Avian Influenza A Virus

Avian Influenza A Virus
Since December 2014, the USDA has confirmed numerous cases of highly pathogenic avian
influenza (HPAI) H5 in the Pacific, Central, and Mississippi flyways, known as migratory pathways.
This makes more sense to the fact that wild birds can carry this influenza, and that more birds go
through these migratory pathways, instead of in other regions.
Avian Influenza is an infection generated by the avian influenza A viruses. It can occur naturally
among birds. Both domestic and wild avian can acquire it. Wild birds worldwide contract influenza
A infections in their intestines, but usually don't get sick. However, it's exceedingly contagious
among birds, and some of the viruses can make them immensely sick and kill them.
It's relevant because influenza
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Influenza Virus Vaccines: A Case Study
The role of hemagglutinin (HA) , which is one of the abundant & immunodominant glycoprotein on
the surface of the influenza virus ,is very important as an immunogen in anti–influenza vaccines
(Gamblin & Skehel.,2010). HA is a major glycoprotein in the viral lipid envelope membrane with a
distal globular head that mediates host–cell receptor binding followed by a membrane–proximal
stalk domain which directs fusion of viral envelope with the host cell(Kaminski &Lee ,2011). The
current split–virus vaccines predominantly induce antibodies to the surface glycoprotein like HA
,NA . Due to antigenic drift ,the surface glycoproteins undergo mutations, therefore the three
influenza strains are included in seasonal IIV (influenza A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) and influenza B)
which are evaluated for their ability to generate neutralizing antibodies against the circulating
influenza strains (Waffarn E. & Baumgarth N.,2011). . After vaccination with inactivated Influenza
vaccine , it results in both local and systemic responses generation. .Within 2 weeks of vaccination,
90% of vaccines found to have protective antibody titres (Cox RJ.1994) .In humans, hemagglutinin
specific effector T–cells are found to be major proliferating subsets of T–cells which are seen after
stimulation by HA molecule (Novak et al 1999). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Central to humoral immunity is production of antibodies which are found to be effective in binding
and neutralizing the virus strains. The quantification of influenza–specific serum antibodies are
widely accepted as correlates of protective immunity This is commonly achieved through the
hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay which detect influenza–specific antibody levels in serum(
Zackay Rones Z.

Influenza Virus Replication Cycle
The Influenza virus replication cycle starts with HA binding to the sialic acid receptor on the
respiratory epithelial cell surface permitting the entry of influenza virus into the cell via endocytosis
[17]. Aided by the acidic environment of the endosomes, the virus fuses its envelope with the
endosomal membrane and releases the virus nucleocapsid making its way to the host nucleus.
Transcription occurs in the nucleus involving what is known as "cap snatching." What this means is
that the viral endonuclease (PB2) cuts the 5' methylguanosine cap as well as ten to thirteen
nucleotides from the RNA. This is then used as the primer for the transcription of the protein PB1, a
viral transcriptase. In influenza A and B, ten proteins result from the translation of the eight
segments of the genome, including hemagglutinin, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Once the initial proteins are made, then eight complementary positive sense RNA strands are made
from the eight negative sense RNA segments (at least in influenza A and B. . . influenza C has seven
segments). These lack the 5' capped primer, as well as the 3' poly (A) tail found in the mRNA. From
this cRNA, a negative sense RNA is produced. Various proteins then help this negative sense RNA
exit the nucleus and into the cytoplasm of the host.
In the meanwhile, in the cytoplasm, the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase have undergone
glycosylation, polymerization, and acylation. The hemagglutinin, neuraminidase, and the matrix
protein two (M2) all travel together to the plasma membrane. There the proteins meet with the other
matrix protein (M1), and begin the

Influenza A Virus Essay
In the human body, there are commensal bacteria serving as part of the normal flora. Various viruses
can interact with these bacteria in order promote their infectivity. Poliovirus can bind with bacterial
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for stabilization to prevent premature RNA release and improve cell
attachment to host cell through the poliovirus receptor. For retroviruses, specifically MMTV (mouse
mammary tumor virus), binding to LPS improve their chances of successful transmission. MMTV–
bound LPS get binds to toll–like receptor 4, which is a pattern recognition receptor of LPS. This
event eventually leads to the induction of interleukin–10 (IL–10), which is an immune response
inhibitory cytokine. By producing IL–10, it allows MMTV to go undetected by the ... Show more
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Furthermore, bacteria and virus interactions extend beyond the binding of virus with normal
intestinal microbiota. Through the co–infection on influenza A virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae,
it increases chances of mortality. It is important to note that the two are working together rather than
through any direct binding to increase infectivity. Prior infection with Influenza A virus allows for
colonization of S. pneumoniae in the nasopharynx. Sialic acid, a non–reducing sugar, is released
from cells and mucus after cleavage by influenza neuraminidase. The sialic acid serves as a nutrient
source for S. pneumoniae for colonization. In addition, a deficient of the S. pneumoniae's
neuraminidase, NanA (neuraminidase A), which is essential for breaking down of sialic acid to
allow for adherence to host cells can decrease colonization. During co–infection, influenza virus can
partially restore nasal colonization of NanA–deficient pneumococci. Co–infection is also beneficial
for the virus since it can decrease specific influenza antibodies. Another study also present that
having respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) can increase the risk for acute otitis

Influenza Virus Research Paper
Describe two innate (nonspecific) immune responses that might prevent an influenza virus from
causing any noticeable infection, even if the virus enters your respiratory passages. (1)Physical
barriers help keep the hazardous organisms and materials outside the body. Skin is the largest body
organ it provides both a physical and a chemical barrier against the outside world. The skin forms a
protective layer that completely wraps around the body, shielding blood vessels, nerves, muscles,
organs, and bones. (2)Phagocytes are cells that remove pathogens and cell debris. One example
would be macrophages of peripheral tissues. Macrophages form the first line of defense in the
smaller branches of the airways. They can initiate an inflammatory response

Influenza Virus
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines epidemiology as, "the study of the distribution and
determinants of health–related states or events (including diseases), and the application of this study
to the control of disease and other health problems" (Epidemiology, 2015). There are different types
of methods that can be used for epidemiological investigations which include: surveillance and
descriptive studies, as well as analytical studies (Epidemiology, 2015). Influenza is a viral
respiratory illness that is highly contagious (Influenza (Flu), 2015). Since it is so contagious it can
cause a pandemic, epidemic, or outbreak causing sporadic cases (Mestrovic, 2014). There are two
major types of influenza viruses type A and type B (Mestrovic, ... Show more content on
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The information showed that during the 2013–2014 year there were not a lot of individuals who
were vaccinated (Fast Stats, 2014). There could be several reasons why individuals did not get the
vaccination; lack of education, allergic to the ingredient, and cultural beliefs are just a few. When
individuals do not get the influenza vaccination they are putting themselves, as well as others at risk
for contracting the disease as well as spreading it to others (Influenza (Flu), 2015). Each influenza
season researchers determine how well the vaccination worked by looking at study design, outcomes
measured, population studied, as well as the season during which the flu vaccination was studied
(Vaccine Effectiveness, 2015). This research can be a challenge, however in general the studies have
shown that influenza vaccinations do in fact benefit the public's health (Vaccine Effectiveness,

Seasonal Influenza Virus
Influenza also known as the "Flu" is an ongoing health concern each year. It is most prevalent
during the fall and winter seasons. Influenza is highly contagious and can spread rapidly when
precautions are ignored. Every year numerous cases erupt despite education, health promotion and
vaccinations. Flu related complications result in hospitalizations and even death each year, costing
billions of dollars to be used in treatment and income lost due to sick days and unproductivity on the
infected person's behalf. Zimmerman et al. 2010 concurs stating, "Seasonal influenza leads to about
36,000 deaths annually in the United States and more than 226,000 hospitalizations." (Zimmerman
et al. 2010). Loerbroks et al. 2012 also states "Influenza and ... Show more content on
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It can rapidly decrease symptoms and speed up the recovery process in infected individuals thus
decreasing instances of complications. According to Duncan, 2013, "For treatment of influenza,
oseltamivir is prescribed as: 75 mg twice daily for five days (by mouth... If the treatment is started
within this [a 48 hour] timeframe then it will reduce the risk of severe illness up to five days after
onset of symptoms." (Duncan, 2013. P294). Treatment also may involve stabilizing patients that
have secondary complications related to influenza. These complication can be severe and include: :
bacterial pneumonia, ear infections, sinus infections, dehydration, and worsening of chronic medical
conditions, such as congestive heart failure, asthma, or diabetes. Duncan, 2013 also states that "non–
respiratory complications include febrile convulsions, toxic shock syndrome, Reye's syndrome,
encephalopathy, transverse myelitis, pericarditis and myocarditis. One of the more serious
complications is primary influenza pneumonia, as it has a high mortality affecting
immunocompromised and healthy individuals."(Duncan, 2013.

Influenza Virus Case Summary
In van Riel et al's case report, the influenza virus was isolated from the olfactory bulb and gyrus
rectus of an 11 month old female. The infant presented to the ED with fever and shortness of breath.
Patient's medical history revealed a delay in motor development. At 5 months, She was diagnosed
with non–focal sepsis and was treated with sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim for 2 months till her
neutrophil concentration was back to normal. On physical examination, she had bilateral crepitations
over her lungs and an oxygen saturation of 91%. Chest radiography revealed an infiltrate to the right
lower lung lobe that was identical to pneumonia. No bacterial organism was isolated from blood
samples on day 1, but she was treated with a combination

Influenza A H1N1 Virus
Introduction
In 1918–19 approximately 50 million deaths were a detriment of the Spanish H1N1 virus pandemic;
a respiratory virus. According to the World Health Organization, the second Influenza A H1N1
pandemic in 2009 spread to more than 200 countries causing more than 18 000 deaths. Before the
World Health Organization had announced the official end of the pandemic in August 2010, in July
2009 the World Health Organization sent out a phase 6 warning that H1N1 could soon be a global
pandemic. It is important to recognize that the 2 different outbreaks had different A/H1N1strains
effecting the world population; this suggests A/H1N1has a high ability for mutation, severely
complicating the human body's natural immune mechanism of ... Show more content on
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(Cowling, Fang, Riley, Malik Peiris & Leung, 2009) In the investigation conducted by the swine flu
investigation team they determined that the transmission in households was completed in less than a
week from host to host. (France, Jackson & Schrag, 2010) Still this is significantly less than the
school outbreak transmissions (11.3% of household contacts, compared with >30% of school A
students) The recommendation to reduce transmission is to encourage domestic discussions about
prevention.
PDF Document Attached–Table 2. Symptom Profiles in Groups of Patients with Suspected or
Confirmed Pandemic 2009 H1N1 Virus Infection Worldwide. (Writing Committee of the WHO
Consultation on Clinical Aspects of Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 Influenza New England Journal of
Medicine 2010; 362:1708–1719May 6, 2010)
Etiology
An influenza virus possesses 8 genes, 6 derived from the triple North American swine virus lineages
and 2 from the Eurasian swine virus lineage. (Cauchemez, Donnelly, & Reed, 2003) Influenza A is a
part of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses that contains a segmented RNA genome. There are 3
influenza types A, B and C, influenza A and B being responsible for the influenza pandemics. The
Influenza A subtype morphology determination is as a result of the antigenic properties of two
membrane glycoproteins: hemagglutinin (HA–16 types) and neuraminidase (NA–9 types). In

Symptoms And Changes Of The Influenza Virus
NoV genogroup GII, particularly strains within the GII.4 lineage, have been globally identified as
the predominant cause of outbreaks and sporadic cases of gastroenteritis in the last decade (67).
Since the 1990's, GII.4 strains have undergone mutations and antigenic shift leading to the
emergence of novel variants every 2–3 years, that have the ability to cause global epidemics (68).
This epochal style of evolution of NoV characterised by periods of stasis followed by the emergence
of new variants causing worldwide epidemics is similar to that of the influenza virus (16, 69).
Although, GII.4 variants were recognized as having pandemic potential from 1995 onwards, the first
GII.4 strain was submitted to the GenBank database in 1974 (43).
The US 95/96 was the first reported pandemic GII.4 strain which caused 55% outbreaks of AGE in
the US during the winter of 1995–1996 (70). This variant later spread to five different continents
including Australia, where it was prevalent from 1997–2000 (71, 72). In 2002, a new GII.4 variant
emerged which was associated with 64% of NoV outbreaks on cruise ships and 45% land–based
outbreaks in the US (15). NoV illness caused by the 2002 variant was also significantly observed in
Europe and Canada (39, 73). This variant was named the Farmington Hills virus which was replaced
by the Hunter 2004 strain that first appeared in NSW in February 2004 (74). Subsequent outbreaks
associated with the Hunter virus were reported in New Zealand, Japan,

Influenza Virus Case Study
1. What is the structure of the influenza virus? What are its unique characteristics?
The influenza virus usually has a round shape; it can be elongated or even have an irregular shape at
times. In addition, it has a layer of spikes on its exterior. Note that there are two different types of
these spikes. Each spike has its own protein, one is the hemagglutinin (HA) protein and the other is
the neuraminidase (NA) protein. The HA protein lets the virus to attach to a cell, so it can enter into
a host cell and start the infection process (every virus must enter cells in order to make more copies
of themselves). The NA protein is needed for the virus to leave the host cell, so that new viruses that
were made inside the host cell can infect more cells. Because these proteins are present on the
surface of the virus, they are visible to the human immune system. Inside the layer of spikes, are
eight pieces of RNA that contain the genetic information for making new copies of the virus. Each
segment contains instructions to make one or more proteins of the virus.
2. What is an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is only seen with influenza A virus. Usually resulting from the replacement of the hemagglutinin
(the viral attachment protein that also intermediates the entry of the virus into the cell). Antigenic
drift refers to changes to the flu virus that happen slowly over time. This causes the changes to the
seasonal flu that require people to get vaccinated against the flu each year. Antigenic shift happens
when two different flu strains come together and infect the same cell. Original antigenic sin, also
known as the Hoskins effect, refers to the weakness of the body's immune system to preferentially
utilize immunological memory based on a previous infection when a second slightly different
version of that foreign substance (e.g. a virus or bacterium) is

Ebola And HIV Biology: The Influenza Virus
Influenza also known as the flu will be the next virus of discussion. Like Ebola and HIV; Influenza
is characterized as an enveloped virus but consist of eight segments of single–stranded RNA. The
shape of the Influenza virus is as that of HIV, round. Structurally the round influenza cell is covered
in an envelope that is made of a lipid bilayer with spikes of glycoproteins that are called
hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. With those types of proteins, the virus is able to bind with a host
cell. According to NCBI the natural reservoir for influenza is wild aquatic birds and shorebirds and
is spread from person to person such as the other disease discussed. This virus is spread mainly by
droplets made when an infected person coughs, talks

Essay on Avian Influenza: The H5N1 Virus
Avian influenza has been the prime focus owing to its importance in human health and the economic
losses it creates. Asian countries have been mainly affected by the H5N1 virus where the disease is
enzootic. A loss of 0.4% change in GDP occurred in South Asian region due to Avian influenza
outbreaks (World Bank, 2006). The current control strategies against Avian Influenza are stamping
and vaccination. Both these policies suffer from various drawbacks. The stamping out policy leads
to loss of genotype, which will results in selection of low disease resistance birds and selection of
high virulent virus. Stamping out policy disrupts the dynamics of host–pathogen interactions (Shim
and Galvani 2009). Vaccination may result the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2007). We have used a value of –24 kcal/mol for the analysis as the lower the free energy, the firmer
the binding structure is and the more likely it suggests the true binding (Yue et al. 2009).
The potential of these miRNAs as therapeutic agent can only be ensured if the target site is
conserved across various viral isolates. It is conventional to screen for conservation of the target site
in majority of target prediction databases like TargetScan, Miranda etc. Accessibility criteria are
important as the particular target site should be accessible to the miRNA so as to be functional in the
biological system. There may be targets but may not be accessible and unless they are accessible
they will not have any impact in the system. At the target site where the miRNA is binding, at least
three consecutive bases should be unpaired in the secondary structure to have the accessibility to the
target site (Robins et al. 2005) and this improves the efficiency of the prediction. The closely related
miRNA and RNAi pathways are important regulators of virus–host cell interactions. RNA induced
silencing complex (RISC) functions in a cooperative manner (Doench et al. 2003; Doench and
Sharp 2004). Multiple target sites in the same 3' UTR can greatly increase the degree of translational
suppression and also enhances the specificity of gene regulation

Influenza Virus
The influenza virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae are two of the most common pathogens to affect
humans; both generally pose no major concern to human life but have the potential to cause
catastrophic damage to the lives of susceptible individuals. With many strains of the influenza virus
being a constant presence around the world, and S. pneumoniae being a normally harmless
commensal bacterium residing in the nasal cavities and upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals
, it is likely impossible to quell the spread of either pathogen and so treatments must be found to
ensure those with detrimental risk factors are either protected or receive sufficient medical attention
in a timely manner in order to prevent irrevocable damage.
Influenza ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are two important proteins used in the determination of the type of influenza; haemagglutinin
(HA) and neuraminidase (NA). There are 18 known variations of the haemagglutinin protein and 11
of the neuraminidase protein, giving hundreds of possible variations in the subtypes of the virus .
These subtypes are further divided into different strains that have a divergent molecular makeup,
giving rise to viruses that differ in virulence, ease of transmission and severity of symptoms. Not all
strains of influenza can cause disease in humans; influenza D subtypes cannot infect humans and
influenza C infections are rare and usually very minor. Influenza A and B are the subtypes that are
responsible for the common infections and the epidemics and pandemics that occur periodically,
with influenza A causing the majority of these infections. The virus is transmitted through the
inhalation of droplets which are expelled when an infected person coughs or sneezes, through
contact with a contaminated surface and through the exchange of saliva . The infected person
becomes infectious to others around 12 hours after first contact with the virus and remains
contagious for around the next five days; this can vary as the immunocompromised can take longer
to subdue the virus and children tend to be more infectious than adults . The virus incubates in the
respiratory tract by invading cells through the cleavage of the viral protein haemagglutinin by
human proteases . The pathogenicity of a certain strain is determined by the spread of proteases in
the respiratory tract that can cleave the proteins of the virus; a strain is typically milder if the
proteases that reside in the lungs and throat are the only ones capable of cleaving the virus, causing
an upper respiratory tract (URT)

Influenza Virus And Respiratory System
Influenza Virus
Structure: The influenza virus looks like a sphere covered with spike like proteins for grip ready to
latch on to a healthy human cell. "The H spike (hem agglutinin) and the N spike (neuraminidase) are
called proteins and exist in the envelope and they are used for antigenic typing" (Pearson 2004).
These proteins allow the virus to enter and exit the host (our cells). Once the virus is inside the cell,
the virus can begin reproducing. Soon, each infected cell is filled with thousands of new viruses,
each of them looking to leave the cell to find a new home in another cell and begin reproducing
there.
The flu is a contagious illness caused by viral infection. The virus attacks your respiratory system –
your nose, throat and lungs.

The Effects of the Influenza Virus Essay
Influenza: The Virus and its Effects
Abstract
The flu, properly called influenza, is an amazingly widespread and widely known disease. There are
many variations of the influenza virus, differing in severity, but not significantly different in
function. The influenza virus infects epithelial cells in the respiratory tract, taking over the cell's
production mechanisms so more viruses are produced, eventually causing the host cells to burst. The
body's immune system tries to combat the infection from succeeding. This internal battle produces
many outward symptoms including a fever and dry cough, among others. Influenza is not usually a
fatal disease, but its high mutation rate insures its continuing import by allowing it to return in ...
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An example of an influenza virus is H3N2. (Wilschut 29)
The influenza virus is a rather typical virus. It is roughly spherically shaped but is able to change
shape somewhat. The particles rang from 80 to 120 nm in diameter. (Wilschut 29–31) Type A
viruses are made of 10 proteins and eight strands of RNA. (USinfo) Influenza viruses are
characterized by having an external layer of about 500 spike–like projections. The spikes are either
rod–like or mushroom–shaped projections. The rod–like spikes represent the envelope glycoprotein
HA and the mushroom–shaped ones are the NA. There are about four times more HA spikes than
Nan (Wilschut 31)
The influenza virus keeps reappearing because it can mutate easily. Influenza is caused by an RNA
virus, meaning that the DNA is stored in the form of RNA chains, not in DNA like ours (UCSC).
RNA viruses have higher mutation rates than DNA viruses. Influenza circulates in the fall and
winter months. As the virus travels around the world infecting people the RNA that codes for either
the N or H antigen will usually mutate. When the H or N antigen mutates, the bodies antibodies
loose their ability to bind to it. Usually either the H or N antigen remains the same so the body has
antibodies to one of the two, allowing it to so it will have partial protection to the disease. In this
circumstance, the infection will

Influenza Virus Life Cycle
Influenza A viruses are enveloped, single–stranded, negative–sense RNA viruses which contain
eight gene segments. The influenza virus life cycle can be divided into the four stages: entry of virus
inside the host cell entry of vRNPs (also known as viral nucleoproteins) into the nucleus of host cell
, transcription and replication of the viral RNA, export of the vRNPs from the nucleus and finally
leading towards assembly and budding of newly formed Influenza virus from the host cell
membrane. The virus infection is initiated by binding of the virus to sialic acid host cell–surface
receptors, and the entry of pathogen is mediated by receptor mediated endocytosis. The next step
involves the fusion of viral envelope and the host cell membrane. ... Show more content on
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The synthesis of the viral glycoproteins HA & NA starts in the cytoplasm and later these growing
polypeptide chains are transported to the endoplasmic reticulum where the proteins are modified and
assembled into trimers and tetramers ( Samji T.,2009).These proteins are then transported through
the Golgi apparatus and the trans–Golgi network to the plasma membrane of the cell where they
inserted finally. The synthesis and folding of viral core proteins occur entirely in the cytoplasm. NP
and the RNA polymerase components interact with newly synthesized viral RNA to form RNPs. The
M1 protein forms interaction with the C–terminal domains of HA and NA protein on the cell plasma
membrane. The newly formed RNPs interact with the M1 protein. This interaction also stops re–
entry of RNPs inside the nucleus of the cell. After attachment of RNPs to M1protein where it act as
a bridge on the inner half of the cell plasma membranes, in a process of budding, the new virus
particles are assembled . The progeny virions bud off from the host cell. (Shi etal.,2014).As soon as
budding takes place, the new virions are still attached to the cell surface through interaction of the
HA with sialic acid moieties on cellular glycoproteins or glycolipids. The

Influenza Virus: Epidemics And Pandemics
Influenza virus has caused serious respiratory illness and death over the past centuries. Epidemics
and pandemics due to Influenza virus were known to cause morbidity and mortality in humans and
other animals. Pandemics have been documented since the 16th century (WHO, 2005) and in the
last 400 years, at least 31 pandemics have been recorded (Lazzari and Stohr, 2004). Influenza virus
belongs to the family Orthomyxoviridae, which is characterized by a segmented, minus–stranded
RNA genome. Influenza viruses are irregular, spherical (80–120 nm diameter) or filamentous
structures and their surfaces are studded with rod–shaped hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase
(NA) spikes (Betts, 1995). Influenza viruses are of three types A, B, and C. The typing

Taking a Look at Influenza A Virus
Influenza A Virus
IAV is a virus classified as part of the orthomyxoviridae and one of the causative agents of influenza
or "the flu". (Edinger, Pohl & Stertz, 2014) Its natural reservoir is primarily wild aquatic fowl where
it is mostly nonpathogenic, though zoonotic infections can occur in mammals and domestic fowl.
(Klenk, Matrosovich & Stech, 2008) The jump between species often results in the establishment of
highly pathogenic variants that can have devastating effects, as was the case of the "Spanish"
influenza pandemic of 1918. (Taubenberger, 2006) The infection across special barriers is dependent
on changes to the structure of glycoproteins on the viral envelope, particularly haemagglutinin
(HA). The different subtypes of HA and neuraminidase (NA) serve to classify different viral
lineages. These changes in the structure can result in proteolytic activation; that when coupled to
changes of receptor binding specificity allow for interspecies transmission. (Klenk, Matrosovich &
Stech, 2008) The modifications can affect the pathogenicity of the virus even within the same
species, which can allow for infection of new cell types, or even systemic disease. (Steinhauer,
1999) These mutations accumulate through successive replications or genetic re–assortment during
confection. The resulting structural changes account for the observed antigenic drift that causes loss
of immunity despite prior exposures to the virus. This evolutionary process drives the consistent

Influenza Virus: A Case Study
The spread of influenza is a virus that affects many people within a population. Influenza is usually
spread through the air by coughs or sneezes that contain the influenza virus (Acharya & Thapa,
2016, p. 69). The impacts of contracting influenza during an outbreak are astounding as influenza
can lead to missed days of work, school, and can have a negative economic effect on patients who
do not have health insurance plans. If symptoms of influenza worsen, people are hospitalized and
can easily succumb to pneumonia. As influenza is a common occurrence among the human
population, consuming dietary supplements such as antioxidants and herbs may be able to prevent
an individual from influenza or lower the impact of influenza in a person's body. ... Show more
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If there are more strains of influenza virus than expected in the air, individuals can easily contract
virulent strains that influenza vaccines do not protect the individual from. Additionally, people who
are unhealthy and malnourished are susceptible to contracting influenza than people who consume
antioxidants or herbs on a daily basis. People who are unhealthy and malnourished are often prone
to contracting influenza as their body is unable to fight the virus as well compared to individuals
who do consume dietary supplements. In this secondary analysis, a comparison of data sets will be
made to determine whether consuming dietary supplements regularly lowers the prevalence of
contracting the influenza virus among the adult population in the United States. The comparisons of
participants who do consume dietary supplements are of importance as these dietary supplements
may be used to lower the prevalence of influenza virus in individuals. As influenza is a common
occurrence during the winter months, consuming dietary supplements such as antioxidants and herbs
may help lower the prevalence of influenza among the adult population in the United

Influenza A Virus
Every fall season, more than 1 billion Americans contract colds which lead to the overcrowding
emergency rooms, doctor offices and urgent care visits. Most of them present similar symptoms of
upper respiratory tract (URT) infections which affects the air passage in the nose, ears and throat.
Among them, 5 to 20 percents of these symptoms are contracted by influenza, commonly called "the
flu" (11). According to the Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), flu diseases are
episodic and can be acute which has claimed 3000 to 49000 lives from 1976 to 2006 although there
have been no findings on a mortality report due to the common cold (11). Although the common
cold and flu share a lot of common characteristics, but their complications ... Show more content on
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However, flu is caused by a different set of viruses than common cold viruses. The three main types
of viruses often found during the flu season are Influenza A, B and C. Influenza A viruses are the
most common; they are the super bug viruses that infects illnesses in both human and animals. It
contains larger members than type B and C viruses. Type A influenza is divided into subtypes such
as H1N 1 (Swine flu–pig flu), avian influenza (H5N 1 – bird flu) and H3 N2 (most common flu
infection). In short, the H (hemagglutinin) and N (neuraminidase) are the two protein substances
found on the surface of the viruses (9). Therefore, flu exhibit a distinct set of symptoms that
healthcare professionals are able to differentiate from common cold illness. Moreover, like common
cold they are assigned an acronym F.A.C.T.S. to pin point flu illnesses in the diagnosis protocol. F
stands for fever; it usually runs higher than100 degree Fahrenheit (38 degree Celsius). In children, if
the temperature rises over 103 degree Fahrenheit for more than two days, healthcare officials
recommend a visit to Emergency Room in order to prevent the meningitis or brain damage. A is for
aches; the flu illness is always present with muscle aches all over body. In most cases, it is severe
enough to limit an individual from normal activity and bed confinement. C is for chills; shriveling
colds that make it unable to warm up. T is for tiredness; it usually ranges from moderate to severe
dependence. S is for symptom onset; flu onset is very sudden. It comes down rather quickly, within
3 to 6 hours, in comparison to common colds which gradually develops over period of day(s) (3, 5,
6, 7, 8). The key components distinguish flu from common cold are the sudden onset symptoms,
shriveling cold and allover muscle

Influenza A Virus Research Paper
Influenza A virus (IAV) is thought to have emerged from aquatic birds and bats. It's peculiar
evolution characteristics allowed it to cross barrier species and therefore spread to mammals and
domestic poultry1. It has caused several pandemic outbreaks in the human population during the last
century, being the 1918 (The Spanish Flu) the most devastating one. In veterinary, mostly in poultry,
it causes great economic losses. Any available prophylactic or therapeutic tool has been
demonstrated ineffective due to the peculiar escaping characteristics of the virus. The general
characteristics of IAV and its evolution are briefly reviewed here.
GENETIC AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS: Orthomyxoviridaes have a negative–
sense, single–stranded,

Birdie: Avian Influenza Virus
Once there was a virus named Birdie. This virus was a Bird Flu, or Avian Influenza, virus of the
subtype H5N1, the first strain of Avian Influenza having the ability to infect humans (Normandin
and Solan). Birdie looked like a microscopic pomander, a fragrant orange with cloves stuck in it.
Inside, she had eight pieces of single stranded ribonucleic acid or ssRNA. Birdie was deadly to
humans, but was not able to spread from one human to another. She could only spread from birds to
humans ("Bird Flu"). Birdie started out inside a chicken named Cluck, where she was formed. A
little while later, Cluck's farmer Mark, sold his Cluck, to Joe, another poultry farmer because Mark
did not realize that Cluck had H5N1. After a few months of Cluck living ... Show more content on
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Joe drove himself to the hospital, where they treated him with oseltamivir ("Bird Flu Symptoms,
Causes, Treatment). Oseltamivir is a medication that is used to prevent Influenza and sometimes
H5N1 ("Prevention and Treatment of Avian Influenza A Viruses in People"). The one catch about
zanamivir is that for it to be effective, the infected person has to be treated within two days of
having the symptoms ("Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) Uses, Dosage, Side Effects"). Luckily for Joe, he had
started feeling symptoms about a day and a half before. The sad thing was that instead of getting
better, his symptoms got worse. He continued having breathing

Swine Influenza Virus
Swine Influenza (swine flu) is a respiratory disease of pigs caused by type A influenza viruses that
causes regular outbreaks in pigs. People do not normally get swine flu, but human infections can and
do happen. Swine flu is also known as pig influenza, swine flu, hog flu and pig flu. This is a viral
disease caused by several type swine flu viruses known as Swine influenza virus (SIV) or swine–
origin influenza virus (S–OIV) which is a strain belongs to the influenza family and endemic to
pigs. There are several subtypes of Influenza A virus known as H1N1, H1N2, H2N1, H3N1, H3N2,
and H2N3. CDC has determined that this virus is contagious and is spreading from human to
human. However, at this time, it not known how easily the virus spreads between

Influenza Virus ( Kapoor And Dhama 2014 )
A disease that can affect numerous species ranging from humans to birds and even swine is the
influenza virus (Kapoor and Dhama 2014). The influenza virus is separated into three genera; A, B,
C (Kapoor and Dhama 2014). While all three types of influenza have their own effects on different
populations the one that is mostly known for pandemics is influenza virus A (Kapoor and Dhama
2014). This viral strain functions through a different charged sense located in its RNA genome; an
area where deleterious mutations can increase in the body of its hosts allowing replication (Webster
and Govorkova 2014). The popular subtype that cause the respiratory immune issue is mostly from
H1N1; a serious and deathly disease (Kapoor and Dhama 2014). While influenza virus A can cause
numerous complications to the human population it is also known for its relationship among humans
and mammals (Kapoor and Dhama 2014). The virus circulates among many bird species causing
concerns and risks to spread in further populations worldwide (Webster and Govorkova 2014).
NEED MORE INTRO
Influenza Virus A can affect the human body in so many ways. The study of the virus to body
relationship can help medical professionals understand the role of illness and future consequences it
can play on human health. A major point that has been tested in various ways is the relationship of
natural killer cells with the virus. Natural killer cells are known as defensive cells in the human body
that protect against

Influenza Virus Flu Research Paper
Influenza Virus "Flu"
Jenny Millares
Keiser University
MCB2000C
Professor Algevis Wrench
Influenza Virus "Flu"
Influenza, also known as 'the flu', is a viral infection that tends to extent through societies between
November and April every year, with a highest number of cases occurring in January and February.
It is a respiratory illness that causes chills, high fever, body aches, and cough, but sometimes, its
complications can be deadly. "About 5% of the population will contract the flu each year" (Influenza
and your Health, 2017). Considering this, the "flu" is a very significant infection to study,
characterized by specific symptoms, affects diverse age groups, and needs a vaccine protocol of
which we must have knowledge to be prepared ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is caused by various types of influenza viral strains. According to Marjorie, three types of
influenza viruses are recognized: A, B and C. Type A is more common. Influenza virus belongs to
the Orthomyxoviridae family, are enveloped, pleomorphic, and contain the genomes of 8 single–
stranded negative–sense segments of RNA. Influenza viruses have three key structural proteins:
hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA) and Matrix 2 (M2). Both HA and NA are surface
glycoproteins diverse enough that their serological recognition gives rise to the traditional
classification into different subtypes.
That differentiation occurs from time to time at irregular intermissions, which is responsible for
widespread outbreaks and makes periodic reformulation of the influenza vaccine necessary. The
disease is mainly extented through droplets in crowded and enclosed spaces. The infection may also
be spread from person to person by direct contact with the secretions of infected persons. The
incubation period is short, usually around 1 to 4

Influenza Virus Essay
Influenza viruses are unique. They have the ability to avoid host immunity, therefore causing annual
reoccurring epidemics of disease, and sometimes, major worldwide pandemics. The recognition of
the variability in antigenic characteristics of influenza strains led to the establishment of a global
Influenza Surveillance Network by the World Health Organization. The network monitors changes
in viruses that cause outbreaks of influenza throughout the year all around the world. This article
aims to explain the difference in epidemiology between influenza strains A and B, and how they are
related to previous viruses. Since the introduction of H3N2, an influenza A strain, into the human
genome, the antigen H3 on the hemagglutinin (HA) gene has evolved as a single lineage. The rate of
accumulation of mutations is approximately 4x10^–3 substitutions per ... Show more content on
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In HA1, there are about 5x10^–3 amino acid substitutions per residue per year. The majority of these
changes occur on the surface of HA1 and are present in antigenic sites close to the receptor–binding
site. Additionally, when modifying antibody binding to HA, changes in glycosylation are found to
be very important. In the evolution of H3N2 viruses, studies show that changes in conserved amino
acids at the receptor–binding site also have an effect. Predominant viruses that cause outbreaks of
disease often have a high degree of similarity, even when they are largely distributed throughout the
world. The importance of reassortment of HA and viral neuraminidase (NA) genes in the emergence
of epidemic viruses is indicated by the co–circulation of several H3N2 variants. In terms of H1N1,
another influenza A strain, significant properties of the virus did not evolve directly from viruses
that came before it. Another strain of influenza, Influenza B, has shown to have a

Sample Resume : Influenza Virus Vaccine
Writing Assignment: 01
Proper Name: Influenza Virus Vaccine
Trade name: FLUCELVAX®1
Product Sponsor: Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Inc.1
Regulatory milestones:
1) BLA submission: November 22, 20111
2) First pre–BLA meeting: July 31, 20071
3) The original BLA submitted in February 2009 was withdrawn to include the results of the clinical
endpoint study.1
4) Second pre–BLA meeting: December 15, 20101
5) BLAApproval: November 20, 2012
Pharmacologic Class: Vaccine
Introduction and description of the product:
FLUCELVAX® is a first of its kind flu vaccine, approved by U.S. FDA to use cell culture
technology. FLUCELVAX®, an intramuscular injection is used in the prevention of seasonal flu
caused by influenza virus types A (subtypes H1N1 and H3N2) and B.1 It is indicated for use in
individuals of age 18 years or older.1 The manufacturing process uses mammalian cells instead of
chicken eggs to grow viral strains. It is a trivalent and inactivated influenza vaccine, consisting of a
continuous cell line of Madin–Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells.1 "The formulation of
FLUCELVAX® contains 45 micrograms (mcg) hemagglutinin (HA) per 0.5 mL dose in 15 mcg HA
of each of the following three influenza strains: A/Brisbane/10/2010 (wild type) (H1N1); A/South
Australia/55/2014 (wild type) (H3N2); B/Utah/9/2014. Residual amounts in each dose of
FLUCELVAX® may contain MDCK cell protein (≤8.4 mcg), a protein other than HA (≤ 120 mcg),
MDCK cell DNA (≤ 10 ng), polysorbate 80 (≤ 1125

Essay On Influenza Virus
Influenza Virus
Influenza is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system – your nose, throat and lungs. The
virus is sphere covered with spike like proteins, called the hem agglutinin and the neuraminidase,
ready to latch on to a healthy human cell. The process of entering a cell, reproducing, and moving to
another cell takes about 4 to 6 hours. There are multiple complications of the influenza virus such as
Guillain–Barre syndrome and Reye's syndrome. The most serious complication is pneumonia. When
having the flu, you can have a bunch of symptoms. Headaches, fever, runny nose, coughing, sore
throat, body aches, and tiredness are a few symptoms of the flu.
The influenza virus looks like a sphere covered with spike like proteins for grip ready to latch on to
a healthy human cell. The virus holds RNA in the very center of the virus. The outside layer is called
the envelope. "The H spike (hem agglutinin) and the N spike (neuraminidase) are called proteins
and exist in the envelope and they are used for antigenic typing" (Pearson 2004). These proteins
allow the virus to enter and exit the host (our cells). Once the virus is inside the cell, the virus can
begin reproducing. Soon, each infected cell is filled with thousands of new viruses, each of them
looking to leave the cell to find a new home in another cell and begin ... Show more content on
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The virus attacks your respiratory system – your nose, throat and lungs. The virus accesses into the
body by going through the mouth or nose. People can also pick it up by touching the virus on an
object, such as doorknobs, pens, pencils, keyboards, telephone receivers, and eating or drinking
utensils, then touching their mouth or nose. "Lower–respiratory symptoms include cough and
breathing problems. Upper–respiratory symptoms include sore throat, runny nose and congestion"
(Demand Media 2015). The digestive system is also affected by the flu and that causes vomiting and

H1N1 Influenza Virus: The Evolutionary Analysis Of
The genetic origin of the H1N1 influenza virus has also been studied through use of phylogenic
analysis. By using models of sequence evolution, biologists have been able to contribute to the
process of how the influenza vaccine is developed each year by providing information about which
strains should be included in the vaccine (Gluckman, 2011). Aging and senescence, which is the
decline in the physical functioning or performance of living organisms with age (Bergstrom, 2012),
is also is studied using an evolutionary perspective. Research on aging has shown that it is a life trait
that has been shaped over the years by natural selection (Neese, 2008). Aging is a process that
occurs due to an accumulation of molecular damage that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
These cellular defects eventually interfere with the normal function of the cells causing disabilities
and disease (Kirkwood, 2008). Senescence results in an increased mortality rate and a decrease in
the ability to produce offspring. A person's average lifespan correlates with their senescence rate
(Bergstrom, 2012). Genes are thought to account for one fourth of what determines the length of an
individual's lifetime will be. Genes also shape an individual's life history in relationship to their
reproduction and survival. The genes that are believed to have a major effect on aging are those
which are involved in the regulation of metabolism (Kirkwood, 2008). One of the most substantial
findings in aging research is the effect that single genes can have in influencing oxidative
metabolism. These genes show that the

Influenza As An Influenza Virus
INTRODUCTION: Influenza, more commonly known as the 'flu', is a chameleon like infectious
disease, that presents itself with varying characteristics from year to year, due to the wavering
identity of the strain. "Like HIV, influenza is an RNA virus, constantly changing its appearance and
adept at eluding recognition by the human immune system" (Schneider, 2014). From its inception of
1918, influenza claims an average of 250,000 to 500,000 people worldwide, annually. Little is
known of the virus's origin however; recent studies examined pathology specimens belonging to
deceased soldiers of 1918, revealing similarities with that of the avian flu virus (Schneider, 2014).
Evidence has correlated a pattern of influenza strain elements, accompanied by consistent
transmutation, that has established a paralleled relationship between that of animal reservoirs and
Asia. It is believed that global transmission of the virus is carried via birds that consume food from
the same sources that of pigs, consisting of contaminated feed and waterfowl. "Human and animal
influenza viruses incubate in a pig's digestive system, forming new genetic combinations"
(Schneider, 2014). Asia occupies cohabitation of the two species that yield fertile breeding grounds
for a virus to manifest, while posing a significant threat and concern to the heavily populated areas
within close proximity.
HISTORY:
Viruses that were responsible for the 1957 and 1968 epidemics, resembled that of the avian

Influenza A Virus: A Case Study
o Avian influenza is derived from birds and are caused by the influenza A virus. Influenza A viruses
are negative–sense, single–stranded, segmented RNA viruses that has an envelope (Peiris, Hui and
Yen, 2010). On the envelope there are two surface glycoproteins, haemagglutinin (HA) and
neuraminidase (NA). Influenza A virus belongs to the Orthomyxoviridae family and is responsible
for causing influenza in birds and some mammals like humans.
Mechanism o When influenza A virus enters the body, the pattern–recognition receptors (PRRs)
recognises pathogen–associated marker pattern (PAMP) located on the virus. These PRRs consists
of toll like receptors (TLRs) and retinoic acid inducible gene–I (RIG–I)(Pang and Iwasaki, 2011).
When TLR7 binds ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some influenza viruses have evolved to avoid being detected by the immune system. To avoid
recognition of TLRs and RIG–I, influenza virus NS1 protein binds to the viral RNA (Guo et al.,
2007). RIG–1 is also inhibited when NS1 binds to tripartite mtif–containing protein 25 (TRIM25) as
seen in figure 1 (Gack et al., 2009). HPAI H5N1 contains PB1–F2, which is able to bind to the
mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS) and prevent the production of type I interferon
(Conenello et al., 2011). To escape the humoral immunity, mutations in the coding region of the
antibody binding sites in HA occurs (Smith et al., 2004). This change in the antigenic region is
known as antigenic

Preventing The Influenza Virus Within School Aged Children
Running head: PREVENTING THE INFLUENZA VIRUS 1
PREVENTING THE FLU IN SCHOOL 6
Preventing the Influenza Virus in School–aged Children
Tracy Bell
Community College of Baltimore County
Children rely on the decisions that are made by responsible individuals in their lives including
parents, caretakers, and other authorities such as teachers. Because children depend on others so
heavily, health issues that affect children such as contracting the influenza virus or the flu should be
discussed with the adults in their lives. Every year a new strain of the influenza virus affects the
health of school–aged children causing a potential health risk to themselves and others around them.
The spread of the influenza virus in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One way to help stop the spread of the influenza virus is through receiving yearly vaccinations.
Every year through predictions, a group of scientists help drug companies develop vaccines for the
approaching influenza season (Surviving the flu season, 2016). Due to the importance of receiving
the vaccine there should be a plan in place that makes this vaccine more accessible to all individuals
especially the younger population. A start could be partnering with the local medical community to
initiate school vaccination programs. Having a nationwide program advocate for kids that do not
have a primary doctors, insurance, or means or transportation to get to a clinic to be vaccinated
would be highly beneficial. School based health clinics can be successful because kids are already in
one central location around ninety–two to ninety–eight percent are in attendance at school on
average (Herbert, Gargano, Painter, Sales, Morfaw, Murray, DiClemente, & Hughes, 2013). In
addition, having kids get vaccinated at the same time could prevent influenza cases, and decrease
medical care cost for families. School–age kids also remain carriers of the virus for an extended
period of time, therefore targeting school–aged kids is critical to helping minimize the spread of the
influenza virus in the community (Herbert et al., 2013). Additionally, having all students vaccinated
can minimize the severity

The Influenza Virus : Viral And Contagious Disease Essay
The influenza virus, also known as the seasonal flu, is a viral and contagious disease that was once
recognized as one of the most devastating illnesses in global history. From 1918 to 1919, an
estimated 500 million people worldwide fell sick with this illness and killed nearly 10%. In the
United States, 675,000 Americans died during the pandemic, suffering from fever, body aches,
nausea, and other impacting symptoms with little opportunity for treatment. First observed in
Europe, flu outbreaks swept through parts of Asia and South America, Africa, and North America.
At first, scientists like Robert Koch, believed that the cause of influenza was a bacterium called
Haemophilus influenzae, but eventually discovered it was viral. Nonetheless, there were no effective
treatments that helped kill the viral strain or prevent its spread. At the time, people were ordered to
wear masks, and public entities like schools were closed for an extended period of time. Even today,
there are very few methods of remedy other than rest, fluids, and staying warm. One drug that was
approved by the FDA in 1999 that treated for influenza in adults was oseltamivir, or Tamiflu.
However, it wasn't put to use until 2005 in Southeast Asia when the H5N1 avian influenza epidemic
erupted. Currently, Tamiflu continues to be used as the main drug for treating the flu. A downside to
this medication, however is that it must be administered 48 hours within experiencing the first
symptoms; otherwise it doesn't

Influenza Virus Evolution
Unlike DNA viruses, the RNA influenza virus lacks the proofreading mechanism to self–repair
arising errors during its replication. Thus two forms of genetic variations representing a hallmark
feature of influenza viruses. The antigenic drift occurred in influenza type A and influenza type B.
The accumulation of changes in surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, by gene
sequence mutations of virus RNA segments causing the antigenic drift. These mutations cause minor
changes in HA and NA antibody–binding sites generating novel strains of influenza virus that
responsible for the seasonal epidemics. As these novel strains are not detectable by host antibodies
that were generated against previous strains, they can infect both vaccinated ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
New influenza virus strain release with a unique combination of HA and NA proteins that causing
the pandemics influenza infections among the population who have no previous antibodies response
against these novel antigens. Previous studies have demonstrated levels of genetic diversity among
HCMV within and between hosts. The inter–host diversity is a level of genetic variation observed
between hosts while intra–hosts diversity occurred within a single host. These genetic diversity
studies have demonstrated divergence in the sequence of CMV glycoproteins, gB, and gH, using
several assays including PCR–RFLP, DNA sequencing, single strand conformation polymorphism.
Currently, the mechanisms of HCMV diversity are not well understood however some mechanisms
were suggested to cause the genetic diversity. In HCMV primary infection, de novo mutations
generated within hosts as a result of high levels of viral replication which lead to intra–hosts
diversity. HCMV reinfection leads to repeatedly introduce the most common divergent sequence to
immunocompromised and healthy

Influenza Virus: A Case Study
Influenza is a highly contagious disease which can spread across the population by the body
secretions which contain the active influenza virus (Collignon & Carnie, 2006). It poses serious
threats to the society as it promotes fear, anxiety, and discrimination, and consequently causes
destruction to the normal function of the society (Selgelid, 2009). Unless people develop immunity
against the influenza virus (Collignon & Carnie, 2006), an influenza pandemic will remain a global
emergency as extremely high number of people all over the world will require care at the same time
(Kotalik, 2005). Since the global impact of pandemic varies across history, prediction regarding the
magnitude of impact will often be overestimated or underestimated ... Show more content on
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State public health laws allow health authorities to perform strategies such as isolation and social
distancing with infection control practices will be adopted (Bennett, 2009; Verweij, 2009; Collignon
& Carnie, 2006) to contain, and reduce the spread of virus. Quarantine laws, on the other hand, give
government the power to isolate, restrict the freedom, and separate those who may be exposed to the
virus (Bennett, 2009; Collignon & Carnie, 2006; Letts, 2006; Verweij, 2009) with the community.
Individuals, who are constrained in the name of public health, need to be compensated not only
financially. The government also need to ensure food, clothing, shelter, communication to family,
competent medical care are also provided (Bennett, 2009, Viens et al., 2009). The restrictive
measures are only morally justified if it prevents harm (Viens et al., 2009), and these forceful
isolation and quarantine methods should only be used as the last resort (Selgelid, 2009; Letts, 2006)
where voluntary measures cannot be expected to succeed (WHO, 2007). Even as the last resort, in
the context of both national and international laws, any restriction on the rights of an individual can
only take place when it is necessary, and proven to be effective by sound scientific evidence (Letts,
2006; Selgelid, 2009; Verweij, 2009; WHO,

Argument Against The Influenza Virus (IFV)
CDC reports released earlier this year revealed that only 40% of the American population was
vaccinated against the Influenza Virus (IFV), last year. The vaccines are expected to reduce need for
treatment from healthcare providers by 60% and yet the majority of the population remains
vulnerable to this rapidly, mutating virus. (Brandenburg et al., 2013)
Interviews with several supporters of the anti–vaccine movement highlighted concerns regarding
potential side–effects, interference with natural immune development and the safety of the vaccine,
itself. People's tendency for distrust of flu vaccines also seem to correlate with experiencing flu–like
symptoms even after immunization. (Brandenburg et al., 2013)
The most widespread skepticism, however, is based on popular belief that vaccine efficacy is just
not satisfactory. Arguing against this, experts explain that IFV is a single stranded RNA (ribonucleic
acid) virus with no proofreading mechanism, as is common in their DNA counterparts (Brandenburg
et al., 2013). The replication phase of its life cycle is prone to multiple mutations, constantly
generating new strains of IFV. Scientist have been frustrated by challenges due to "sequence and
antigenic diversity" (Burton et al., 2012), which is analogous to ... Show more content on
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It provides evidence that human monoclonal antibodies can neutralize, or inhibit the effect of a
broad range of IFV A and B. The study followed the natural immune responses of recently
discovered broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAb) on the stem and head regions of IFV A surface
protein, Haemagglutinin (HA). Dr. Brandenburg and colleagues were particularly interested in
studying the ability of the stem and head binding bnAb to intervene during attachment and fusion,
disrupt protein cleavage and contain newly synthesized viruses within the cell at the different stages
of the virus's

The H1N1 Influenza Virus
The H1N1 Influenza Virus
A virus is "snippet of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA" (YouTube, Dr. Tony Fauci, H1N1 Influenza
a Virus, 2009) that is able to replicate itself only in other cells. Unlike bacteria, a virus cannot thrive
on its own. A virus has to break into a cell and take control of the cell functions in order to replicate,
often causing disease. Some viruses are benign, and others cause diseases like polio, smallpox, and
measles. There are be three types of influenza: A, B, and C, which are all found in humans.
Influenza A is found in "birds, pigs, whales, horses, and seals" (Microbiology: An Introduction,
2016, pp. 364) and also humans. It has the ability to attack the respiratory system, nose, throat, and
lungs. Influenza A can also cause fever, chills, sore throat, runny nose, cough, muscle aches, and
fatigue. The swine flu (influenza a virus) is an acute virus. The infected person shows the symptom
of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was evolved by its molecular make up from genes that have rearranged themselves from multiple
viral species from an influenza virus that is in pigs or swine; from an influenza virus that infects
birds; and from an influenza virus that infects humans. In 2009 when H1N1 was spreading, there
was no effective vaccines available at the time because the scientists or the physicians just became
aware of this brand new virus. It has been isolated and characterized and they certainly intend to
move forward to make a vaccine against this H1N1 influenza virus. Later, a vaccine was developed
to cure people who were infected and also prevent others from being infected. The injectable form
of H1N1 influenza virus vaccine is a "killed virus" vaccine and does not cause people to be infected
with the virus. The vaccine effects itself by stimulating the body to make an immune response
against the virus before the body actively sees the virus that it

Essay On Influenza Virus
Is There a 'Single' Vaccine for the Influenza Virus
Introduction/ Background The human immune system is constantly undergoing changes because of
the pathogens that are trying to invade the body. Once the pathogens cross your initial barriers your
body has a second defence that comes into play. This is your immune system which is composed of
your innate and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity has two line of defense, the first line starting
with the skin and mucosal membranes, these create barrier to try and fight off pathogens entering the
body. The second line is an internal response consisting of many types of phagocytes, and chemicals
and physiological processes which fight against pathogens (pg 854 Textbook). Meanwhile adaptive
immunity is a response that has multiple cells that work to fight off specific pathogens. These cells
start off as simple T–lymphocytes and B–lymphocytes. T–lymphocytes go through a process when
identifying a pathogen and eventually form cytotoxic T– lymphocytes and helper T–lymphocytes.
When B– lymphocytes cross a pathogen they form into plasma cells in order to release antibodies
and target (textbook pg 864). These two immunities play a big role in providing a healthy defense
after vaccination is injected to allow the body to be immuned to ... Show more content on
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Before beginning research on this topic we did not understand that it was just the hemagglutinin
head that mutates. It was interesting finding out that the stalk/stem of the virus stays the same and
could lead to creating a universal vaccine which could be given once. As of right now there isn't a
vaccine which we can get to help protect us for a lifetime against the influenza virus. Hopefully
within the next few years Dr. Schrader and his team will be able to come up with a single shot

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