social marketing

1. Research Methods for
Social Marketing
An approach to J Component
Dr. Suraj Kushe Shekhar
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

2. Meaning of research
• A careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any fields of
knowledge.
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

3. Definitions of Research
• The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of
information to answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and
Morrow, 1996).
• Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions (Tuckman, 1999).
• Research may be defined as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events
(Best and Kahn, 1998).
• Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic
method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996).
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

4. Objectives
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it - Exploratory
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or group-
Descriptive
• To determine the frequency with which
something occurs-Diagnostic
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship-
Hypothesis testing
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

5. Motivation in research
• Desire to
– Get a research degree
– Face challenges in solving unsolved problems
– Get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
– Be of service to society
– Desire to get respectability
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

6. Structure of Research
begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions
The "hourglass" notion of research
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

7. Variables
• variable…
– any observation that can take on different values
• attribute…
– a specific value on a variable
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

8. Examples
Variable Attribute
age
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

9. Examples
Variable Attribute
age 18, 19, 20, etc...
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

10. Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

11. Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex Male, female
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

12. Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

13. Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied
2 = satisfied
3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
5 = not satisfied at all
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

14. Types of Variables
• independent variable (IV)…
– what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
• dependent variable (DV)…
– what you presume to be influenced by the IV
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

15. Examples
IV DV
exercise
participation
health status
attitude
social support
intervention
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

16. Research Process
• Define research problem
• Review of Literature
– Conceptual
– Empirical
• Formulate hypothesis
• Design research
– Exploratory
– Conclusive
– Diagnostic
– Experimental
– Causal
• Sampling
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

17. • Collect data
– Observation
– Personal interview
– Telephonic interview
– Mailing questionnaires
– Through schedules
• Analyze data (Test hypothesis if any)
– Editing
– Coding
– Tabulating etc. performed first
• Interpret and report
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

18. Research Problem
• Statement of the research problem in a
general way
• Understanding the nature of the problem
• Surveying the available literature
• Developing the ideas through discussions
• Rephrasing the research problem
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

19. – “Why is productivity of Japan so much higher than India”?
Ambiguities
– What sort of productivity?
– What industries ?
– Time period?
– Better way to define the problem would be:
– “What factors were responsible for higher productivity of
Japan’s manufacturing industries during the decade 1971
to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries”?
– “To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in
Japan exceed that of India in respect of 15 selected
manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible
for the productivity differentials between the two
countries by industries”
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

20. Hypotheses
• hypothesis…
– a specific statement of prediction
• types of hypotheses
– alternative vs. null
– one-tailed vs. two-tailed
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

21. Hypothesis Formulation
--- Formulate a hypothesis
--- Frame the hypothesis in
a format that is testable
--- Test the hypothesis
21
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

22. Formulating a Hypothesis
• Hypothesis:
– A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of
the research
– A concrete, specific statement about the
relationships between phenomena
– 2 types of hypotheses:
• Null hypothesis (HO)
– All is equal; no differences exist
• Alternative (research) hypothesis (HA)
– Usually specific and opposite to the null
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

23. Hypotheses
hypothesis there is a relationship between age
and exercise participation
HA there is a relationship
HO there is no relationship
this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no
direction is predicted
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

24. Hypotheses
hypothesis an incentive program will increase
exercise participation
HA participation will increase
HO participation will not increase or
will decrease
this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a
specific direction is predicted
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

25. Research Design
• A frame work for conducting the research
project.
• Outlines how the research project will be
conducted.
• Details the procedures necessary for obtaining
the information needed to structure and/or
solve research projects.
• Guides the data collection ,analysis and report
presentation
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

26. Research Design
• What is the study about?
• Why is the study being made?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• What type of data will be required?
• Where can the required data be found?
• What periods of time will the study include?
• What will be the sample design?
• What techniques of data collection will be used?
• How will the data be analyzed?
• In what style will the report be presented?
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

27. Sampling Designs
• Sampling Design Process
– Define target population
– Determine sampling frame
• a list of the items or people forming a population from
which a sample is taken.
– Select sampling technique(s)
– Determine the sample size
– Execute the sampling process
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

28. Sampling techniques
• Non probability
• Convenience
• Judgmental
• Quota
• Snowball
• Probability
• SRM
• Systematic
• Stratified
• Cluster
surajk.shekhar@vit.ac.in

29. Questionnaire Design

30. Attitude Measurement
• Attitude – an expression of favour or disfavour
toward a person, place, thing or event
• Attitude can be formed from a person’s past
and present
• Attitude is also measurable and changeable as
well as influencing the person’s behaviour.

31. I believe that chocolate packaging is
important

32. Methods of Measuring Attitudes
• Rating
– Likert Scale – carefully constructed attitudinal
measure which asks people for their agreement
with a statement
– Example: Please rate each of the following, on a
scale from 1 to 10, with 1 being least important
and 10 being most important…

33. • Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

34. Monadic
Q. How satisfied are you with your current job?
1. Very Satisfied
2. Somewhat Satisfied
3. Not Very Satisfied

35. Comparative
Q. Compared to your current job how much
responsibility did you have at your last job?
1. More
2. About the Same
3. Less

36. Unbalanced
Q. How satisfied are you with your current cable
service?
1. Very Satisfied
2. Somewhat Satisfied
3. Somewhat unsatisfied

37. Balanced
Q. How satisfied are you with your current cable
service?
1. Very Satisfied
2. Somewhat Satisfied
3. Somewhat unsatisfied
4. Very unsatisfied

38. Forced Choice
• Does not allow the respondent to offer no
opinion, which is different than a neutral
opinion

39. Unforced Choice
• Allows respondents to opt out of providing an
opinion.

40. • Ranking
– Rank choices from most important to least
important
• Example: Of the following 10 items please
rank them in order of importance, with 1
being least important and 10 being most
important.

41. Questionnaire
• A set of questions designed to generate the
data necessary for accomplishing a research
project's objectives

42. Complexity of Questionnaire Design
Do you consider that the many research texts are adequate for most
of your business majors at the undergraduate level ?
_____ Yes ____ No If no; briefly, why not?
Is your friend sociable and lovable?
_____ Yes ____ No If no; briefly, why not?

43. Can the Respondent
Answer the Question? (Cont’d)
• Consider the following question taken from a
questionnaire used by a marketing research
firm in conducting a face-to-face survey of
female household heads
– How much has your family spent in the last 12
months on cookware? $ _______

44. Can the Respondent
Answer the Question?
• In your opinion, how many students in your
marketing courses will become potentially
successful marketing managers?
Ten percent ______
Twenty percent______
Thirty percent ______
______percent ______

45. • Questionnaire quality and design criteria
– What should be asked?
– How should questions be phrased?
– In what sequence the questions be arranged?
– What questionnaire layout will best serve the research
objectives?
– How should the questionnaire be pretested?
– Does the questionnaire need to be revised?

46. Questionnaire General Format
• Self-administered (by mail or
personal contact)
• In person (face-to-face)
• Telephone interviews

47. Question Form
• Nonstructured questions
– Open-ended
• Structured questions
– Fixed-response

48. Nonstructured Questions
• Consider the following illustrative questions
How old are you?___________________
What do you like most about owning your own
home? _____________
Will you please describe your thoughts about a
person who shoplifts items from a grocery store to
keep from going hungry?
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
____

49. Structured Questions
• In which of the following categories does your
age fall?
_______ Less than 18
_______ 18 to 30
_______ 31 to 45
_______ 46 to 60
_______ Over 60

50. Structured Questions:
Dichotomous Questions
• Do you smoke cigarettes?
___Yes ___No
• Have you ever watched CNN News?
___Yes ___No

51. Multiple-Category Questions
• In your opinion, which product category is the most suited for
making purchases on the Internet?
____Automobiles
____Books
____Electronic Items (TVs, video cameras, VCR and
DVD players, etc)
____Videos, CDs
____Computer-related items
____Travel (airlines, car rental, hotel reservations, etc.)

52. .
Multiple-Category Questions (Cont’d)
• What do you like about Bank of America’s
online banking service?
____24 hour service
____Transaction privacy
____No need to travel – do it from home
____Paying bills online– no need to mail bills
____Other ____(please specify)

53. Response Category Sequence
• Approximately how many international
telephone calls do you make per week?
______ 0 to 1 call
______ 2 to 3 calls
______ 4 to 5 calls
______ 6 to 7 calls
______ More than 7 calls
• The response categories in this question
follow a natural sequence

54. Response Category Content
• Response choices should be
– Collectively exhaustive
• taken together
– Mutually exclusive
• not overlap

55. .
Response Category
• The response choices are collectively exhaustive but not
mutually exclusive
• On the average, how many cans of cola do you drink per week
____0 to 3 cans
____3 to 6 cans
____More than 6 cans
• Changing the 3 in the second category to a 4 will make the
response choices mutually exclusive

56. Writing a Questionnaire for
International Markets
• Caution
– Use of the same word can have different
meanings in different cultures
• Word Equivalence
– In Japan, China and non-English speaking
European countries
• “Very Satisfied” means “Somewhat Satisfied”
• “Very Satisfied” should be replaced by “Totally
Satisfied”

57. Will the Respondent
Answer the Question?
• Questions about personal financial matters or
sexual behavior are examples of sensitive
questions
• Words used in the questions should not be
ambiguous to the respondents

58. Double-Barreled Questions
• Suppose the following question is to be used in conducting a survey of the
general public
– Do you feel firms today are concerned about their employees and
customers?
_____ Yes _____ No
• A “no” response can be interpreted three different ways
– The respondent feels firms are concerned about neither employees
nor customers
– The respondent feels firms are concerned about employees but not
customers
– The respondent feels firms are not concerned about employees
although they are concerned about customers

59. Avoiding Double-Barreled Questions
• This revision is usually accomplished by breaking one question
into several questions
• Thus our illustrative question can be reworded as two
separate questions
– Do you feel firms today are concerned about their employees?
___ Yes ___ No
– Do you feel firms today are concerned about their customers?
___ Yes ___ No

60. .
Guarding Against Errors
• How often do you eat eggs for breakfast?
_____ Frequently
_____ Occasionally
_____ Rarely
_____ Never

61. .
Guarding Against Errors (Cont’d)
• To guard errors due to misinterpretations, the
previous question can be revised as
– On average, how many days per week do you eat
eggs for breakfast?
___ Every day
___ 5 or 6 days
___ 3 or 4 days
___ 1or 2 days
___ Less than 1 day per week
___ Never eat eggs for breakfast

62. Question Sequence Needing
Improvement
• 11. Do you own or rent your current place of residence?
Own Rent
• 12. How long have you lived in this state?
Less than one year
One year to less than 5 years
5 years or more

63. Improved Question Sequence
• 11. Have you always lived in this state?
Yes (Go to Question 12)
No (Go to Question 11a)
• 11a. In which state did you live immediately
before moving into this state? .........
• 12. How long have you lived in this state?
Less than one year
One year to less than 5 years
5 years or more

64. Questionnaire Appearance And Layout
• Version 1
– How old are you?
___Less than 18 ___18 to 25 ___26 to 40 ___Over 40
• Version 2
– How old are you?
___Less than 18
___18 to 25
___26 to 40
___Over 40

65. Guidelines for good questionnaire
design
• Avoid complexity: Use simple conversational
language
• Avoid leading and loaded questions (question
that suggests a socially desirable answer or is it
emotionally charged)
• Avoid ambiguity :Be specific as possible
• Avoid double barreled items
• Avoid burdensome questions that may tax
respondent's memory

66. Data Analysis & Interpretation

67. Data preparation process
• Preparing preliminary plan of data analysis
• Questionnaire checking
• Editing
• Coding
• Transcribing
• Data cleaning
• Statistically adjusting the data
• Selecting a data analysis strategy

68. Univariate, bivariate and multivariate
data
• Types of data based on number of variables
– Univariate :Analysis are made only based on one
variable
– Bivariate: Two variables
– Multivariate :Two or more variables

69. Hypothesis Testing Procedures
Hypothesis
Testing
Procedures
Nonparametric
Parametric
Z Test
Kruskal-Wallis
H-Test
Wilcoxon
Rank Sum
Test
t Test
One-Way
ANOVA
Many More Tests Exist!

70. Hypothesis testing
• What u normally do
– If calculated value is less than the table value-
hypothesis accepted
– If calculated value is more than the table value-
hypothesis rejected
• How you do in SPSS?
– If the p value is > .05 – The result is insignificant
– If the p value is < .05 – The result is significant

71. Chi square tests
• Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to
compare observed data with data we would
expect to obtain according to a specific
hypothesis.
• The chi-square test is always testing what
scientists call the null hypothesis, which states
that there is no significant difference between
the expected and observed result.
• We want to compare our observed data to what
we expect to see. Due to chance? Due to
association?

72. Assumptions:
• Independent observations
• A sample size of at least 10
• Random sampling
• All observations must be used
• For the test to be accurate, the expected frequency
should be at least 5

73. Conducting Chi-Square Analysis
1) Make a hypothesis based on your basic biological
question
2) Determine the expected frequencies
3) Create a table with observed frequencies, expected
frequencies, and chi-square values using the formula:
(O-E)2
E
4) Find the degrees of freedom: (c-1)(r-1)
5) Find the chi-square statistic in the Chi-Square
Distribution table
6) If chi-square statistic > your calculated chi-square value,
you do not reject your null hypothesis and vice versa.

74. HO: Heart Disease is not associated
with cholesterol levels.

76. REPORT PREPARATION AND
PRESENTATION

77. Report Format
• Title page
• Table of contents
• Executive summary
– Major findings
– Conclusions
– Recommendations

78. • Research problem
– Review of literature
– Formulation of hypothesis/es
– Research Methodology
• Type of research design
• Nature of data collected
• Scaling techniques used
• Questionnaire development and pretesting details
• Sampling design
– Target population
– Sampling frame
– Sampling technique
– Sample size
• Fieldwork details

79. • Data Analysis
– Hypothesis/es testing
• Results and discussions
• Limitations
• Conclusions and recommendations
• References
• Exhibits
• Questionnaires and forms