.
Height approx. 3' (92 cm). © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 16-20]

The Priory Church of Saint-Pierre at
Moissac (1 of 3)
• Sculptors carved "speaking façades" on Romanesque churches.
– Christian messages are displayed in public spaces.
• At the Saint-Pierre in Moissac, a powerful image of Christ in Majesty
dominates the tympanum.
– Foliate and geometric ornament covers the area.

SOUTH PORTAL, TYMPANUM SHOWING CHRIST IN MAJESTY,
PRIORY CHURCH OF SAINT-PIERRE, MOISSAC
Tarn-et-Garonne, France. c. 1115.

Moissac (2 of 3)
• The trumeau features a pair of lions and the prophet Jeremiah skillfully
conform to their constraints.
• The side walls of the porch in front of the portal are filled with figural
sculptures.
– Subjects convey human frailties and attempt to persuade viewers
to follow the Church's moral teachings.

TRUMEAU, SOUTH PORTAL, PRIORY CHURCH OF SAINT-PIERRE, MOISSAC
c. 1115.

Moissac (3 of 3)
• Graphic scenes of the consequences of sins are portrayed so
medieval viewers would relate and take warning.
• A calmer strip of relief shows the tale of Lazarus and Dives.
– The moral of sin can be easily read from the narrative format.

RELIEFS ON THE LEFT (WEST) WALL OF THE SOUTH PORCH,
PRIORY CHURCH OF SAINT-PIERRE, MOISSAC
c. 1115.

A CLOSER LOOK: The Last Judgment by Gislebertus (?)
West portal tympanum, Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, Autun, Burgundy, France.
c. 1120–1130 or 1130–1145.

The Church of Saint-Lazare at Autun
(1 of 2)
• The tympanum portrays the Last Judgment, and art historians believe
it may include the artist's signature under the feet of Christ to the right.
– As at Moissac, a hieratic figure of Christ dominates the
composition at the center, but figures' posture and placement
conform to their involvement in the story.

The Church of Saint-Lazare at Autun
(2 of 2)
• Historiated capitals, or lively narrative scenes within the confines of
capitals, were an important innovation.
– The same sculptors that worked on Autun also carved historiated
capitals inside the church.

THE MAGI ASLEEP (A) AND THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT (B)
Capitals from the choir pier pilasters, Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, Autun, Burgundy,
France. c. 1125
Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 16-25]

Sculpture in Wood and Bronze (1 of 5)
• Wood was a cheap, lightweight medium for devotional images, which
would have been carried in processions.
• Bronze sculpture was only produced for wealthy aristocratic and
ecclesiastical patrons.

• Christ on the Cross (Majestat Batlló)
– The Majestat Batlló presents a clothed, upright figure of Christ with
royal robes emphasizing his kingship.
– His expression of downturned head and mouth convey a sense of
sadness or introspection.
– Designs on Christ's hem were meant to resemble Arabic script.

CRUCIFIX (MAJESTAT BATLLÓ)
Catalunya, Spain. Mid 12th century.
Polychromed wood, height approx. 37-3/4" (96 cm).
MNAC–Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona.
© 2016. Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 16-26]

• Mary as the Throne of Wisdom
– In Virgin and Child, a well-preserved painted wood sculpture, Mary
herself forms a throne upon which Jesus sits.
 She represents the Church.
– Statues of the Virgin and Child were both cult objects and items
used in liturgical dramas.
 Such sculptures would "act" out their roles at the feast of the
Epiphany.

VIRGIN AND CHILD
Auvergne region, France. Late 12th century. Oak with polychromy, height 31" (78.7 cm).
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1916 (16.32.194).
© 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence.
[Fig. 16-27]

• Tomb of Rudolf of Swabia
– King Rudolf of Swabia is the oldest-known bronze tomb effigy.
– At one time, it was gilt, but few traces survive.
– The inscription circling the frame was incised after casting and
semiprecious stones would have been set into the eyes and
crown.

TOMB COVER WITH EFFIGY OF KING RUDOLF OF SWABIA
Saxony, Germany. c. 1080.
Bronze with niello, approx. 6'5-1/2" × 2'2-1/2" (1.97 × 0.68 m).
Cathedral of Merseburg, Germany. © akg-images. [Fig. 16-28]

• Renier of Huy
– Hellinus of Notre-Dame-aux-Fonts commissioned a baptismal font
from Reiner.
– 12 oxen lining the base can be identified as the 12 apostles.
– Reiner's mastery of human anatomy and movement was likely
drawn from close observation of real people.

Renier of Huy BAPTISMAL FONT, NOTRE-DAME-AUX-FONTS
Liège, Belgium. 1107–1118.
Bronze, height 23-5/8" (60 cm); diameter 31-1/4" (79 cm).
Now in the church of Saint-Barthélémy, Liège. © Achim Bednorz, Cologne. [Fig. 16-29]

Textiles and Books
• What critics later called "minor" or "decorative" arts were produced
with technical virtuosity from precious materials during the Middle
Ages.
• Artists of the time were often monks and nuns, creating works to be
used in liturgical services.

Chronicling History (1 of 3)
• In visual accounts of secular history, moralizing was the principal
objective.
• The Bayeux Embroidery
– This narrative strip chronicling Duke William of Normandy's
conquest of England in 1066 was likely produced by Anglo-
Saxons.
– It would have been displayed on walls of the cathedral during
feasts.

• The Worcester Chronicle
– This history book, written by a monk named John, delineates a
series of Henry I's nightmares.
 The subject was citizens demanding tax relief.
– Angry farmers depicted are significant because working men in
simple clothing were rarely painted during this period.

John of Worcester THOSE WHO WORK; THOSE WHO FIGHT; THOSE WHO PRAY–
THE DREAM OF HENRY I, WORCESTER CHRONICLE
Worcester, England. c. 1140.
Ink and tempera on vellum, each page 12-3/4 × 9-3/8" (32.5 × 23.7 cm).
Corpus Christi College, Oxford. CCC MS. 157, pp. 382-383. By Permission of the
President and Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford (CCC Ms 157). [Fig. 16-30]

• The Bayeux Embroidery
– The story of the embroidery seeks justification for the acts of
William the Conqueror.
– Anglo-Saxon nobleman Harold begins the tale as a hero, but
betrays his allegiance to William and dies in battle.
 In the dramatic narrative, Harold, like Shakespeare's Macbeth,
is overcome by lust for power.

MESSENGERS SIGNAL THE APPEARANCE OF HALLEY'S COMET,
THE BAYEUX EMBROIDERY
Norman–Anglo-Saxon, perhaps from Canterbury, Kent, England. c. 1066–1082.
Linen with wool embroidery, height 20" (50.8 cm).
Centre Guillaume le Conquérant, Bayeux, France. Musée de la Tapisserie, Bayeux,
France/With special authorisation of the city of Bayeux/Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 16-31]

BISHOP ODO BLESSING THE FEAST, THE BAYEUX EMBROIDERY
Norman–Anglo-Saxon, perhaps from Canterbury, Kent, England. c. 1066–1082.
Linen with wool embroidery, height 20" (50.8 cm).
Centre Guillaume le Conquérant, Bayeux, France.
Musée de la Tapisserie, Bayeux, France/With special authorisation of the city of
Bayeux/Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 16-32]

DETAIL OF FIG. 16-32 HIGHLIGHTING THE EMBROIDERY STITCHING
Bayeux/Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 16-33a]

Bayeux/Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 16-33b]

Sacred Books (1 of 3)
• Scribes at scriptoria produced copies of sacred texts, scholarly
commentaries, devotional works, lives of saints, and collections of
letters and sermons.
• The Codex Colbertinus
– St. Matthew shows the saint holding rather than writing in his
book.
 His body shows little three-dimensionality.

ST. MATTHEW FROM THE CODEX COLBERTINUS
c. 1100. Tempera on vellum, 7-1/2 × 4" (19 × 10.16 cm).
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. 254, fol. 10r. Bibliothèque nationale de France. [Fig. 16-34]

• The German Nun Guda
– In a Book of Homilies, the nun inserted a self-portrait into the letter
D.
– Though the illustration is simple, Guda's image is significant
because it marks the earliest signed self-portrait by a woman in
western Europe.

The Nun Guda BOOK OF HOMILIES
Westphalia, Germany. Early 12th century. Ink on parchment.
Universitätsbibliothek Johann Christian Senckenberg, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
MS. Barth. 42, fol. 110v. [Fig. 16-35]

• A Cistercian Tree of Jesse
– An abbreviated Tree of Jesse appears in a manuscript of St.
Jerome's Commentary on Isaiah.
– Mary stands over the forking branches of a tree, holding Christ in
her arm.
– Rather than painting, the artist has drawn this image with soft
colors.

PAGE WITH THE TREE OF JESSE, EXPLANATIO IN ISAIAM
(ST. JEROME'S COMMENTARY ON ISAIAH)
Abbey of Cîteaux, Burgundy, France. c. 1125.
Ink and tempera on vellum, 15 × 4-3/4" (38 × 12 cm).
Bibliothèque Municipale, Dijon, France. MS. 129, fol. 4v.
© 2016. Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 16-36]

Art and Its Contexts: Hidegard of
Bingen
• Born into a German aristocratic family, she founded a convent near
Bingen in 1147.
• Among her many achievements were treatises on medicine and
science, an alternative alphabet, motets and a musical drama, and a
book called the Scivias based on visions she had experienced from a
young age.

Hildegard of Bingen THE UNIVERSE
1927–1933 facsimile of Part I, Vision 3 of the Liber Scivias of Hildegard of Bingen.
Original, 1150–1175.

HILDEGARD AND VOLMAR
1927–1933 facsimile of the frontispiece of the Liber Scivias of Hildegard of Bingen.
Original, 1150–1175.

Think About It (1 of 2)
• Discuss what is meant by the term "Romanesque" and distinguish
some of the key stylistic features associated with architecture in this
style.
• Discuss the sculpture that was integrated into the exteriors of
Romanesque churches. Why was it there? Whom did it address? What
were the prominent messages? Refer to at least one church discussed
in this chapter.

Think About It (2 of 2)
• What is a pilgrimage site? How did pilgrimage sites function for
medieval Christians? Ground your answer in a discussion of Santiago
de Compostela, focusing on specific features that were geared toward
pilgrims.
• Analyze one example of a Romanesque work of art in this chapter that
tells a story of human frailty. Who was the intended audience? How
does its style relate to the intended moral message?

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