PPT on Egypt

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Egypt officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is
a transcontinental country spanning
the northeast corner of Africa and southwest
corner of Asia, via a land bridge formed by
the Sinai Peninsula. It is the world's only
contiguous Eurafrasian nation and most of
Egypt's territory of 1,010,408 square kilometers
(390,000 sq mi) lies within the Nile Valley. It is a
Mediterranean country and is bordered by
the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast,
the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to
the east and south, Sudan to the south
and Libya to the west.

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• Egypt has one of the longest histories of any modern country,
arising in the tenth millennium BC as one of the world's
first nation states. Considered a cradle of civilization, Ancient
Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of
writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central
government in history. Iconic monuments such as the Giza
Necropolis and its Great Sphinx, as well the ruins
of Memphis,Thebes, Karnak, and the Valley of the Kings, reflect
this legacy and remain a significant focus of archaeological
study and popular interest worldwide. Egypt's rich cultural
heritage is an integral part of its national identity, having
endured and at times assimilated various foreign influences,
including Greek, Persian, Roman, Arab, Ottoman, and
European. Although Christianised during the Common Era, it
was subsequently islamised due to the Islamic conquests of the
7th century.

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With over 89 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country
in North Africa and the Arab World, the third-most populous in Africa
(after Nigeria and Ethiopia), and the fifteenth-most populous in the
world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of
the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres
(15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large regions
of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are
sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban
areas, with most spread across the densely populated centers of
greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with
significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa,
theMiddle East and the Muslim world. Its economy is one of the
largest and most diversified in the Middle East, with sectors such as
tourism, agriculture, industry and services at almost equal production
levels. In2011, longtime President Hosni Mubarak stepped down
amid mass protests. Later elections saw the rise of the Muslim
Brotherhood, which was ousted by the army a year later amid mass
protests.

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ARCHITECTURE: The
ancient Egyptians built their
pyramids, tombs, temples
and palaces out of STONE,
the most durable of all
building materials.
These building projects took
a high degree of
architectural and
engineering SKILL, and the
organization of a LARGE
WORKFORCE consisting of
highly trained craftsmen and
laborers.

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Apart from the pyramids, EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS were decorated with
PAINTINGS, CARVED STONE IMAGES, HIEROGLYPHS, and THREE-
DIMENSIONAL STATUES. The art tells the story of the pharaohs, the gods,
the common people and the natural world of plants, birds and animals.

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The flooding of the Nile rendered the narrow strip of land on either side of
the river extremely fertile. INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE was practiced by the
majority of the peasant population. who played a vital role within the
country's STRICT HIERARHICAL SOCIETY. As the flood waters receded,
SOWING and PLOWING began, using primitive wooden plows.
In addition to such GRAINS as barley and emmer (a coarse wheat), a large
variety of VEGETABLES were grown, including onions, garlic, leeks, beans,
lentils, peas, radishes, cabbage, cucumbers, and lettuce. There were also
FRUITS such as dates, figs, pomegranates, melons and grapes,
The abundance of flowers provided nectar for the bees to produce HONEY,
which the Egyptians processed. FLAX was grown for making linen, and
PAPYRUS was harvested to be converted into paper, ropes, mats, sandals
and light skiffs.

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Breaking the ground
with plow and hoe
Reaping and
scattering the
seed
Separating the
grain
from the chaff
Although the land was worked by the PEASANTS, it
was owned by the king, his officials and the temples.
Farmers had to meet GRAIN QUOTAS, which were
handed over to the owners as a form of taxation.
They were allowed to keep a portion of the crops for
their own benefit. If they did not produce the quantity
expected, however, they were severely punished.

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In mid-September, farmers
blocked canals to retain
the water for IRRIGATION.
Still used today, the
SHADUF is a mechanical
irrigation device used to
conduct water from the
canals to the fields.
One person can operate it
by swinging the bucket of
water from the canal to the
field

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LIVESTOCK was important to the Egyptian economy, supplying meat,
milk, hides, and dung for cooking fuel.
A variety of DOMESTICATED ANIMALS were raised, including cattle,
oxen, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks and geese. Peasants probably enjoyed
meat on special occasions..
DRAFT ANIMALS such as oxen increased agricultural productivity.
HERDSMEN and SHEPHERDS lived a semi-nomadic life, pasturing their
animals in the marshes of the Nile.

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Barley and emmer, were used to make BEER and BREAD, the main
staples of the Egyptian diet. Grains were harvested and stored in
GRANARIES until ready to be processed.
The quantities harvested each season far exceeded the needs of the
country, so much was exported to neighboring countries, providing a
rich source of INCOME for the Egyptian treasury

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Grapes were processed into WINE for the noble
class, but beer was the favorite drink of the
common people.
Food was served in POTTERY BOWLS, but NO
UTENSILS were used for eating.

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Pharaohs and nobles participated in HUNTING, FISHING and
FOWLING expeditions, a means of recreation that had ritualistic and
religious significance.
HUNTING SCENES often depicted on temple walls and tombs
reinforce the prowess of kings and nobles. Rabbits, deer, gazelles,
bulls, oryx, antelopes, hippopotamuses, elephants and lions were
among the wild animals hunted for their meat and skins.

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FISHING allowed the working class to add variety to its diet. The poor
substituted fish for meat, which they could not afford. The Nile, the marshes
of the delta and the Mediterranean Sea offered them a rich variety of
species.
FISHING METHODS included the use of a hook and line, harpoons, traps
and nets.
BIRDS, including geese and ducks, were also HUNTED in the marshes and
papyrus thickets along the Nile.
Small fishing boats called SKIFFS were made from PAPYRUS REEDS,
which are naturally filled with air pockets, making them particularly buoyant.
Skiffs were also used for hunting game in the Nile marshes.

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Most HOUSES were made of BRICK. The banks of the Nile provided the
mud used to make bricks.
Brick makers collected MUD, added STRAW and WATER to it as needed,
and stomped it with their feet until it reached the right consistency. The
mixture was then placed in a MOLD. Once shaped, the bricks were
removed from the mould and left on the ground to dry in the sun.
Egyptian PEASANTS would have lived in SIMPLE MUD-BRICK HOMES
containing only a few pieces of furniture: BEDS, STOOLS, BOXES and
LOW TABLES.

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• There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in
desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-
gatherers and fishers was replaced by a grain-grinding culture.
Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate
the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal
peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled
agricultural economy and more centralized society.[24]
• By about 6000 BC, a Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile
Valley.[25] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures
developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt.
The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally
regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower
Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven
hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities
coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two
thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent
contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian
hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on
Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.

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• The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from
southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier
with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture
and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named
themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on
Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in
Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.[29][30]
• The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed
suicide following the burial of her lover Mark Antony who had died in her
arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound), after Octavian had captured
Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced
rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and
were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom
and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, Hellenistic culture continued to
thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest.
• Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st
century.[31]Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to
the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians
were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into
Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian
Coptic Church was firmly established.

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The Byzantines were able to regain control of the
country after a brief Persian invasion early in
the 7th century, until 639–42, when Egypt was
invaded and conquered by the Islamic
Empire by the Muslim Arabs. When they
defeated the Byzantine Armies in Egypt, the
Arabs brought Sunni Islam to the country. Early
in this period, Egyptians began to blend their
new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices,
leading to various Sufi orders that have
flourished to this day. These earlier rites had
survived the period of Coptic Christianity.

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The Islamic Prophet Muhammad's first interaction with the people of
Egypt was during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha. He sent Hatib
bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt
called Muqawqis. In the letter Muhammad said: "I invite you to
accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if
you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression
of all the Copts". During this expedition one of Muhammad's
envoys Dihyah bin Khalifa Kalbi was attacked, Muhammad
sent Zayd ibn Haritha to help him. Dihya approached the Banu
Dubayb (a tribe which converted to Islam and had good relations
with Muslims) for help. When the news reached Muhammad, he
immediately dispatched Zayd ibn Haritha with 500 men to punish
them. The Muslim army fought with Banu Judham, killed several of
them, including their chief, Al-Hunayd ibn Arid and his son, and
captured 1000 Camels, 5000 of their cattle and a 100 women and
boys. The new chief of the Banu Judham who had embraced
Islam appealed to Muhammad to release his fellow tribesman, and
Muhammad released them.

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Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic
Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for
the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat
of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the
end of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty,
the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassianmilitary
caste, took control about AD 1250. By the
late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea,
India, Malaya, and East Indies.[38] The mid-
14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of
the country's population. Hatib bin Abi
Baltaeh to the king of Egypt
called Muqawqis to invite him to Islam

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• Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it
became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defensive militarisation
damaged its civil society and economic institutions.[38] The weakening of
the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt
vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their
trade.[38] Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.[40] The
1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[41]
• Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control,
due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks, the
Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries.
• Napoleon defeated Mamluk troops in the Battle of the Pyramids, 21 July
1798, painted by Lejeune
• Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was
invaded by the French forces of Napoleon in 1798. After the French were
defeated by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a
three-way power struggle ensued between the Ottoman Turks,
Egyptian Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian
mercenaries in the service of the Ottomans.

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• After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805
by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of
the Ottoman army in Egypt. While he carried the title of
viceroy of Egypt, his subordination to the Ottoman Porte was
merely nominal. Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that was
to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952.
• The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its
agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the
century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production
towards international markets.
• Muhammad Ali annexed Northern Sudan (1820–
1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in
1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman
Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the
Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the
country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and
transport, and reformed the civil service.

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• Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman
province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal
state or Khedivate in 1867, a status which was to remain in place until 1914.
• The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in
1869. Its construction led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused
popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it required. In 1875
Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British
Government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and
French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial
power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the
Government."[44]
• Female nationalists dIn later years, the dynasty became a British
puppet. Isma'il and Tewfik Pasha governed Egypt as a quasi-independent
state under Ottoman suzerainty until the British occupation of 1882.
• emonstrating in Cairo, 1919
• Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the
formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a
prominent figure. Fearing a reduction of their control, the UK and France
intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army
at the battle of Tel el-Kebir. They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as
figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.

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• The Khedivate of Egypt remained a de jure Ottoman province
until 5 November 1914, when it was declared
a British protectorate in reaction to the decision of the Young
Turks of the Ottoman Empire to join World War I on the side of
the Central Powers.
• In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the
head of state was changed to sultan, to repudiate the vestigial
suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing the Central
powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as khedive and
replaced by his uncle, Hussein Kamel, as sultan.
• After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the
Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local
Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his
associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in
its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to
issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22
February 1922.

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Following the 1952
Revolution by the Free Officers
Movement, the rule of Egypt
passed to military hands. On 18
June 1953, the Egyptian
Republic was declared, with
General Muhammad Naguib as
the first President of the
Republic.

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• Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser –
the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put
under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President in
June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the
occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956.
He nationalised the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the
1956 Suez Crisis.
• In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as
the United Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in
1961 when Syria seceded, thus ending the union. During most
of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a
loose confederation with North Yemen (formerly the
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the United Arab
States. In 1959, the All-Palestine Government of the Gaza
Strip, an Egyptian client state, was absorbed into the United
Arab Republic under the pretext of Arab union, and was never
restored.

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• In 1970, President Nasser died and was
succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched
Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet
Union to the United States, expelling Soviet
advisors in 1972. He launched
the Infitah economic reform policy, while
clamping down on religious and secular
opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria,
launched the October War, a surprise attack to
regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had
captured 6 years earlier. it presented Sadat with
a victory that allowed him to regain the Sinai
later in return for peace with Israel.

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• Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet
eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically,
Mubarak faced serious problems. Even though farm and
industry output expanded, the economy could not keep pace
with the population boom. Mass poverty and unemployment led
rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended
up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive.
• In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt
became numerous and severe, and began to target
Christian Copts, foreign tourists and government officials.[62] In
the 1990s an Islamist group, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged
in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and
attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the
repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage
was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism—
and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the
livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended
for support.

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• On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against
Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak
resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in
Cairo's Tahrir Square at the news. The Egyptian military then
assumed the power to govern. Mohamed Hussein Tantawi,
chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces,
became the de facto interim head of state. On 13 February
2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the
constitution.
• A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. On 28
November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since
the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and
there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.
Mohamed Morsi was elected president on 24 June 2012. On 2
August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced
his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers including
four from the Muslim Brotherhood.

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• On 3 July 2013, the military removed
President Morsi from power in a coup d'état and
installed an interim government. The move came 3 days
after mass protests were organised across Egypt for and
against Morsi's rule.
• On 4 July 2013, 68-year old Chief Justice of
the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt Adly
Mansour was sworn in as acting president over the new
government following the removal of Morsi. The military-
backed Egyptian authorities cracked down on the
Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing
thousands and killing hundreds of street
protesters. Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and
activists have either been sentenced to death or life
imprisonment in a series of mass trials.

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