Different Aspects Of The Trait Theory Of Personality

Different Aspects Of The Trait Theory Of Personality
2.1.1.1 Trait theory of personality
Trait theory of personality is concerned with the identification and measurement of human
characteristics. These human characteristics could be personality, aptitude, competency, ability, and
so on. These characteristics (also called traits) contribute to the disposition of an individual. A trait is
a characteristic of an individual that is assumed to be stable across situations and time but differ
across individuals. This characteristic can be numerous in an individual and when all are combined
they form the psychological person. Cherry (2016) has it that the combination and interaction of
various traits form a personality that is unique to an individual. Each individual has a unique
personality trait and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Charles Spearman proposed this theory in 1904 and called it "Two–factor theory". Spearman's two
factor theory is based on factor analysis. This is a psychometric procedure that correlates test scores
to ascertain underlying factors. He applied factor analysis to study relationships between examinees
scores on tests of intelligence. From his results he concluded that examinees who performed poorly
on an intelligence test also tended to perform poorly on other intelligent tests. The findings of his
study led him to conclude that there are some factors that are common to all intellectual tasks. He
further explained that each examinee's activity involves a general factor 'g' with which it shares with
all intellectual activity and a specific factor 's' which belongs to a specific ability of that particular
examinee to deal with specific problems. 'g' run across all forms of test tasks that an examinee
performs. The quantity of 'g' depends on the amount of cerebral cortex energy present and the
maximum quantum of this is predetermined. The degree to which an examinee uses this energy
during testing and other activities depends on his exposure, environment, upbringing, motivation,
education, and so on. Higher degree of this energy use correlates with higher success while lower
degree of this energy use correlates with lower degree of success. Unequal exposure to experiences
in examinees results in differential performances. Environmental
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The Decline of the World's IQ
What will end the world as we know it? It could be climate change, disease, famine, or global war.
If none of those come to pass there is always the truth that we are breeding our IQ into the
basement. It's called dysgeneic fertilization, and it has been happening for as long as we've been
recording intelligence. Although this decline can be seen across the board, not everyone is affected
the same way or to the same extent. With each generation that passes a gap widens between those
retaining intelligence and those hemorrhaging intelligence. Action must be taken to prevent the gap
from widening in order to stem a social divide and dystopia from forming.
Declining intellect is a problem that has been of interest for over a century. ... Show more content on
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Moving away from the socioeconomic segregation, we find that the social divide isn't limited to just
level of intelligence. The Bell Curve discusses the disparity between white and blacks, and how race
plays a part in levels of intelligence. Opponents to this segregation dismiss the findings of
Herrnstein and Murray as a racist ploy (Fraser et al.), but Herrnstein and Murray do not take a racist
stance. They show that after controlling for IQ, race holds little sway and even gives blacks an edge
in obtaining high–IQ jobs (Herrnstein and Murray 317–340). This isn't to say a clear disparity
doesn't exist currently. However, race isn't the only factor when determining dysgenics. They go as
far as to show that on even footing, race won't matter. Bringing us back to the lines drawn between
the classes, you can easily see where the other factors suggested by Flynn will come into play. If
these trends continue, what is the future that we face? Embracing prognostication presented in the
media, the outcomes do not look bright. Andrew Niccol tackles the dystopic future in two of his
works, In Time and Gattaca. Niccol's In Time tackles the socioeconomic divide based on a class or
caste system. With a focus

Iq Tests And Cultural Bias
Essay #3: IQ Tests and Cultural Bias There was a cartoon showing different animals, including an
elephant, fish, seal, and monkey, lined up by a tree in front of a man behind a desk. The man said he
was going to make a fair selection by giving them all the same test. The test was that they all had to
climb the tree. In this case, the monkey probably was the only one that thought the test was fair.
Welcome to the controversy over IQ (Intelligent Quotient) tests and cultural diversity. In 1904, a
French psychologist (Alfred Binet) created the first intelligence test in order to help the French
Ministry of Education segregate children that may have difficulty learning in a regular classroom. At
that time, he did not know that his test would be the basis for IQ tests administered over 100 years
later. He has a Stanford University psychologist, Lewis Terman, to thank for expanding his work
and creating the Stanford–Binet intelligence test that took root in the United States in 1916 and is
still popular today. However, along with its popularity came criticism. Critics see the current version
of the Stanford – Binet test and other intelligence tests, despite attempts to make them culturally
fair, as limiting to individuals who are not from the major social norm. They claim that cultural bias
in test questions is why certain races do not perform as well as others on the test. Psychologist
Arthur Jensen stated the extent of the controversy best in the opening to his 1978 article,

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Intelligence
Generally, intelligence is implied to a man who can learn, comprehend and apply the information or
abilities towards a specific issue. In other word, intelligence is characterized as general intellectual
critical thinking aptitudes which identified with mental capacity which engaged with thinking,
seeing the connections and analogies, critical thinking and some more. In light of what we have
discovered, knowledge is acquired however it can likewise be identified with the earth all things
considered. An investigation in America demonstrated that heredity was a vital factor in deciding
intelligence. It was likewise recommended that condition or environment was a basic factor in
deciding the degree of its demeanour or attitude. Next, what is ... Show more content on
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In section one "Language reasoning", three out of five answer correctly while two of us choose the
wrong answer .This happen because they do not familiar with the words given and also lack of
vocabulary . For those who answered correctly they categorized all the animals into two group;
smaller and bigger in size then chose the relevant answer for the question . Next , in section two
"Numerical reasoning" we have found that many of us could not answer the question . The question
was a bit tricky and confusing as we could not find the pattern of the number are arranged and we
could not predict whether the answer in descending or ascending order . In section three "Logical
reasoning" , one of us choose the wrong answer because she can not visualize the picture properly .
To answer the question we must have sharp visual sensitivity , shape and exact sizes of objects to
understand it . Then in section four "Abstract reasoning" , one of us choose 'd' as the answer because
she thought the option given in 'd' is different from other option . In 'a' , 'b' and 'c' have smaller shape
inside and bigger shape outside but in 'd' obviously different , then she choose 'd' as answer but the
real answer actually regarding to the square shapes in the outside and circle shaped inside . In the
last section " Technological skills" , some of us thought that sphere has bigger surface area
compared to

Intelligence Testing : An Individual 's General Mental...
Intelligence tests are set and used to measure an individual's general mental ability. In other words,
unlike the tests and exams we take at school, intelligence tests test our intellectual potential rather
than accumulated knowledge (Weiten & McCann, 2016). A key component to intelligence testing is
looking at an individual's mental age which is the mental development of a person relative to others
(Tsuji, 2016). In 1904 Alfred Binet was asked to design a test that would identify children that are
considered to be mentally subnormal (Weiten & McCann, 2016). Along with Theodore Simon, Binet
created the first test of mental ability in 1905 (Weiten & McCann, 2016). He later revised the scale
created to identify a child's mental age in order to have a better judgement (Weiten & McCann,
2016). Following his death, other psychologist continued to build on the work he had begun this
includes Lewis Terman and others at Stanford University. In 1916 the Stanford–Binet intelligence
scale was published which stayed true to the original concept but used a new scoring method using
the intelligence quotient (IQ) (Weiten & McCann, 2016).
An intelligence quotient is the result given by dividing a child's mental age by their chronological
age and then multiplying by 100 (Weiten & McCann, 2016). For example, suppose the individual is
9 years of age and their mental age is determined to be 12, their IQ would in turn be 133 (Tsuji,
2016). This type of testing using this ration thereby makes it

Essay on Standardized Test
Standardized Test Standardized test have been a means measuring student performance. Some
important questions that always come up regarding standardized test are what are the tests really
measuring? Are they measuring a person's intelligence? Their ability to perform well on
standardized tests? Or just some random quantity of the person's IQ? When examining the issues
around which these tests are given and the content of the tests themselves, it becomes apparent that
however useful the tests may be for standardizing a group's intellectual ability, they are not a good
indicator of intelligence.
To issue a truly standardized test, the testing environment should be the same for everyone involved.
A person's environment ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What about physical intelligence, conversational intelligence, social intelligence, survival
intelligence, and the others that go into everyday life? Why are these important traits not figured into
intelligence tests? Standardized tests certainly get predictable results where academics are
concerned, but they should not be considered good indicators of general intelligence because of the
omissions they make in the testing process. To really gauge a person's intelligence, it would be
necessary to put them through a rigorous set of real–life trials and document their performance. The
standardized IQ tests of today are test only a limited quality of a person's character that can hardly
be referred to as intelligence. Standardized test also have no way to compensate for cultural
differences. Different cultures have different methods of solving problems, and speediness is not
always the best way to tackle a problem. Therefore the time limitations on standardized test are a
major drawback.
The reasons that IQ tests fail at their task can be separated into two main groups. The first grouping
is where the tests assume too much. Examples of this are the assumption that speed is always good,
vocabulary is a good indicator of intelligence, and that different test taking environments won't
affect the outcome. The second grouping comes because the tests gauge the wrong items. Examples
of this are different culture groups being asked to take the

Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?
Intelligence by definition is "the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills" (Oxford
Dictionary, 2014). However, many psychologists argue that there is no standard definition of
'intelligence', and there have been many different theories over time as psychologists try to find
better ways to define this concept (Boundless 2013). While some believe in a single, general
intelligence, others believe that intelligence involves multiple abilities and skills. Another largely
debated concept is whether intelligence is genetically determined and fixed, or whether is it open to
change, through learning and environmental influence. This is commonly known as the nature vs.
nurture debate. On the 'nature' side of the debate is the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Binet was involved in creating one of the more recent forms of intelligence test, referred to as the
Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale. A similar test is that formulated by Wechsler (Neisser et al.
1996). These led to the measure of IQ ("intelligence quotient") being founded, where an individual's
"mental age is divided by their chronological age and multiplied by 100" (Gardner 2006, p. 3). The
tests measure intelligence through verbal and non–verbal tasks, assessing scholastic aptitude, school
achievement and specific abilities (Neisser et al. 1996, p. 78). Charles Spearman's theory (1904)
also takes the psychometric approach that there is a general intelligence. Spearman maintains that
intelligence is hereditary and an individual is born with their maximum mental ability. This suggests
that intelligence cannot be changed or strengthened. The concept of 'general intelligence' suggests
that an individual has an underlying intelligence, in which their performance in one type of
cognitive task is often similar to their performance in another (Boundless 2013). Spearman
demonstrated this through the correlations between tests, where individuals who performed well in
one test, often performed well in others. This led Spearman to the conclusion that intelligence is
defined as a single factor. However, critics refute Spearman's conclusions, as they argue that one
cannot reduce all factors of intelligence to an indefinable "g" (Neisser et al. 1996). Howard

The Importance Of Poverty In Schools
Minorities could be scoring almost 15 points lower then non–minority cohorts for multiple reasons,
which includes the following.
Poverty could be considered one of the obvious reasons for this gap in IQ scores for example,
schools in poverty stricken areas could receive less funding and opportunities for more money then
schools in areas that aren't affected by poverty. Less funding means less everything pretty much that
a school needs (books, computers & that chance of having good staff to teach these kids). Without
being given some of these tools that schools need to succeed, could greatly affect the kids in it and
obviously will affect their intelligence level at some stage. I have some friends that are teachers, in
the Bronx as well as areas in Westchester like White Plains, etc. They could tell you first hand there
are clear differences in every aspect of a school in the south Bronx in comparison to a White Plains
school district.
To be culturally biased is the phenomenon of interpreting and judging phenomena by standards
inherent to one's own culture. In regards to this specific testing, one would assume that just because
one is a minority and could possibly live in a poverty–stricken neighborhood that they might
automatically already be considered to have a low IQ, which is not always the case.
After looking through the WISC IV, there are most certainly aspects of it that could be culturally
biased. For example, the Vocab section can be easily seen as a grey

Questions On Intelligence And Intelligence
Everyone has their own unique ability to understand complex ideas and use reasoning to solve a
problem. These capabilities are what we typically associate with intelligence. However, intelligence
cannot easily be defined by a single IQ number on a scale or even by saying someone is "smart" or
"dumb" in a certain area of knowledge such as math or science. Each and every person is unique in
their own respect and there are a multitude of facets that contribute to the way we measure and
assess an individual's abilities to understand or adapt to a given situation.
Intelligence is a combination of an individual's ability to learn, pose problems, and solve problems.
Learning is the ability to combine education, experiences, and training and transform that into
background knowledge to be used later. Posing problems is the ability to recognize that there is a
problem in a given situation. Problem solving includes not only finding a solution to a given
problem, but by also forming products and doing complex tasks. However, the way one may solve a
problem or overcome an obstacle can be completely different from another's solution. These
differences between individuals make it difficult to make a single measurement of how smart or
"intelligent" someone may be, but intelligence tests can be useful to identifying strengths and
weaknesses.
Since very early in history, many have strived to devise a way to measure the intelligence of an
individual. During the late 1800's, English

Academic Intelligence : The Fallacy Of Academic Intellect
The Fallacy of Academic Intellect Psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and
measure intelligence. Many different neuroscientists and psychologists alike have discovered many
different types of intelligence– including academic, emotional, fluid, specific, analytical, creative,
and intelligence (Omichinski). Other researchers have proposed even more types of intelligences –
psychologist L. L. Thurstone proposed that there were seven clusters of "primary mental abilities",
which make up of word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical
ability, inductive reasoning, and memory (Sternberg). Although each type of intelligence serves its
own unique importance, it is imperative that they should not be looked at and judged individually
when measuring and evaluating one's intelligence. Traditional IQ tests strictly measure reasoning
and problem–solving abilities, therefore neglecting other equally significant areas of a the brain
(Grewal & Salovey). This calls into question whether or not IQ tests, and other traditional forms of
"intelligence" measurements are the most cumulative and accurate way to measure each aspect of a
person's intellect. Intelligence, in actuality, is both the ability to learn or understand or to deal with
new or trying situations, and the act of understanding. Based on these definitions, there is not a
single intelligence that dominates over another; they all work together in unison in order to

Intelligence Is The Mental Potential
Creativity and Intelligence, they couldn't be any more different from each other. But maybe, just
maybe could they be related in a sense? Or what does one have to do with the other? That's what I
always wondered when it came to both. In class we learned that they do met at a certain point, but
after that no such connection happens between them. Creativity is the ability to produce new and
valuable ideas; while Intelligence is the mental potential to learn from experiences, solve problems,
and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Intelligence certainly plays a role in creative thinking, but not to a full expectation. Your IQ is
generally gauged by the ability to interpret information and find a solution, no matter what. For
example in math and science, IQ is very important because it shows your ability to memorize
concepts and repeat similar problems. If I was to tell you two plus two equals four, you should
intelligently conclude four plus four equals twice the original number.
Of course, Intelligence only gets you so far when it comes to creativity. To be creative, you must be
able to pull existing knowledge into a new situation and quickly find potential outcomes. Being
creative isn't something you need a high IQ for. Steve Jobs once said "Creativity is just connecting
things. When you ask creative people how they did something, they feel a little guilty because they
didn't really do it, they just saw something. It seemed obvious to them after a while. That's

Intellectual Success Is An Individual 's Quality Of Life
Introduction
Intellectual success is a determining factor that will govern an individual's quality of life. It is shown
(Cattell, 1941) that intellectual success is correlated with economic status, profession ranking, and
self–importance within society. An individual's intellectual success enables then to succeed further
in society and as a result, gain more opportunities and better prospects.
Fundamental intelligence is measured using IQ (Binet, 1905), which has been the basis of
determining standards within educational systems and an individual's ability to succeed within
society. However, academic success is measured using standardized testing and testing throughout
an individual's educational experience. Intellectual success is influenced not only by the
fundamental intelligence, genetically inherited, but the ability for the brain to cognitively develop
pathways to understand and process knowledge.
Intellectual success is the outcome of an individual's exposure to educational opportunities and
experiences. The findings (Scarr & Weinberg, 1976) have supported the thesis that children reared in
the same environment with exposure to economic, health care and socialization influences that
promote high performance of measures of school achievement will achieve the same level of
academic success. It is demonstrated that sociocultural factors determine an individual's intellectual
success and influence the opportunities they are exposed to.
This essay will examine to

Is IQ Testing Biased?
Intelligent quotient test is defined as a test that has been formulated and it is often used to measure
human intelligence. There are many different types of IQ tests that are used to determine the level of
intelligence between different test subjects. IQ testing has a wide range of application and in
different specialized professions. Human resource managers have applied IQ testing as part of the
tests administer during interviewing process. However, IQ testing has a wide application in research
field where they are used to measure different traits across cultures or races. IQ testing has attracted
many controversies, most of which support the assertion that IQ testing is indeed biased. This essay
will present arguments in support of this standpoint.
For the longest time, IQ tests have been considered to be absolute indicators of human intelligence.
Massive disparities were noted in the tests conducted to check the ... Show more content on
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A test by Serpell(366) revealed that IQ tests are not culture–fair. He considered a test in which
students from two different backgrounds were given the same test and scored differently. When the
test subjects were asked to reproduce figures using pencils, wires, papers and clay; children in the
United States performed better in pencil and paper tasks while those from Zambia performed better
in tasks involving wires and clay. Serpell then made a conclusion that each of the groups under
observation performed best in using the medium, which they were most accustomed to. With this in
mind, he further opined that paper and pencil IQ tests might be intrinsically biased towards the

Biography of Charles Speaman
Born on September 10th 1863, Charles Spearman was raised in London, England as a child.
Charles's father was Alex Young Spearman, the son of Sir Alex Young Spearman who was a British
treasurer. Unfortunately, Spearman Jr. died at the age of 33 and left his second wife and Charles's
mother Louisa Ann Caroline Amelia Mainwaring a widow. She would marry Henry Harrington in
1870, only for her new husband to die and leave her a widow. Around this time, a 19 year old
Charles was about to go into the military There is very little else known about childhood, however
during his adolescence. During his high school years, it was suggested that he was on the school's
rugby and cricket teams. While he was showing some interest in athletics, underneath that Spearman
hid an interest for philosophy. However, he would soon lose that interest and enlisted himself into
the British Army in 1883. Within a year, Charles was placed in the 2nd Battalion in India. In fifteen
years, Spearman would serve in the British army and rise to the rank of Captain and it was during
his term of military service he gradually begun to believe that studying psychology could perhaps
advance philosophy. According to Charles himself, he felt like his time in the army was a "waste of
time." By the end of his time serving in the army in 1898, Charles finally had figured out what he
wanted to study: experimental psychology. Charles would move to Germany and enroll in
University of Leipzig. He studied aboard mainly

Wechsler Intelligence Research Paper
Intelligence Testing in Wechsler's Perspective
The definition of 'Intelligence' has been a long–debated topic, and there have been various theories
and perspectives of intelligence to date. As a result, various intelligence tests and its controversies
have surfaced with these perspectives.
One of the Charles Spearman proposed his intelligence tests on general ability, g, dismissing
external factors in the contribution of intelligence, and scoring was determined only by the factor g
(Tugoy, 2003). Wechsler disagreed and defined intelligence as the individual's universal ability to
"act purposefully, to reason and to affect his environment" (Kezer & Arik, 2012, p. 2105). In
contrast to Spearman's intelligence tests, which consists only of cognitive ... Show more content on
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Researchers such as Stanovich believe that intelligence tests are unable to measure the different
notions of mental capacity. While intelligence tests take into account cognitive abilities that can be
used in the individual's everyday environment, it neglected 'rational thinking' which includes
sensible decision making or goal prioritising (Glenn, 2009). These are important factors which
contribute to the cognitive ability of an individual. For example, a person who scores high on an
intelligence test might make poor decisions. The lack of rational thinking, as well as other aspects of
cognitive ability, might affect the individual's life in the same way that the factors measured in these
intelligence tests do. It is important to also note that many criticize intelligence tests for its lack of
comprehensive understanding of intelligence, and they argue that many tests emphasise on only one
or two aspects of the concept. However, in recent years, the CHC model, a three stratum test, is
generally acknowledged as the foundation for many contemporary intelligence tests (Kranzler &
Floyd, 2013). This shows how intelligence tests have evolved to bridge the gap between its
effectiveness and

Spearman Vs Gardner Essay
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE: SPEARMAN VERSUS GARDNER
The study of intelligence is an important facet of Psychology that details the factors that go into the
perception of people as "smart" or "dumb." A plethora of different theories have been put forth that
address this issue of Intelligence. Two of the most prominent ones include Charles Spearman's g
theory and Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory. Spearman's theory has allowed for
statistical reasoning with regards to important social issues. Gardner's theory has important
consequences in education. Important also in the study of Intelligence is a philosophical perspective
and the triarchic theory. In newer research biological factors have proven to be important to
intelligence as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gardner posited that a person's g factor could be divided into eight different distinct intelligences.
These intelligences include: linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily–kinesthetic,
intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Unlike other Psychometric theories Gardner's theory
doesn't rely upon the results of I.Q. tests. Instead, he based it on observation that show that certain
parts of the brain are associated with different intelligence (Sternberg 44). Linguistic intelligence
can at its core is an ability to comprehend speech. Howard Gardner defines Intelligence as being "a
set of skills of problem solving–enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties
that he or she encounters" (60). This skill is critical for the survival of humans, allowing for the
direct transmission of learning, the persuasion of others to the a course of action, as well as
explaining your own actions. Logical–mathematical intelligence is an understanding of the
permanence of objects (objects exist even when not interacting with a person) and the results of
one's actions. This then develops into a capability to classify objects together. The need to classify
"small" and "large" therefore was what gave birth to the mathematical part of

Galton 's Theory Of Intelligence Essay
Either way, Galton influenced researchers to consider taking a scientific focus on their theories of
intelligence. One of the researchers Galton influenced was James McKeen Cattell who brought
Galton's ideas to the United States and proposed a series of 50 psychophysical tests (1890). As a
matter of fact, Cattell's psychophysical tests could later not be validated by his student, Clark
Wissler (1901). Even theorists that have focused their theories of intelligence on Galton's views
have recognized that Galton had very simplistic views (e.g., Hunt, Frost, Lunneborg, 1973). All
things considered, Galton's controversial views of intelligence (which has since been carried down
to present day) have had a profound impact on the area of intelligence. Binet. Another key
individual in the development of intelligence is Alfred Binet, who was a very influential
psychologist of the early twentieth century. He was a French psychologist who is known especially
for his work with intelligence and is remembered as the father of the first intelligence test (Binet,
1903). He was a self–taught psychologist who was studying medicine (but did not finish his medical
studies) and later shifted into psychology because it was much an interest to him (Zusne, 1957). He
was interested in the development of his children and in 1903 he published a book L'étude
expérimentale de I'intelligence (Binet, 1903) which included empirical data of the observations he
made with his children and an extensive

Different Methods Of Running A Case Study
Rebecca Adams is a second grade girl who struggles with reading, writing, and maintaining
attention. A case study was developed revealing these symptoms indicate that she may be suffering
from dyslexia and a mild attention deficit disorder. The case for this diagnosis must be proven and
explained in order for the education committee to take further action. A case study is an in–depth
study of one person; usually it takes into account almost every aspect of the client's life or history, in
order to analyze different patterns and behaviors. Case studies are used in multiple ways, sometimes
a person will try to generalize the case to a larger population. This option is not used very often
since findings have shown to be mostly subjective to the individual person. The other use of case
studies is more for counseling purposes where the patient has a specific problem and they take the
person's history in order to solve it or create a treatment plan specifically for this person. There are
two different methods of running a case study the first is prospective which involves observing the
client(s) for a certain amount of time to determine outcomes and notice progression of symptoms.
For Rebecca a prospective case study was used in order to watch her mental development. The
second method is retrospective; this is where they look into the individuals' historical background in
order to determine the sources of a disorder or disease. This is a very common psychoanalytic
approach since

Borderline Intellectual Functioning In Forrest Gump
Borderline Intellectual Functioning in Forrest gump:
An Imprecise Portrayal Borderline Intellectual Functioning, also referred to as BIF, is a
categorization of intelligence for individuals who are below average intelligence, but do not have an
intellectual development disorder. Numerically, individuals with IQ's between 71 ad 85 are fall into
the BIF categorization. Being the middle categorization between having a disability and having
average intelligence most people do not know about BIF, which leads to many negative connotations
and false representations in popular media. However, unlike other portrayals of BIF, the oscar–
winning film, Forrest Gump directed by Robert Zemeckis, did a fairly decent job in many aspects
that characterize ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The National Library to Medicine further expands on the idea of social impairment n individuals
with BIF. Some of the symptoms of having BIF or and intellectual disability are lack of curiosity,
failure to adapt, and difficulty understanding to following social rules (NLM). Robert Zemeckis
does a great job a depicting how individuals with BIF are impaired in a social context. There are
number of scenes where Forrest does not pick up on school cues in a relatively simple setting,
something an average intelligence person could have easily. About twenty–six minutes into the film
Forrest was visiting Jenny at her all girl's college. It was late at night and Forrest was waiting
outside Jenny's dorm because boys were not allowed inside. Forrest noticed a car with two people
inside and they were kissing, then he realizes it was Jenny and she made a sound that resembled a
sound of pain. He ran over to the car and punched the guy that was kissing Jenny. As the dude in the
car races off Jenny yells "he doesn't know any better" (MOVIE). Robert Zemeckis is directly
indicating that Forrest didn't pick up on the social cues and he didn't realize that Jenny was doing
what most college students do, which is experiment and become sexually active if there weren't
already. This scene does a great job showing how individuals with BIF will not pick on the social
cues most would. Because of their low IQ, they are impaired and have a difficult time understanding
social rules (Emerson). The following scene Forrest is in Jenny's room sitting quietly and a looking
kind of dazed as if he had no clue what just happened and why Jenny was angry with him. This
scene just further indicates that low IQ individuals have a difficult time understanding the unspoken
language of social rules. Forrest does a good job represent an individual with BIF in the social

Charles Spearman's Model of Intelligence and Howard...
Charles Spearman's model of intelligence and Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theory are
two of the most widely used theories of intelligence. In order to understand how similar the two
theories are we must first understand their differences. These two men differed in opinion on how
IQ and intelligence should be measured, and they differed in opinion on what made a person
"smart". In order to examine these things they first had to understand the human brain and how it
works. They had to examine the human study habits and rituals, along with the human test taking
habits. Spearman thought that if all mental tests are mutually related then there is some common
factor that causes this. Spearman developed a statistical method called ... Show more content on
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Howard Gardner developed the Multiple intelligence theory. Gardner believed that the human mind
did not have one general intelligence but many that had independent functions. He believed that the
previous measure of intelligence did not accurately measure the capability of the human mind.
"While formulating this theory, Gardner placed less emphasis on explaining the results of mental
tests than on accounting for the range of human abilities that exist across a vast majority of cultures.
(www.associatedcontent.com) Gardner examined many subjects to decide upon the seven
intelligences in his Multiple theories of Intelligence. Gardner finally concluded that intelligent
behavior does not come from one single quality of the mind. He believed that different intelligences
are generated from different metaphorical pools of mental energy, and that these pools enable people
to solve problems or create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings. He came
up with this concept from his experiences working with members of different populations where
certain cognitive abilities are apparent even in the absence of basic abilities. For example, when an
autistic person is a genius at math and lacks the ability to tie his shoes. Gardner's theory consisted of
seven intelligences the first is linguistic ability, which enables us to read, write, and speak well. The
second is logical/ mathematical ability which

Token Economy Research Paper
Token economy A system of operant conditioning in which the person is given a token of some sort
for doing a desired behavior which can later be exchanged for some reward
Transference Point in which an individual projects their feelings for a certain person to the therapist.
Unconditional positive regard process in which the person is completely accepting of another person
by carl rogers humanistic theory
Antipsychotic drugs Group of drugs developed in the 1970's that are used to treat psychotic
symptoms such as hallucination delusions and paranoia
Deep–brain stimulation Is a surgical procedure that implants a device known as a neurostimulator
which is used to electrically stimulate portions of the brain to treat movement and or affective ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Active / Inactive genes
Alzheimer's disease; causation Caused by an lack of the euro transmitter Ach
Amygdala function Emotions
Brain structure related to function (evolutionary) Closer it is to the spinal cord the more primitive it
is
Broca's area function Linked to language
Cerebellum function Cordinates movement
Cerebral cortex function master part of the brain contains 4 lobes
Corpus Callosum function Connects to 2 hemispheres of the brain
Endocrine system (how it works) uses glands that secrete hormones that invoke a response SLOW in
the Blood stream
Epinephrine function Lack of it may mean a DEPRESSED MOOD
Hippocampus function Conscious memories
Identical Twin Studies, Twin adoption studies Find the easy one that stick out the most easiest to
prove with the least amount of information
Medulla function Basic breathing heartbeat
Neural transmission (firing of a neuron) Action potential electrical charge across a neuron
Parkinson's disease; causation Dopamine under
Peripheral nervous system (how it works) Autonomic and Somatic – somatic voluntary skeletal
control Autonomic– symiatitic fight or flight para sympathetic calms

B20028002 TMA1 Submit DE100 final Essay
B2028002 Michelle Jacques TMA1 – Part 1. Intelligence tests, are they a measure of distance rather
than a measure of strength? Intelligence is an interesting concept and whilst we understand and can
agree that it is what differentiates us from other all the other animals it is almost impossible to agree
exactly how to measure it. One of the preferred definitions by Dr Jenny Taylor, a clinical
physiologist is that "intelligence is the ability for the organism to adapt itself to the environment in
which it finds itself." This is an extremely broad expression which could be applied to any living
thing. The difficulty comes in the very word measurement which implies some form of numerical
logic. If we look at known distance measurements one ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, it could be argued that other skills such as the ability to work as part of a team, or the
ability to show empathy correspond to more "real life" sources of intelligence that determine a
person's ability to achieve in life. Such cognition is arguably more complex which leads to the
suggestion that other sources of variance such as cultural, environmental and other non–cognitive
factors effect and shape a person's ability to understand and evaluate the world. The idea that IQ
differences reflect cultural "distance" rather than a cognitive "strength" is simply recognising these
factors and implementing contextual testing of a person's ability through more than one testing
basis. B2028002 Michelle Jacques TMA1 – Part 2. This study shows changes in IQ according to the
variable of exercise, and observes any difference between the changes for team and individual
exercise. It should be noted that the small sample groups, variation in size of sample groups and lack
of information on base exercise levels or control of other variables across all groups are limitations
of the study. The data also fails to detail any mention of range or outliers which may distort the
mean. The study does not aim to detail the effect of exercise on general knowledge. As the general
knowledge score does not say whether it was before, after or during the study and provides no
comparison, conclusions on

Intelligence Between Intelligence And Psychometric Tests
Intelligence is one of the most heritable traits thus, people differ in intelligence ranges. Heritability
estimates range from 25% to 40% in early childhood to 80% in adulthood. These ranges may be in
specific domains but those who do well in one domain often do well in others, leading towards
general intelligence. In order to measure and evaluate differences in intelligence, psychometric tests
are used to cover cognitive domains. These cognitive domains are reasoning, processing speeds,
executive function, memory, and spatial ability. A definition of intelligence that is prominently used
by researchers is: "Intelligence is a very general capability that, among other things, involves the
ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly
and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test‑taking
smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings
'catching on', 'making sense' of things, or 'figuring out' what to do. Intelligence, so defined, can be
measured, and intelligence tests measure it well." Investigation of the presence of genetic influences
on general intelligence dates back to the nineteenth century, when Francis Galton published two
papers concluding that mental abilities were transmitted by heredity from one generation to
another15. Despite an intermittently hostile political reception, many studies since then – based
principally on

The Dickens Flynn Effect
The Dickens Flynn model is an attempt by William Dickens and James Flynn (2001) to explain how
environment and genes can interact to account both for environmentally driven increases in raw
intelligence scores over time (the Flynn effect) and for genetically driven and stable individual
intelligence differences within the human population (Spearman's g). On first glance there is much
that appears promising about the Dickens Flynn model, for it does directly address the observable
tension between the Flynn effect and g, something that many explanations for the Flynn effect fail to
do. And yet further inspection also reveals that the model is troubling in a rather conspicuous way–it
sports the overall mechanics of a Rube Goldberg machine.
Perhaps the first thing to recognize about the Dickens Flynn model is the degree to which leverage
plays the key role. For instance in the authors' general outline of the model, small genetic
advantages are described as being amplified through the means of a natural attraction to
environmental surroundings that serve to enhance those advantages. Environmental influences on
population–wide intelligence characteristics are said to be boosted through such factors as social
multipliers and rolling triggers. And finally, genetic and environmental forces are depicted as
mutually propelling each other by means ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Why did they not gravitate instead to something more direct, with fewer moving parts? Flynn
(2007), ever the paragon of candor, provides a thorough and revealing answer in the pages of his
book What is Intelligence? There Flynn notes that during the height of the intelligence race debates,
Richard Lewontin (1976) had offered a compelling description for how an environmental influence
could uniformly impact an entire population while still leaving undisturbed any of that population's
genetically driven

What Do Colleges Look For When You Apply? Essay
What do colleges look for when you apply? They will look at your grades and application but
without the proper ACT or SAT score, there isn't really a chance to get in. It is a single test taken
within a day that determines so much about what college you can get into and the financial aid that
can be received. A lot rides on this single test. This isn't the only situation where this happens,
though. The IQ or intelligence quotient, is a means of discovering the level of intelligence of a
person. It is a test taken within a day that determines a person's level of cognitive ability. This test
can get students into gifted programs in schools and was used by the
Army for a while to determine placement of recruits (Urban 324). It can also be used by private
employment. The average person tends to trust the IQ test and other forms of intelligence testing
because it is "scientifically" proven. It is based on old biased evidence, however, and no one wants
to fix it. Intelligence Testing has a dark past that has determined the way it is today.
Although the intents are no longer blatantly biased, they are indirectly causing oppression and
following a dangerous past of racial superiority. Therefore, a modern in–depth study needs to be
done in order to determine the validity of the current tests, and approach it from an unbiased view.
After this a public notice should be done showing the biases and faults of the current tests and their
effect on systematic oppression.
The early

The Flynn Effect And Nutrition
Nutrition, the Flynn Effect, and Substance Abuse
Carly Gottsponer
PSY 3813–TC3
Korey Davis
September 17, 2017
"The Flynn Effect is the tendency of IQ scores to change over time, and specifically, the apparent
increase in intelligence in the general population evidenced by a steady increase in IQ scores. It was
first noticed by James Flynn" (The Flynn Effect). As years went by and IQ tests were
restandardized, it was noticed that when previous tests were taken the outcomes were better on the
previous tests than the tests that were in current circulation. The Flynn Effect has a number of
factors that can attribute to the effect taking place. One factor in particular that has been discussed
by many different people is the factor of overall better nutrition. Overall better nutrition has
occurred in many places over the last 100 years or so. This improvement has been linked to head
growth, earlier maturation of children, increased height, and faster growth (Williams). Increased
head growth most likely means that human brains are growing which can subsequently be linked to
the increased intelligence that is proven by IQ scores. The earlier maturation and faster growth of
children can also be linked to how a population's intelligence improves over many years. The Flynn
Effect and nutrition are related through the correlation of increased intelligence and increased
overall nutrition. The effects of the Flynn effect on nutrition and vice versa are extensive. The

The Effect Of Iq Scores
James Flynn (1984, 1987, 2007) conducted comprehensive studies of several intelligence tests and
he concluded a long–term upward tendency of performance of IQ scores, by approximately 1 IQ
point per every 4 to 5 years. This tendency is termed as Flynn effect by Herrnstein and Murray
(1994) and it varies in different countries over different time periods. For example the United States
developed by 3 points every decade between 1932 and 1978, in Estonia by 1.65 points between
1932 and 2006, Japan gained 7.7 between 1940 and 165, Argentina 's gains was 6.91 between 164
and 1998 (Williams, 2013). However, this must be interpreted with caution as the progression of the
IQ increase does not necessary mean that the general intelligence advanced (Urbina, 2014). The
Flynn effect can be explained by several approaches however these interpretations are not
completely explanatory and some have been found contradictory. A multi level environmental
explanation was provided by Niesser (1998), he argues that the IQ rise occurred due to the tendency
which took part in the second part of the 20th century in some countries where better nutrition,
improved care during pregnancy, urbanization, schooling, television, greater environmental
complexity and pre–school surroundings were found. Regarding schooling and education difficulties
arise, as education is unlikely to cause the changes in all data sets (Williams, 2013). The Flynn
effect was rather found in non–scholastic factors, meanwhile

How Technology Has Changed Our Life And Economic Power Has...
Over the past millennium a lot has changed; technology has skyrocketed to next generation levels,
medicine has been revolutionized to maximize human life and economic power has made the great
nations of today withstand the test of time. These great features, great attributes of the modern world
are only capable due to the minds of the greatest; the most intelligent people in the world. Benjamin
Franklin with the founding of electricity. Rosalyn Sussman Yalow with the development of
radioimmunoassay. Steve Jobs with the revolutionary foundation of the company Apple, changing
the computers of today. All three of these people are incredibly intelligent and have provided
tremendous contributions to today 's society. Everything has it's limitations though, just as Einstein
once said, "Two things are infinite: the universe and human stupidity; and I 'm not sure about the
universe." Our capabilities to excel in the field of technology has its limitations. Our memorization
and understanding of information is limited to the cerebrum of our brains. The intelligence of
humans is outstanding, but have we humans already reached our peak of intelligence, or even worse
regressed over the years? Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.
Technology might speak for itself in the aspect of whether intelligence has declined over the years.
The general population would think that, of course the intelligence of people hasn't declined, look at
all the amazing things

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Intelligence
leadership. Though not explicitly called intelligence tests, various achievement and aptitude tests are
identical to the earlier "IQ" tests. The main difference is that achievement tests are designed to
assess what a candidate has learned while aptitude tests are designed to assess one's potential to
learn. The educational, business and governmental institutions using these assessments refrain from
using the word intelligence, as it can be a labeling and frightening word or even cause discord and
objection among the test–takers. The College Board has even dropped the world "aptitude" from the
title of the SAT, now calling it the Scholastic Assessment Test. However, the most common
"aptitude" style tests in the IQ tradition are the SAT, CAT, GRE, LSAT, and the MCAT. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the end, choices have to be made and some students turned away, preferably on fair and
"objective" grounds. Even though commonly used, there are still numerous criticisms of widely
practiced methods of intelligence testing. Many believe that the available measures do not actually
test overall intelligence, but just some of the mental processes of a person. According to the
supporters of this criticism, intelligence is constituted of many other abilities such as "wisdom,
creativity, common sense, social skills, and practical knowledge. However, other psychologists
either believe that these are derivative from, or a consequence of, the basic processes that the
intelligence tests measure. It is also possible that these abilities are immeasurable because they are
intuitive and too subjective to be tested for using an objective measure. Others looking at the same
pattern of findings have concluded that the degree of development in the areas that are tapped
depends largely on the environment that the subject has been exposed to which creates a large
number of variable

The Debate Over Race And Intelligence
The debate over race and intelligence had been fueled in 1994 when Charles A. Murray and Richard
Hernstein published a book called, The Bell Curve. The Bell Curve was an analysis on the curve
between race and intelligence. Due to the book being published, scientists began working on
multiple tests to try to understand the correlation that was indicated in this book. This is such an
emotional topic to argue about because society could stereotype themselves based on a definitive
answer about race and intelligence. A white child could earn a 90 on a test, above the score that of a
black child has earned, but then an Asian child could outdo both of them. That is where the
correlation can present itself. Due to that example, race and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
His findings have concluded that environmental factors explains 58 percent of IQ variations around
the world. If IQ tests were able to compare different backgrounds of different races, it would be
more apparent. An American clinical psychologist Terrie Moffitt, said that negative environments
(low social status or ineffective parenting) could affect a child 's intelligence even more
(Parker/Morton 1). There is a way to make a child smarter and that starts from an upbringing
environment that is positive (Hurley). While bringing in the genetics of an individual based on their
skin color, there are also different environmental factors that can contribute to the correlation
between race and intelligence. The American Psychological Association studies have shown that
environmental factors can contribute to an individual's intelligence factor. Different revolution
factors, natural selection factors, and environmental differences have an impact (Saletan 4). For
example, a black kid living in a run down neighborhood may do worse than a white kid living in a
rich neighborhood. Due to this, most children feed off of their peers, either at school or even at
home. People in disadvantaged groups generally score lower on IQ tests than those who are not
disadvantaged (Jackson 1). Different races have different advantages due to

The IQ Debate Essay
Intelligence can be defined in many different ways. This concept has been the focus of numerous
studies and investigations by psychologists and other scientific experts. Intelligence can be the
mental ability to reason, plan ahead, understand a wide range of complex issues and learn from past
experiences (Gottfredson, 1997). Intelligence is the "resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in
memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual
skills" (Humphreys, 1979)
Intelligence is commonly measured through the use of a number of scales and quantitative
measures, like the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), developed by Alfred Binet in early 20th century to
identify which French children needed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Far–right commentators generally support this argument, which has been supported by the findings
of a number of researches, including those led by Professor Robert Plomin
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/850358.stm). They have also utilised these arguments to explain a
wide range of social phenomena, including crime. Other experts have strongly disagreed with this
view, arguing that intelligence levels are directly related to situational factors. Environmental factors
like the quality of the education system can have a very significant influence in the development of
intelligence. Situational factors have been used by psychologists to explain a wide range of
phenomena. A great number of sociologists, psychologists and criminologist have studied the
circumstances and background that makes crime possible, in order to identify the main reasons and
causes of crime by looking at the learning process that generates crime. The use of IQ to explain
deviancy and crime has greatly influenced the debates of psychologists in this respect.
In this respect, studies like those carried out by Sutherland have looked at the role played by
psychological issues and disorders. The Differential Association Theory was a theory on crime and
deviancy developed by Edwin Sutherland during the thirties. Unlike other experts like Eleanor and
Sheldon Glueck, who stated that deviancy is generated by numerous factors, Sutherland

Standardized Testing For Public School Systems
For decades I.Q. testing has been seen as: controversial, insufficient, errorful, and unreliable when it
comes to determining intellect. Used nowadays in standardized testing for public school systems as
a way to measure their student's "intelligence" in school and determine the federal funding for each
school on a yearly basis. Many have seen this as unfair and wrongful of the government to try and
measure something so intricate and vital to everyday living into simple numbers and figures. Then
tell those who don't land within certain parameters that they are useless in the real world.
Since 1904, when it was created by British Psychologist Charles Spearman who collected data from
several villages surrounding his home he concluded that the correlations amongst the multiple
variables could best be explained by assuming that there was a single factor of mental ability that
underlay them[12]. And thus the theory of the "g" factor and model was born. One year later French
Psychologist Alfred Binet created the first usable I.Q. test that had the purpose " to help identify
learning–disabled children who needed special schools". Binet himself even warned that " a 'brutal
pessimism' would follow if his test was ever mistaken as a measure of a fixed, unchangeable
intelligence" [13] In 1912, American psychologist and eugenicist, Henry Goddard was hired by
immigration authorities to do "quality control" [13] at Ellis Island due to the massive amount of
Eastern and Southern

Construct Developed in Psychometrics to Determine...
The g factor, or "general factor", is a construct developed in psychometrics to determine cognitive
abilities. It is a variable that summarizes positive correlations among various cognitive tasks, which
demonstrate an individual's performance at one type of cognitive task tends to be comparable to his
or her performance at other kinds of cognitive tasks. The g factor typically accounts for 40 to 50
percent of the variance in IQ test performance, and IQ scores are frequently regarded as estimates of
an individual's g factor rating (Kamphaus et al. 2005). The terms IQ, general intelligence, general
cognitive ability, general mental ability, or simply intelligence, are often used interchangeably to
refer to the common core shared by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These include the Wason selection task, computerized games governed by difficult rules, pragmatic
reasoning schemes, analogical reasoning tasks, class–inclusion, scientific reasoning tasks, and
categorization tasks. These factors explain why non–verbal tests are often referred to as culture–free,
and almost necessary for easing assimilation.
Acquiring relevant background knowledge – which will be closely associated with social class – is
important in psychometric tests, in addition to non–cognitive sources. Jensen seems to be unaware
or at least avoid potential stressful effects relating to negative social evaluation and systematic
prejudice, which many children experience every day. Superficial factors like dialect, facial
appearance, and self–presentation all play major roles. These have significant effects on the way we
see and evaluate ourselves. Bandura et al (1996) have shown how limited confidence in cognitive–
based tests acquired by parents are inherited by their children, resulting in fear and apathy in many
intellectual tasks. Here, g is not a general ability variable, rather it's a measure of intellectual self–
esteem.
Limited exposure to middle–class cultural tools and low cognitive self–esteem will, undoubtedly,
lessen one's self–confidence, and cause anxiety in testing situations. There is a well–known
association between IQ test performance and test–anxiety. In his meta–analysis of 562 studies,
Hembree (1988) found that subjects who feel

Intelligence : Effects Of Genetics, Environment, And...
Talitha J. Dryer
Teacher Vonda Ford
English 6
5 February 2015
Intelligence: Effects of Genetics, Environment, and Outside Influences
Many people often wonder what makes them who they are––what creates their identity. Part of a
person's identity is his or her ability to succeed in school, comprehend complex concepts, and invent
creative ideas. This is intelligence––a complicated trait that involves and is affected by many
different factors. A person's intelligence is his or her general cognitive ability, including abstract
reasoning, sensory reception, planning, problem solving, understanding, and the ability to learn
(Plomin). Not only does intelligence involve these abilities, but it is also dependent upon a person's
willingness to act on his or her capabilities and function to his or her full potential. Intelligence can
be measured by "Intelligence Quotient" tests, but because of the way these tests function, results are
depended upon a person's willingness––rather than ability––to perform the requested tasks. It is
important today to recognize the various influences on intelligence so that a person can face the
modern world knowing that his or her abilities are not solely the result of genes inherited from his or
her parents but can be manipulated in several different ways. Intelligence is a complicated part of a
person's identity that begins to develop from the moment of conception and continues through that
person's life, being influenced by genetics, environment,

Intelligence And Concepts Of Modern Day Society
Modern day society has come to a threshold where our technologies and advanced findings can
attest past concrete research that has come to a conclusion. Intelligence and concepts alike
categorized as evolutionary fugues, the vast, detailed state of the brain and it 's understanding is still
being processed and heavily evaluated. Chances are you may have heard terms brainiac, smarty
pants, genius the list goes on, these are some names associated with someone with alto intelligence.
Most might perceive persons of intellect as renown people with endless information about vast
subjects. The reality of that conception is not entirely accurate, intelligence isn 't knowing over a
hundred numbers of the pie equation, and it is not about testing ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Knowing how to do math or having the ambition to want to play a musical instrument, he named it
the "G–Factor," this is a general clustering strategy that has been reached and summoned to find
some skills correlated with other skills. On the contrary, an American phycologist, Howard Gardner
views intelligence as clumps or pairs of various abilities, similar skills like math and music; he
believes in Spatial Numeric Reasoning, one ability or skill is destroyed or is weak while other traits
perfectly intact. Gardner believes that we all have eight bits of intelligence framed within our
personality beyond the "The G Factor," one for music one for math one bit for linguistics,
interpersonal and so on. Without the research of Spearman and Gardner, our contemporary concept
and understanding of intelligence would be completely diverted. Much of the psychologist at the
time agreed with Gardner 's theory and process but one man, in particular, phycologist Robert
Sternberg believed in the list is accurate but believed in boiling it down to 3 central intelligence,
analytical intelligence, creative intelligence and practical intelligence. These three categories Intel
problem solving, decision making and abstract thought. Even with sub–categories that research had
provided, research has suggested that there is still an underlining factor that connects all of these
traits, the research is open–ended and still foreign.

Genetic and Environmental Factors of Intelligence Essay...
Genetic and Environmental Factors of Intelligence One of the most interesting and controversial
areas in behavioral genetics, human intelligence is currently assumed to be subject to both genetic
and environmental influences. While this assumption is accepted by a majority of geneticists and
behavioral scientists, there is great disagreement on the degree of influence each contributes.
Arguments for environmental influences are compelling; at the same time there is growing evidence
that genetic influence on intelligence is significant and substantial (Eyesenck, 1998; Mackintosh,
1998; Plomin, 1994; Steen, 1996). The purpose of this paper is to explore the question: "How is
intelligence influenced by heredity and environment?" ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
His concept involved the idea that certain mental tasks are appropriate to certain ages, such as the
ability to recite the names of the months: while expected of a ten year old, such ability would be rare
in a three year old. Binet quantified intelligence as the Intelligence Quotient (IQ): the ratio of mental
age to chronological age, multiplied by 100. Reasoning that low intelligence stemmed from
improper development, Binet envisioned the test as a first step in treatment: a diagnostic instrument
used to detect children with inadequate intelligence in order to treat them using "mental
orthopedics." Binet argued forcefully against the idea that intelligence is fixed or innate: "We must
protest and react against this brutal pessimism (Lewontin, Rose, & Kamen, 1984)." However, those
who translated his test into English tended to disagree, arguing that the test measured an innate and
immutable, genetically inherited characteristic. After Binet's death in 1911, the Galtonian
eugenicists assumed control, shifting the focus firmly toward genetic explanations by insisting that
differences in intelligence between social classes and races were due to inherent genetic differences.
Over time, the tests were standardized to correspond to a priori conceptions of intelligence by
including items that correlated well with school performance. Test items that differentiated between
gender

Untangling the Relationship Between Race and Intelligence
The debate concerning the nature of the relationship between race and intelligence has been highly
contested by psychologists for many years. With the emergence of genetic research in recent times,
some clarity has been provided, however, many unanswered questions still remain. This essay
discusses the implications of IQ test scores and the potentially misleading information they generate
when administered to non–Western individuals. Although it is argued that race is a dynamic social
construct and therefore not scientifically sound, this essay will explain why considering context–
specific information about an individual is vital when assessing their intelligence due to the
substantial roles environmental factors play in the learning ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Each theory of intelligence has not only a different method of testing intelligence, but also a
different definition of intelligence, which each creator ascribes to. Stanford–Binet Intelligence
Scales (Terman, 1916), or IQ tests as they are commonly referred to as, are currently one of the most
widely used tools for intelligence measurement, however, research suggests they are a poor
predictor of future academic success for particular cultural groups (Gardner, 1993). In one of the
largest neurocognitive–based intelligence studies performed to date, it was revealed through the
observation of neuroimaging data that IQ scores alone were not likely to indicate a fundamental
intellectual ability because intelligence is composed of multiple anatomically distinct components
(Hampshire, Highfield, Parkin, & Owen, 2012). Considering this development, it would appear that
IQ tests are only measuring one subsection of intelligence, located in the frontoparietal cortex (Gray,
Chabris, & Braver, 2003; Hampshire, Highfield, Parkin, & Owen, 2012). In order to provide
analogous statistics to base research upon, it is vital to create multifaceted, culturally sensitive
measurements because cultures differ greatly in the emphasis they place on certain aspects of
intelligence (Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005). Race is a social construct, just like class and
gender, used to sort people based upon their appearance, cultural practices, genetic

Is Human Intelligence Evolving?
Introduction In my lifetime, which spans the not so awe–inspiring numerical value of thirty–one–
years, I have witnessed enough cultural change to detect a shift in the way most humans think. With
the onset of technological interventions completing most of our thinking for us, the phrase "Google
it" as the end all–be all to knowledge, expanding to the digression of caveman linguistics with the
use of emoticons and texting–language, lower level of self–expression being verbalized, to the
visual dynamics of gender itself becoming androgynous–we have certainly evolved in the last
fifteen–years. In what direction is unsure. One might feel that given the historical recount of the
universe, we would have learned our lesson by now within the evolutionary sense of intelligence
and learned behaviors. Cumulatively, this data certainly begs the question: is human intelligence
evolving? Are we really getting smarter or do we just think we are? Let us consider the data. Brief
History of Intelligence: Traditionally, one might begin such a paper with a firm definition of "What
is intelligence?" but given the cosmic grandeur of what intelligence means––this is proving rather
difficult. Evolution and Intelligence span all disciplines (anthropology; biological; physiological,
psychological; developmental etc....) and thus means something different to each. What I can tell
you is that each definition gives thought to one basic idea: Intelligence is the all–encompassing
word used to define

Relationship Between Age And Cognitive Functions
We enter this world with an immense potential and what is felt as an abundance of opportunities. We
grow older and we learn through everything we do and encounter in life. With the new knowledge
we acquire we make decisions, we see the world different and we adapt to changes. As we continue
to grow older, these Cognitive functions start declining and the way we problem solve or the way
our minds work start to slow down. Therefore, research has been very intrigued in better
understanding the higher levels of functions in cognition in adults and later in life for a certain
reasons (Salthouse, 2012). Salthouse (2012), mentions in his article a brief review on studies
focused on the relationship between age and cognitive functions. It is stated in the article that with
higher levels of cognition the better an individual will function on the job, for example, training and
achievements in job performance. Additionally, as an individual grows older they begin to use more
fluid problem–solving skills rather than crystallized measure of cognition (Salthouse, 2012).
Additionally, Kemper and McDowd (2008) also conducted a study of the was aging can affect an
individuals cognitive abilities. They did cognitive measures that were more centered on the verbal
fluency of the individual. Verbal fluency is one of the executive functioning skills that concentrates
on the individuals ability to make more than one item that meet one single criteria. Based on the
scores of these tests,

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