Chapter 4Job Analysis and Job DesignCopyright .docx

Chapter 4
Job Analysis
and Job Design
Copyright ©2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
Explain what a job analysis is and how it is used in conjunction
with a firm’s HRM functions.
Explain how the information for a job analysis typically is
collected and incorporated into various sections of a job’s
description.
Provide examples illustrating the various factors that must be
taken into account when designing a job, including what
motivates employees.
Describe the different group techniques and types of work
schedules used to broaden a firm’s job functions and maximize
the contributions of employees.
Discussion Starter #1
Online services such as Skype and iMeet allow virtual workers

to get better acquainted with one another and have face-to-face
conversations across any distance.
What are some advantages and disadvantages of virtual teams?
Have you ever been part of a virtual team? If so, describe your
experience.
3
ANSWER: Virtual teams offer many advantages, such as lower
operating costs, lower employee costs, reduced travel time,
increased productivity, and increased flexibility for employees.
Although virtual teams have many benefits, they are not without
their problems. They include language and cultural barriers,
unclear objectives, time conflicts due to geographical locations,
and members’ ability to work in a collaborative setting.
Students’ answers will vary as to whether they have participated
in a virtual team.
Introduction

Job – An activity people do for which they get paid, particularly
as part of the trade or occupation they occupy
Workflow analysis – Helps a firm determine the best processes,
types, and mix of jobs, and how they should ideally be
organized to execute the firm’s mission
4
4.1 What Is a Job Analysis and How Does It Affect Human
Resources Management?
Job analysis – The process of obtaining information about a job
by determining its duties, tasks, or activities
Its basic responsibilities
The behaviors of the people who do it
The skills of the people who do it
The physical and mental requirements of the people who do it
A job analysis should also outline:
The tools needed to do the job
The environment and times at which it needs to be done
With whom it needs to be done
The outcome or performance level it should produce

5
Figure 4.1: Job Analysis: The Cornerstone of HRM Functions
Section 4.1: What Is a Job Analysis and How Does It Affect
Human Resources Management?
As Figure 4.1 shows, the information in a job analysis is crucial
to a number of HRM functions, including the following:
Strategic HR planning. A job analysis is used to examine a
company’s organizational structure and strategically position it
for the future. Does the firm have the right numbers and types
of jobs and skills needed to cover the scope of its activities now
and in the future? In addition, are the jobs aligned with one
another, or do their purposes or duties conflict with one
another? Are there tasks that need to be done in the organization
that are not clearly assigned to a particular job? Conducting a
job analysis helps ensure alignment.
Workflow analysis and job design. The information generated
by a job analysis can be used to analyze a company’s work
processes—that is, how work is done. Would rearranging an
organization’s workflow or jobs help a company better
compete? Can the nature of the jobs be redesigned to improve
the firm’s performance?
Recruitment and selection. Some of the information provided in
a job analysis is contained in job advertisements. The
information and qualifications provide a basis for attracting
qualified applicants and discouraging unqualified ones.
Training and development. Any discrepancies between the
abilities of jobholders and a firm’s job descriptions provide

clues about the training jobholders need to succeed and advance
into different jobs as well as the training the firm needs to
provide.
Performance appraisal and compensation. A job analysis
provides the criteria for evaluating what constitutes a good
performance versus a poor performance; the firm can then take
steps to improve the latter.
Compensation management. Conducting a job analysis helps HR
managers figure out the relative worth of positions so the
compensation for them is fair and equitable, and employees
want to remain with the firm rather than search for other jobs.
Legal compliance. If the criteria used to hire and evaluate
employees are not job related, employers are more likely to find
themselves being accused of discrimination.
6
4.1a Major Parts of the Job Analysis
Job description – A statement of the tasks, duties, and
responsibilities of a job to be performed
Job specifications – A statement of the specific knowledge,
skills, and abilities of a person who is to perform a job needs
Knowledge – What you know
Skills – Things you have learned to do
Abilities – Your innate aptitudes
Other attributes – Your personality, values, and so on
7
4.2 Sources of

Job Analysis Information
Interviews
Questionnaires
Observation
Diaries
8
Figure 4.2: The Job Analysis Process
Section 4.2: Sources of Job Analysis Information
Figure 4.2 shows the job analysis process. It includes how the
information to be analyzed is collected and feeds back into the
HRM functions discussed in Figure 4.1
9
4.2a Controlling the Accuracy
of the Job Data Collected
When interviewing employees or reviewing their questionnaires,
a job analyst should look for any responses that contradict other
facts or impressions he or she has received about the job.
Job analysts should collect information from a representative

sample of individuals doing the same job, not just one or two
jobholders.
Once a job analysis is done, it should be checked for accuracy
by the jobholders and their managers.
10
4.2b Other Sources of
Job Analysis Information (slide 1 of 2)
Functional Job Analysis System
Functional job analysis (FJA) – A job analysis approach that
utilizes an inventory of the various types of work activities that
can constitute any job
The Position Analysis Questionnaire System
Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) – A questionnaire that
identifies approximately 300 different tasks to determine the
degree to which each is involved in doing a job
The Critical Incident Method
Critical incident method – A job analysis method used to
identify both desirable and undesirable behaviors that resulted
in either a very good outcome or a very bad outcome on the job

11
Figure 4.3: The Critical
Incident Method Illustrated
Section 4.2b: Other Sources of Job Analysis Information
Figure 4.3 illustrates the critical incident method. The incidents
in the middle of the figure are associated with neutral outcomes.
Most of the outcomes will fall into this area. The incidents on
the ends of the figure are good and bad outcomes. Relatively
fewer of the incidents will occur in these areas.
12
4.2b Other Sources of
Job Analysis Information (slide 2 of 2)
Task Inventory Analysis
Task inventory analysis – An organization-specific list of tasks
and their descriptions used as a basis to identify components of
jobs
Competency-Based Approach
Competency-based approach – A job analysis method that relies
on building job profiles that look at not only the responsibilities
and activities of jobs a worker does currently but the
competencies or capabilities he or she needs to do them well
and to adapt to new job challenges

13
Figure 4.4: Form Used to Gather Information
for a Competency-Based Job Analysis
Section 4.2b: Other Sources of Job Analysis Information
Figure 4.4 shows a form used to gather information for a
competency-based job analysis.
14
Discuss the various ways in which a job analysis can be
completed. Compare and contrast these methods, noting the pros
or cons of each.
15

ANSWER: The textbook discusses the common approaches to
performing a job analysis. These include interviews,
questionnaires, observations, diaries, the functional job analysis
(FJA), the position analysis questionnaire (PAQ), the critical
incident method, the task inventory analysis, and the
competency-based approach. While all job analysis techniques
are subjective to some degree, those using quantitative
approaches (FJA and PAQ) are often viewed as more valid by
the EEOC and the courts. Techniques such as personal
questionnaires, interviews, and observations are highly subject
to bias and subjectivity.
4.2c Parts of a Job Description
(slide 1 of 2)
Most job descriptions contain at least three parts:
Job title
Provides status to the employee
Provides an indication of what the duties of the job entail
Indicates the level of the job in the organization
Job identification section
Contains administration information such as a numerical code
for the job, to whom the jobholder reports, and wage
information
Contains a “Purpose” statement which distinguishes the job
from other jobs in the organization
Job duties section
Typically arranged in order of their importance and sometimes
indicate the percentage of time devoted to each duty

16
4.2c Parts of a Job Description
(slide 2 of 2)
If the job specification is not prepared as a separate document,
it is usually stated in the concluding section of the job
description.
Covers two areas of qualifications:
The skills required to perform the job
Include the education, experience, and specialized training the
job requires, and the personal traits or abilities and manual
dexterities it requires
The job’s physical demands
Refer to how much walking, standing, reaching, lifting,
bending, or talking must be done on the job
17
4.2d Writing Clear and
Specific Job Descriptions
Several problems are frequently associated with job
descriptions.
If they are poorly written, using vague rather than specific
terms, they provide little guidance to the jobholder.
They are sometimes not updated as job duties or specifications
change.
They may violate the law or union agreements and lead to
employee grievances.

They can limit the scope of activities of the jobholder, reducing
an organization’s flexibility.
When writing a job description, managers should:
Keep the items on it direct and simply worded
Eliminate unnecessary words or phrases
Include language stating that the jobholder will perform “other
duties” as needed to help alleviate the problem of employees
claiming that a task “is not my job”
18
Group Activity
Step 1: Divide into groups of two. Find two articles related to
job analysis and summarize your findings based on the
following questions:
Describe the major parts of the job analysis process.
What is the difference between a job description and job
specifications? Cite examples.
Why is information collected during a job analysis important for
strategic HR planning?
What are the sources of job analysis information? How can the
accuracy of data be controlled?
Why is it important to have clear and specific job descriptions?
Step 2: To initiate discussion, share your findings with the rest
of the class.

19
Estimated class time: 30–45 minutes
4.3 Job Design (slide 1 of 2)
Job design – An outgrowth of job analysis that improves jobs
through technological and human considerations in order to
enhance organization efficiency and employee job satisfaction
20
Figure 4.5: Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Job Design
Approaches
Section 4.3: Job Design
As Figure 4.5 shows, four basic approaches can be used to
design jobs. Top-down approaches, which include industrial
engineering and ergonomics, focus on the tasks of a job and
how they can be done better. Bottom-up approaches, which
include enrichment and empowerment, are more person focused.

The idea behind these two approaches is to design jobs so that
the people doing them are more motivated to do them well.
21
4.3 Job Design (slide 2 of 2)
Industrial engineering – A field of study concerned with
analyzing work methods and establishing time standards
Determines which, if any, elements of work can be modified,
combined, rearranged, or eliminated to reduce the time needed
to complete the work cycle
Time standards are then established by recording the time
required to complete each element in the work cycle, using a
stopwatch or work-sampling technique.
22
4.3a Ergonomics
Ergonomics – The process of studying and designing easy-to-
use equipment and systems so the physical well-being of
employees isn’t compromised and work gets done more
efficiently
23

Video Highlight #1
A recent study found that sitting for more than three hours a day
takes years off your life expectancy. To promote better health,
many companies are now using standing desks. Forbes is one of
those companies. View this video to see the various types of
standing desks employees at Forbes are using.
“Stand for Your Life!”
24
Section 4.3a: Ergonomics
VIDEO: Stand for Your Life! (5:04)
A recent study found that sitting for more than three hours a day
takes years off your life expectancy. To promote better health,
many companies are now using standing desks. Forbes is one of
those companies. View this video to see the various types of
standing desks employees at Forbes are using.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EiKfHD9cV8U
TOPICS/CONCEPTS: ergonomics, standing desks, job design
4.3b Enrichment (slide 1 of 5)
Job enrichment – Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful
tasks and duties to make the work more rewarding or satisfying
Goal:
To enrich a job so that it is intrinsically motivating to
employees versus extrinsically motivating
Extrinsic motivators are external rewards such as money and
bonuses.

25
Job characteristics model – A job design theory that purports
that three psychological states (experiencing meaningfulness of
the work performed, responsibility for work outcomes, and
knowing the results of the work performed) result in a
jobholder’s improved work performance, internal motivation,
and lower absenteeism and turnover
26
Five core job dimensions produce the three psychological
states:
Skill variety – The degree to which a job includes a variety of
activities, which demand the use of a number of different skills
and talents by the jobholder
Task identity – The degree to which a jobholder is able to
complete a whole and identifiable piece of work—that is, do a
job from beginning to end with a visible outcome

Task significance – The degree to which a job has a substantial
impact on the lives or work of other people in one’s
organization or elsewhere
Autonomy – The degree to which the job provides a person the
freedom and discretion to schedule his or her work and
determine how to do it
Feedback – The degree to which a person is given direct and
clear information about the effectiveness of his or her job
performance
27
Figure 4.6: Job Characteristics Model
Section 4.3b: Enrichment
Figure 4.6 illustrates the job characteristics model. The job
characteristics model is proposed by Richard Hackman and Greg
Oldham. Hackman and Oldham believe that five core job
dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback) produce the following three critical
psychological states: (1) experienced meaningfulness of the
work, (2) experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work,

and (3) knowledge of the actual results of the work activities.
The three psychological states result in improved work
performance, internal motivation, and lower absenteeism and
turnover.
28
Other techniques to enrich jobs include job enlargement and job
rotation.
Job enlargement – The process of adding a greater variety of
tasks to a job
Job rotation – The process whereby employees rotate in and out
of different jobs
29
Empowerment
Employee empowerment – Giving employees the power to
initiate change, thereby encouraging them to take charge of
what they do
Succeeds when organization’s culture is open and receptive to
change
Must have the support of an organization’s senior managers
Workplace democracy – The utilization of democratic principles
such as voting and debate to give employees more say on how
an organization is run and the direction it will take
Job crafting – A naturally occurring phenomenon whereby
employees mold their tasks to fit their individual strengths,

passions, and motives better
Employee engagement – A situation in which workers are
enthusiastic and immersed in their work to the degree that it
improves the performance of their companies
30
4.4 Employee Teams and
Flexible Work Schedules
Increasingly, teams are how work gets done in organizations.
Companies are seeing advantages of tinkering with and
redesigning work schedules to make them more flexible, and
adding flexibility to where employees can work.
31
4.4a Employee Teams (slide 1 of 3)
Employee team – A group of employees working together
toward a common purpose, in which members have
complementary skills, members’ work is mutually dependent,
and the group has discretion over tasks performed
Employees are closest to the work that’s actually being done in

an organization.
Thus, they are often in a better position to see how the work can
be done better.
Teamwork can result in synergy.
Synergy occurs when the interaction and outcome of team
members is greater than the sum of their individual efforts.
32
Figure 4.7: Synergistic
Team Characteristics
Section 4.4a: Employee Teams
Figure 4.7 lists the behaviors that can help a team develop
synergy.
33
Figure 4.8: Forms of Employee Teams

Section 4.4a: Employee Teams
Figure 4.8 describes common team forms.
34
Figure 4.8 shows the different forms of employee teams.
Provide an example of where each type of team can be used.
How do teams create synergy?
35
ANSWER: Figure 4.8 describes common team forms. They
include cross-functional teams, project teams, self-directed
teams, task force teams, process-improvement teams, and virtual
teams.
Cross-Functional Team. A cross-functional team is a group
staffed with a mix of employees from an organization’s
marketing, production, engineering departments, and so forth
and is formed to accomplish a specific objective.
Project Team. A project team is a group formed specifically to
design a new product or service. The members are assigned by
their managers on the basis of their ability to contribute to the
team’s success. The group normally disbands after the task is
completed.
Self-Directed Team. A self-directed team is a group of highly
trained individuals performing a set of interdependent job tasks

within a natural work unit. The team members rely on
consensus-type decision-making to perform their work duties,
solve problems, or deal with internal or external customers.
Task Force Team. A task force team is a group formed by
management to immediately resolve a major problem.
Process-Improvement Team. A process-improvement team is a
group made up of experienced people from different
departments or functions. The group is charged with improving
quality, decreasing waste, or enhancing the productivity of
processes that affect all departments or functions. The members
are normally appointed by management.
Virtual Team. A virtual team is a team that utilizes
telecommunications technology to link team members who are
geographically dispersed—often worldwide across cultures and
across time zones.
Synergy occurs when the interaction and outcome of team
members is greater than the sum of their individual efforts.
Synergy in teams does not automatically happen, though. It
must be nurtured within the team environment. Team synergy is
heightened when team members engage in the following
behaviors:
Support. The team exhibits an atmosphere of inclusion. All team
members speak up and feel free to offer constructive comments.
Listening and Clarification. Members honestly listen to others
and seek clarification on discussion points. The team members
summarize discussions held.
Disagreement. Disagreements are seen as natural and are
expected. The members’ comments are nonjudgmental and focus
on factual issues rather than personality differences.
Consensus. The team’s members reach agreements through
consensus. Proposals that are acceptable to all team members
are adopted, even if they are not the first choice of some of the
individual members. Common ground among ideas is sought.
Acceptance. The team members value one another as
individuals. They recognize that each person brings a valuable

mix of skills and abilities to the team.
Quality. Each team member is committed to excellence. There is
emphasis on continuous improvement and attention to detail.
Typical team functions:
Setting work schedules
Dealing directly with external customers
Training team members
Setting performance targets
Budgeting
Inventory management
Purchasing equipment or services
Dejobbing – Refers to a process of structuring organizations not
around jobs but around projects that are constantly changing
36
Facilitating Teams
The following characteristics have been identified with
successful teams:
A commitment to shared goals and objectives
Motivated and energetic team members
Open and honest communication
Shared leadership
Clear role assignments
A climate of cooperation, collaboration, trust, and
accountability

The recognition of conflict and its positive resolution
37
4.4b Flexible Work Schedules
The more common flexible work schedules are flextime, the
compressed workweek, job sharing, and telecommuting.
Flextime – Flexible working hours that give employees the
option of choosing daily starting and quitting times, provided
that they work a set number of hours per day or week
A compressed workweek is one in which the number of days in
the workweek is shortened by lengthening the number of hours
worked per day (e.g., 10 hours a day for 4 days a week).
Job sharing – An arrangement whereby two part-time employees
do a job normally held by one full-time employee
Telecommuting – The use of personal computers, networks, and
other communications technology to do work in the home that is
traditionally done in the workplace
38
Figure 4.9: Keys for

Successful Telecommuting
Section 4.4b: Flexible Work Schedules
Figure 4.9 presents suggestions for establishing a successful
telecommuting program.
39
Video Highlight #2
A new study says a flexible work schedule can lead to more
sleep and better health. In this video, Dr. Carol Ash, Director of
Sleep Medicine at New Jersey's Meridian Health, joins CBS
This Morning to discuss the results of this study and the
correlation between work and sleep.
“Flexible Work Schedule Could Improve Health, Study Shows”
40
VIDEO: Flexible Work Schedule Could Improve Health, Study
Shows (2:48)
A new study says a flexible work schedule can lead to more
sleep and better health. In this video, Dr. Carol Ash, director of
sleep medicine at New Jersey's Meridian Health, joins CBS This
Morning to discuss the results of this study and the correlation

between work and sleep.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qw4g6U-gmA
TOPICS/CONCEPTS: flexible work schedules

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