Many studies have been conducted to verify the effectiveness of technology-enhanced visual aids in second language learning, and conclude the positive effects of the aids both in incidental and intentional vocabulary learning. On the other hand, previous research by Sato & Suzuki (2010, 2011, 2012) to compare the effectiveness of still pictures with animations depicting the schematic images of English prepositions found no significant difference between the pictorial and animated images. This indicates that successful second vocabulary learning with technological aids results not only from the technology itself, but the individual factors of the learners who use the technology. This study, therefore, explores the individual factors that affect the learning of prepositions through the use of animations, focusing on information processing styles and the first language of the learners. The results of our research conducted both in Taiwan and Japan show that the Taiwanese received a positive effect in the post-test administered immediately after using the visual aids whereas the Japanese received a positive effect in the delayed-test two weeks later. Besides, the imagers, who prefer using images in processing information, tend to get better results than the verbalizers, who prefer using languages in their information processing, whether they are Taiwanese or Japanese. From these findings, we conclude the importance of individual factors in examining second vocabulary learning with technology.

1. Examining the Impact of Individual
Differences of Information Processing
Styles in Technology-Enhanced Second
Vocabulary Learning
Takeshi Sato Tokyo Univ. of Agri. & Tec., Japan
Yuda Lai Providence University, Taiwan
Tyler Burden Meisei University, Japan
Presentation for CLaSIC 2014 International Conference
on 5th of December 2014 at National University of Singapore

2. Compared with the static picture, does
this animation help ANY learners
understand a prototypical sense of
over?

3. Can visual aids help L2
vocabulary learning?
Yes
(e.g. Chun & Plass 1996; Al-Seghayer 2001;
Yoshii & Flaiz 2002; Sato & Suzuki 2010, 2012)

4. Learning tools with multimedia aids
From COCONE on YouTube
Sound
PhotoImage
Animation

5. From COCONE
(http://www.cocone.jp)
The more
technologically
advanced, the
better

6. To whom is it more effective?

7. Overview
1. Background
2. Research questions
3. Procedure
4. Findings
5. Conclusions

8. 1. Background
• Chanier & Selva (1998)
Animation > Picture
• Al-Seghayer (2001) Mayer and Moreno
(2002)
Video > picture
• Yoshii & Flaitz (2002)
Text and picture > Text only and picture only

9. My previous study
Which image could be an effective aid for
L2 vocabulary learning?

10. My previous study (Sato, 2013)
✓English spatial prepositions as target
words
✓Pictorial images and animated
images as visual aids

11. Learning English
prepositions
Difficult to learn.

12. Why are prepositions
difficult?
• They appear very frequently but
learners do not always understand
their meanings. (Lingstromberg
2001a)
• Learners cannot use them according
to contexts only by memorization.
(Lingstromberg 2001b)

13. “image schema” as a visual aid
(I)mage schemata are
abstract patterns in
our experience and
understanding...
(Johnson 1987, p.2)

14. prototype Extended
Examples
Extension
The clouds are
above the mountain.
The amount is above $ 100.
A flat high above the river.
? A flat high on the river.
? A flat high over the river.
Schematic pictorial
information of
basic prepositional
senses should be
used. (Brala, 2002)

15. Schematic image can
mediate several senses
The balloon is flying
over the mountain
Let’s talk over a beer!I got over my cold

16. How about an animation?
The balloon is flying
over the mountain
Let’s talk over a beer!I got over my cold

17. Results
No significant difference
(Sato & Suzuki 2009, 2010, 2011,
2012; Sato 2013)

18. We have reached…
• Technologically-enhanced visual
aids are not always superior to
traditional pictorial aids.
• Individual factors might
influence the results

19. Individual factors
 Styles of Processing (Childers
et al. 1985)
 Imager or Verbalizer
 Learners’ L1
 Japanese or Chinese

20. Process of learning
preposition with visual aids
I am ( )
average in
Math.
• Above, On, or Over?
• Which image is the most
suitable in the context?
I am above
average in
Math
• Selecting
appropriate
one

21. Process of learning
preposition with visual aids
I am ( )
average in
Math.
• Above, On, or Over?
• Which image is the most
suitable in the context?
I am above
average in
Math
• Selecting
appropriate
one

22. Process of learning
preposition with visual aids
I am ( )
average in
Math.
• Above, On, or Over?
• Which image is the most
suitable in the context?
I am
above in
Math
• Selecting
appropriate
one
The process
needs the
ability to
develop a
mental image
of the text

23. Imager vs Verbalizer
• Imagers tend to think in mental pictures
rather than words.
• Verbalizers (or low imagers) tend to think
in words rather than mental pictures.
• Verbalizers might not benefit from the
strategy from Cognitive Linguistics
(Boers et al. 2008)

24. L1 translations make learning
English prepositions more difficult
(Tanaka 1990)
-no ue ni
above
on
over
located at higher level
than something

25. How about in the case of Chinese?
zai ...
shangmian
above
on
over

27. 2. Research questions
• Overall, compared to the static visual aids,
do the animated visual aids enhance the
appropriate use of the prepositions?
• If the learners are imagers, do the
animated visual aids enhance their
appropriate use of the prepositions?
 If the learners’ L1 is Chinese, do the
animated visual aids enhance their
appropriate use of the prepositions more
than if their L1 is Japanese?

28. 3. Procedure
1.Japanese (n=160) and Taiwanese (n=51)
undergraduate students
2.Divided into 2 groups at random
3.Questionnaire (Information Processing Style)
4.Vocabulary pre-test (above, on and over)
5.Displayed 3 images or animations, with
sentences
6.Post vocabulary test (randomized)
7.Production test
8.Delayed vocabulary test (2 weeks after)
9.Delayed production test

29. Treatment 1: Above
Tanaka et al. (eds.) 2003 coconejp from YouTube
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=by2BIcd4AIQ

30. Treatment 2: On
Tanaka et al. (eds.) 2003 coconejp from YouTube
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fzk8kibGX2Y&feat
ure=c4-overview&list=UUrtW7B-57zAIz_1rpPiQ8Ew

31. Treatment 3: Over
Tanaka et al. (eds.) 2003 coconejp from YouTube
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ZGf2FF01pQ

32. Production (free-writing) test
• Students write as many sentences with
the prepositions as possible within 15
minutes
• Sentences were marked by two people
independently after deciding the criteria
• Scored for grammatically correct
metaphorical use (excluding idioms and
phrasal verbs)
• Average scores were used for the
analysis

33. 1. Overall, compared to the
static visual aids, do the
animated visual aids
enhance the appropriate
use of the prepositions?

34. Receptive
vocabulary(Overall)
19.0
22.5
21.0
19.3
23.1
22.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
pretest posttest delaytest
2D 3D

35. Production (Overall)
3.46
3.08
3.91
3.74
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
posttest delayed test
2D 3D

36. t-test (receptive)
• Pre-test: t(55)= -2.41, p < 0.05
• Post-test: t(55) = -0,39, p > 0.05
• Delayed-test: t(54)= 0.61, p > 0.05
(Sato, 2013)

37. t-test (production)
• Post test: t(148)=-1.00, p > 0.05
• Delayed test: t(148)=-1.80, p > 0.05

38. 2. If the learners are
imagers, do the animated
visual aids enhance their
appropriate use of the
prepositions?

39. Imager vs verbalizer (receptive)
22.5
20.8
22.4
21.2
24.1
22.9
22.1
21.1
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
imager post imager delayed verbalizer post verbalizer
delayed
2D 3D

40. Imager vs Verbalizer
(production)
1.94
2.48
2.74
3.38
2.00
2.48 2.54
3.10
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
2D verbalizers
(n=24)
2D imagers
(n=29)
3D verbalizers
(n=27)
3D imagers
(n=25)
posttest delayedtest

41. t-test (receptive)
verbalizer post t(101)= -0.314 p > 0.05
verbalizer delayed t(101)= -0.187 p > 0.05
imager post t(106)= -0.159 p > 0.05
imager delayed t(106)= -2.30 p < 0.05

42. t-test (production)
• Verbalizer Post test: t(49)=-1.816, p >
0.05
• Verbalizer Delayed test: t(49)=-1.421, p >
0.05
• Imager Post test: t(52)=-2.060, p < 0.05
• Imager Delayed test: t(52)=-1.402, p >
0.05

43. 3. If the learners’ L1 is
Chinese, do the animated
visual aids enhance their
appropriate use of the senses
more than if their L1 is
Japanese?

44. Japanese (receptive)
18.7
22.4
20.5
18.8
22.3
21.4
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
pretest posttest delaytest
2D
3D

45. Taiwanese (receptive)
20.0
23.5
22.5
21.2
26.2
24.2
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
pretest posttest delayedtest
2D 3D

46. t-test (Japanese, receptive)
• Pretest: t(159)= -0.11 p > 0.05
• Posttest: t(159) = 0.287, p > 0.05
• Delayed test: t(159)= 0.136, p > 0.05

47. t-test (Taiwanese,
receptive)
• Pretest: t(49)= -0.131 p > 0.05
• Posttest: t(49) = -2.23, p < 0.05
• Delayed test: t(49)= -1.45, p > 0.05

48. Japanese (Production)
1.87
2.26
3.05
2.81
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
posttest delayedtest
2D (n=53) 3D (n=52)

49. Taiwanese (Production)
6.654
4.712
6.214
6.000
4.000
4.500
5.000
5.500
6.000
6.500
7.000
post test delayed test
2D
3D

50. t-test（Japanese, production）
• Post test: t(103)=-3.927, p < 0.05
• Delayed test: t(103)=-1.858, p > 0.05

51. t-test（Taiwanese,
production）
• Post test: t(45)=0.55, p > 0.05
• Delayed test: t(45)=-1.89, p > 0.05

52. 5. Conclusion
• Significant differences between the groups
Delayed vocabulary test (Imagers)
Delayed production test (Imagers)
Post vocabulary test (Taiwanese)
Post production test (Japanese)
 Imagers could make better use of animated
aids
 Learners’ L1 might affect the results

53. Research Question Answers
 Overall, compared to the static visual aids, do the animated
aids enhance the appropriate use of the prepositions?
 NO
 If the learners are imagers, do the animated visual aids
enhance their appropriate use of the prepositions?
 YES (both in receptive and production test)
 If the learners’ L1 is Chinese, do the animated visual aids
enhance their appropriate use of the prepositions more than
if their L1 is Japanese?
 NO (Taiwanese are better in vocabulary test
while Japanese in production test )

54. That is to say…
Individual factors affect the
result of L2 vocabulary
learning with technologically-
enhanced aids

55. References
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56. Thank you for listening
ご清聴ありがとうございました
tsato@cc.tuat.ac.jp
https://tuat.academia.edu/TakeshiSato