WHAT ARE THE METHODS THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED TO REDUCE THE THREAT TO THE NATION’S CYBER SYSTEMS A Master Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of American Public University By Daniella Rowell In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Arts March 2016 American Public University Charles Town, WV A dynamic cyber terrorism framework. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security by Ahmad, R. & Yuns, Z., 2012 advance an upsurge of cybercrime over the past few years. This increase is related to the dynamism shown by the integration of cybercrime in the execution of conventional crimes. This literature resource is important to this research as it explores a rather sensitive sector within the borders of the United States which is national security. The United States has many enemies most notably terrorists who target systems of the country’s defense systems. An analysis of this literature breaks down the attacks already conducted against the defense infrastructure as well as highlighting vulnerabilities existing within the sector. As a matter of fact, double standards of some security personnel raise an unprecedented risk since terrorist end up gaining inside knowledge on how to attack systems. Many at times cyber terrorism is neglected when expounding on the scope of cybercrime as more conventional cyber-attacks such as fraud, cyber defamation amongst other get a fair share of attention. A shift from the more obvious forms is evident in this literature as cyber terrorism is not a new form of attack in the context of the United States. As it's rightly opened in this literature, the start of the next world war could be a blackout but not a bang as many people expect. A single code could be enough to put everything in our country to stand still ranging from trains, airport operations, and power plants amongst others. Consequently, this research shall explore the perceived complacency within the defense department so as to make recommendations on how to prevent such attacks. In addition, the defense may have to ensure that its personnel’s loyalty is to the United States and its people alone and that no form ill-intended collaborations shall be made to expose the system’s vulnerabilities to an enemy. Moreover, the public is charged with responsibilities of understanding cyber terrorism to enable them to raise alarm whenever queer activities in the neighborhood are detected. This literature resource is relevant to the research paper as it creates a general picture of what cybercrime is. Brenner, W. 2010 literature Cybercrime defines literature in its very nature. It occurs in two basic ways which either happen independently or simultaneously. On one hand, computers can be used in the perpetration of cyber-attacks but could be targeted on the other hand. This model carries a lot of weight in understanding how the legal definition of cybercrime is arrived at. Some individuals are ignorant of activities they perform.

1. WHAT ARE THE METHODS THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED TO
REDUCE THE THREAT TO THE NATION’S CYBER
SYSTEMS
A Master Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University
By
Daniella Rowell
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree
of
Master of Arts
March 2016
American Public University
Charles Town, WV
A dynamic cyber terrorism framework. International Journal of
Computer Science and Information Security by Ahmad, R. &
Yuns, Z., 2012 advance an upsurge of cybercrime over the past
few years. This increase is related to the dynamism shown by
the integration of cybercrime in the execution of conventional
crimes. This literature resource is important to this research as
it explores a rather sensitive sector within the borders of the
United States which is national security. The United States has
many enemies most notably terrorists who target systems of the
country’s defense systems. An analysis of this literature breaks
down the attacks already conducted against the defense
infrastructure as well as highlighting vulnerabilities existing
within the sector. As a matter of fact, double standards of some

2. security personnel raise an unprecedented risk since terrorist
end up gaining inside knowledge on how to attack systems.
Many at times cyber terrorism is neglected when expounding on
the scope of cybercrime as more conventional cyber-attacks
such as fraud, cyber defamation amongst other get a fair share
of attention. A shift from the more obvious forms is evident in
this literature as cyber terrorism is not a new form of attack in
the context of the United States. As it's rightly opened in this
literature, the start of the next world war could be a blackout
but not a bang as many people expect. A single code could be
enough to put everything in our country to stand still ranging
from trains, airport operations, and power plants amongst
others. Consequently, this research shall explore the perceived
complacency within the defense department so as to make
recommendations on how to prevent such attacks. In addition,
the defense may have to ensure that its personnel’s loyalty is to
the United States and its people alone and that no form ill-
intended collaborations shall be made to expose the system’s
vulnerabilities to an enemy. Moreover, the public is charged
with responsibilities of understanding cyber terrorism to enable
them to raise alarm whenever queer activities in the
neighborhood are detected.
This literature resource is relevant to the research paper as it
creates a general picture of what cybercrime is. Brenner, W.
2010 literature Cybercrime defines literature in its very nature.
It occurs in two basic ways which either happen independently
or simultaneously. On one hand, computers can be used in the
perpetration of cyber-attacks but could be targeted on the other
hand. This model carries a lot of weight in understanding how
the legal definition of cybercrime is arrived at. Some
individuals are ignorant of activities they perform using
personal computers in the household such that they perpetrate
cybercrime blindly. A good example is accessing a person’s
computer without permission or accessing a Wi-Fi network in a
similar context. One may be innocent while doing such actions
yet they are legally defined as forms of cybercrime. This

3. literature stresses on the need of the public to be aware of
cybercrime as it is in order to empower them from falling victim
as well as ending up being charged out for their ignorance.
Determining who is and who is not a serious cyber-criminal is
not easy thus a severe punishment may place upon a person
guilty of cyber criminality even if it’s directed towards a family
member. The relevance of this literature to the research paper is
underlined by the fact that by helping an ordinary citizen
understand that spying on a girlfriend’s computer or accessing a
wireless network without an owner’s authorization may land
them into trouble prevents a would-be cyber-criminal.
Interestingly the general state of the country’s cyber systems is
generated from a wide range of statistics including minor cases
as this. Therefore addressing minor cases will ultimately act as
an amendment or intervention of the general picture.
Theories of crime play an integral role in helping us understand
elements of crime such as causes, predisposing factors, and
motivations which are vital for intervention strategies. Merton,
K. in his Social Theory and Social Structure, 1968 links
deviance to societal pressures placed upon individuals. This
literature is important to this research as cyber criminality is
predominantly motivated by profit making. Today’s society
defines success according to material wealth and factors like
level of education, moral lifestyle or status. Disturbingly, the
avenue of achieving this success in the United States are not
accessible to everyone. The research shall analyze the
meritocracy myth which criticizes the society which is ruled by
the gifted elite. The US social classes are said to have a no
room for others due to decreased social mobility. The US
economic situation is worse than it’s thought of given the
unequal distribution of wealth and the unprecedented widening
inequality between generations. Moreover, it’s believed that
there is an unequal access to education in the United States,
with social status being the main determining factor of
opportunities. Students from upper-class families are well
prepared at each level of the education system which reflects in

4. the job market thereafter. Cyber criminality consequently is one
of the many ways that frustrated citizens turn to in a bid to
achieve access. The society does not tolerate people who do not
achieve or strive to achieve success hence its utility is priceless
to the perpetrator. However, cybercrime is not committed by the
deprived sections of the society alone as there are varying
motivations with some affecting the upper and ruling classes.
Global interconnectedness has increased over the past decades
especially after the birth of the internet. Further technological
advancement has eased communication with people able to
communicate from every corner of the world. The United States
is one of the major countries that have contributed hugely
towards global interconnectedness with numerous
groundbreaking inventions being made in the country. In War
and Peace in the Law of Islam by Khaddar, Majid, religious
affiliations contribute to the emergence of new crimes which
aim at advancing the supremacy and dominance of each belief.
Most notably is the conflict that exists between Islamic states
and Christian states. There exists a historical competition for
supremacy between these two religions and the way each reacts
to technology and cyber is different. This paper shall seek to
reveal any relationship between cybercrime and religion and
how each religious reacts to it. It’s worth noting that religious
groups have actually fallen victim of cyber-attacks through
hacktivism, denial of service attacks among other. Although an
explicit criminalization of cybercrime does not exist in any
religion, there exists general condemnation of crime. An all-
around approach to fighting cybercrime shall not leave the
factor of religion on cybercrime given that it is an already
known motivator of cyber criminality. Moreover, just as
conventional crimes are disapproved in the religion, cybercrime
should be added to the list to enable people relate to it in a
divine manner. Different religious groups in the United States
must further ensure that their information systems and
information are well secure since technology has affected all
social spheres inclusive of religion.

5. Victims of crime are in most cases neglected due to the fact that
more attention is given to the crime itself and the perpetrator.
Jaishankar, K. in his book Cyber Criminology delves into a
matter of importance in the United States by outlining all
persons and groups that are affected by a crime. It’s true that
the criminal justice performs the role of administration of
justice but to what extent is the harm caused to a victim
repaired? Many at times courts administer justice victims
through fines which benefit the state. This research shall seek to
disclose crimes that require direct victim compensation and
those that are punishable by way of fines payable to the state. In
addition, this literature expounds on ways that ordinary people
increase the likelihood of being victims of cyber-attacks. In the
wake of rampant technological advancement, people’s lifestyle
has been really affected. Digital communication has been
adopted as the most reliable and efficient mode of
communication. Nevertheless, most users of this mode of
communication are somehow complacent as basics cyber
security are ignored. Its due to such issues that people continue
to suffer either directly or indirectly. Direct victimization in
this context occurs when individuals suffer the loss of
information, defamation, credit card fraud, digital piracy
amongst other. On the other hand, indirect victimization occurs
when people we care about fall victim of the aforementioned
cyber-attacks Scholars believe that there exists a relationship
between any form of crime including cybercrime and
psychological suffering.
The next literature as used in this research is Crime in the
United States 2009 by Press, Bernan. This publication is a
compilation of FBI’s annual report from its Uniform Crime
Reporting Program (UCRRP). Perpetrators of cybercrime are
profiled into various characteristics such as age, sex and race. It
was discovered the age of committing cybercrime in the United
States has fallen to just 17 years. In other words, minors have
gained the technique of executing both sophisticated and basic
forms of cyber security. This literature’s relevance in the

6. research paper is priceless given that juvenile delinquency
broadens the scope of causes and risk factors of criminality.
This is because childhood experiences parental determinisms
play a pivotal role in causing crime amongst youths. Moreover,
its opined that youths in the United States are at an increased
risk of being victims of cybercrime than youths in other
countries. A general increase in criminal activities by minors
without any doubt highlights how our socializing agents have
failed. Sociologists highlight the various agents of socialization
namely; family, education, religion, and media. Socialization at
school is done by teachers and most notably peers. The latter is
attributed to the diminishing moral values in the society. In
fact, the main motivating factor of cyber criminality among
minors is the need to match peers, as well as stand out as the
smartest amongst peers. Therefore, in order to ensure the
security of the nation’s cyber systems, there is need cleanse our
socializing agents to ensure that only values are instilled in the
young minds.
Cybercrime in Progress. Theory And Prevention Of Technology-
Enabled Offenses by Holt, Thomas J, and Adam M. Bossler,
2015 is an interesting piece of literature as it examines the
notion that cyber criminals are people with a high level of
technological knowledge. The synopsis shows that perpetrators
of cybercrime are not necessarily technology gurus but have a
high interest in technology. Some perpetrators are mere
consumers who purchase software for this purpose and undergo
online training on how to stage attacks. It’s fascinating that
some perpetrators are mere ‘foot soldiers’ of masters who keep
them updated and provide guidelines on how to commit these
crimes. This literature highlights the utility of a well-measured
approach of securing our cyber systems. The enemy according
to this literature is not a person but masses of people, networks
and more complex groups that a casual approach to this matter
will fail terribly. In addition, regional and international
cooperation is vital given that a nation’s power of jurisdiction
rest within its borders. The research shall test the importance of

7. the proposed collaboration and whether past collaborations in
fighting crime were fruitful. Moreover, matters that reduce the
efficiency of cybercrime prevention partnership shall be
examined. Cybercrime affects all countries and each nation
dreams of safe and secure cyberspace. If the cyberspace is not
secure, a country cannot talk about being safe because whereas
a strong a military is a sign of national safety, many forms of
warfare exist other than the physical one.
This literature dubbed Apple vs. The federal government as put
forward by Benner, Eric in Apple Fights Order To Unlock San
Bernardino Gunman’S iPhone, New York Times, 2016, displays
the implications of technology in the United States. This has
been an ongoing saga whereby the federal government was
demanding that Apple cooperation creates a backdoor to aid
investigation of a suicide bomber. The phone was locked using
a four digit password and was believed to valuable information
for investigations. Therefore, the only way to unlock the device
is through the company. This scenario is valuable to the
research paper as it presents a dilemma whereby technology
impedes the efficiency of the nation’s law enforcement. After a
cyber-attack has happened, the only piece of evidence is the
trail in a digital device. The research shall explore ways in
which this impediment can be overcome. Moreover, an analysis
of the United States laws shall be done to determine whether
other factors such as technology exceed the nations’ collective
needs for safety and justice. The challenge in the above-
discussed scenario is rather challenging because there has been
past collaboration between digital device entities and Law
enforcement with over seventy such cases in the books.
However, the need to secure our cyberspace cannot be a factor
of violation of rights of citizens most notably the first
amendment rights because breaking the law while enforcing it is
a futile activity.
The next literature is derived from Principles of cybercrime by
Clough, J., 2010 which supports the multi-dimensional approach
to fighting cybercrime. Being a problem facing all countries,

8. international bodies such as the United Nations need to increase
interventions to this matter. Understanding at an international
will be of great benefit as other political instigated cybercrime
shall increase due to stern penalties and embargoes placed when
a country contravenes international standards. This research
shall seek to determine whether cybercrime is given enough
considerations by the international law as other forms of crime
such as war crimes, genocide among others. Cybercrime in the
United States has been used in a number of occasions to
perpetrate hate crimes based on religious, racial, sexual and
political prejudices. The extent to which hate crimes can impair
national peace and stability is immense given the diversity of
United States population. This problem extends to other
contexts because the world is undergoing political and
democratic revolution owing from modernization and
globalization. Another perspective in securing US cyber systems
according to this literature is ensuring that gaps in law are
appropriately eliminated. Yes, cybercrime has a legal definition
in the nation but to what extent is our empowered to ensure that
all necessary convictions happen. There are numerous cases of
people going scot free as a result of incapacitation of the law.
It's important for the law to keep up with technology or else
technological advancements will benefit criminals more.
Goodman in his book Future Crimes: Everything Is Connected,
Everyone Is Vulnerable and What We Can Do About It explains
how digital devices considered irrelevant to cyber security are
soft targets for cyber criminals. A printer, mass storage device,
cell phone, payment facilities, tablet among others deserve the
same cyber security measure accorded to bigger devices. The
study shall expound on the various ways US citizens neglect
simple but vital procedures that can save them from cyber-
attacks. It’s unfortunate that some people start using certain
digital services without making an effort of gathering
information on how to maintain a high-security discipline.
Cyber criminals are everywhere and will attack anyone be it a
carwash client who trust the cleaner. As a matter of fact, some

9. accidents are not natural as people with vested interests are
capable of causing them in various forms such gas leaks, fire,
road and train accidents, staging stampedes through planned
blackout among others. What is important is to adopt a principle
of taking anything for granted as it’s earmarked in this
literature. Digital devices are good and they make life easier,
however, the cost of possible suffering due to negligence may
be too expensive to make them desirable. With over 1.6 billion
people connected to the internet as of 2012, there exists an
increased number of targets as well as perpetrators globally.
The detailed nature of this literature acts as an informative tool
especially because anyone can relate to almost each given
aspect of cybercrime.
As Kirwan, G., & Power, A. opine in their publication The
psychology of cybercrime: Concepts and principles, some cyber
criminals have mental disorders that increase their inclination
towards cyber criminality. Some perpetrators of computer
related crimes are believed to have inferiority complex whereby
they experience feelings of great power by inflicting pain and
suffering on other people. The research paper shall build on this
literature by trying to understand the virtual world and the
psychological factors behind cyber criminality yet perpetrators
could not do similar acts in the real world with or without
anonymity. Moreover, there exists a rather misleading
perception that law enforcement is limited to the real world and
not the online or virtual world too. For example, some people
who perpetrate cyberbullying or child pornography are less
likely to carry out similar offenses to target victims in the real
world. The writers illustrate how different groups respond to
cybercrime whereby the government reacts with laws,
organizations with policies, traders with terms and conditions,
users with peer pressure, technicians with code but no response
seeks to understand human behavior. As a result, the US needs
to focus on how criminal behavior and populations reveal in
cyber population in a bid to understand cybercrime accordingly.
The research shall focus on people in a bid to understand this

10. phenomenon as they are a reality. Cyber psychologists have
identified six concepts of cybercrime namely anonymity and
self-disclosure, dark tetrad of personality, pseudo-paradoxical
privacy, impulsivity, cyber immersion and self- presentation
online. Therefore proper profiling of cyber criminals is an
essential step towards securing the nation’s cyber systems.
Criminology: The key concepts by O'Brien, M., & Yar, M.
authenticates the concept of adaptation of appropriate policies
in the war against cybercrime. In the end of 2015, the US
congress gave consent to the Cybersecurity Act of 2015which
was later assented by president Obama. This act aims at
combating cybercrime through the creation of a framework that
will propagate information sharing between the private sector
and federal government. This was not the first legislation of its
kind as there have been many other legislations and a host of
other bills all targeting cyber criminality. The multiplicity of
legislations and bills emphasize the seriousness of cybercrime
in the United States. Moreover, since each law is unique or has
a wider scope, this shows that cybercrime is a diverse and
complex phenomenon which call for more research to unearth
underlying concepts. Moreover, this research insists on the need
for decentralizing the war against cybercrime by utilizing the
education system with the duty to train students on measures of
avoiding victimization, how to handle a cyber-attack and risks
involved in its indulgence. By so doing, there shall be a
majority of informed people contrary to vice versa which would
be very risky.
Computer forensic investigations are applied in both civil and
criminal lawsuits. Cybercrime and cloud forensics by Ruan, K.
explain what cybercrime is and ways that it can be investigated.
This literature is crucial to the research topic as it complements
other thoughts discusses before. For example, being able to
detect and charge cyber criminals depends on proper
investigations for a conviction to happen. The literature refers
to the computer as the most powerful tool for criminals.
Computer forensic investigators are the professionals charged

11. with the responsibility of collecting evidence. Moreover, they
are able to detect the source of a threat or an attack as well as
recommending safety measure to avoid feature attacks.
Computer forensic investigators are important in the research
topic of protecting the US cyber systems because they have
valuable knowledge for the achievement of a safe virtual world
in the US. This paper shall further examine ethical dilemmas
faced by these professional while executing their duties and
factors that reduce their efficiency. Appropriate
recommendations shall be made to ensure that they work in a
favorable environment that will enable them to increase the
output. These professional should be impartial given that there
is an already existing outcry that computer forensic
investigators present evidence as they want to appear in the
courts.
Bibliography
Ahmad, R. & Yuns, Z. A dynamic cyber terrorism framework.
International Journal of Computer Science and Information
Security, 10(2), 149-158.
Brenner, Susan W. Cybercrime. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger,
2010.

12. Merton, Robert King. Social Theory and Social Structure, n.d.
Khadduri, Majid. War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Clark, NJ:
Lawbook Exchange, 2007.
Jaishankar, K. Cyber Criminology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
2011.
Press, Bernan. Crime in the United States 2009. Lanham:
Rowman & Littlefield Pub. Group, 2009.
Holt, Thomas J, and Adam M Bossler. Cybercrime In Progress.
Theory And Prevention Of Technology-Enabled Offenses, n.d.
Benner, Eric. "Apple Fights Order To Unlock San Bernardino
Gunman’s IPhone". Nytimes.Com. Last modified 2016.
Accessed March 3, 2016.
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/18/technology/apple-timothy-
cook-fbi-san-bernardino.html.
Clough, J. Principles of cybercrime. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Goodman, M. Future Crimes: Everything Is Connected,
Everyone Is Vulnerable and What We Can Do About It. New
York [New York]: Doubleday, 2015.
Kirwan, G., & Power, A. The psychology of cybercrime:
Concepts and principles. Hershey, PA: Information Science
Reference, 2012.
Kirwan, G., & Power, A. Cybercrime: The psychology of online
offenders. Cambridge Cambridge University, 2013.
O'Brien, M., & Yar, M. Criminology: The key concepts.
London: Routledge, (2008).

13. Ruan, K. Cybercrime and cloud forensics: Applications for
investigation processes. Hershey, PA: Information Science
Reference, 2013.
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US POLICIES ON TWO TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES, ILLICIT
DRUG
TRAFFICKING AND CYBER-LAUNDERING, WILL NOT
SECURE THE

15. HOMELAND FROM TERRORIST THREATS
A Master Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University
by
First Name Last Name
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts
April 2012
American Public University
Charles Town, WV

16. The author hereby grants the American Public University
System the right to display
these contents for educational purposes.
The author assumes total responsibility for meeting the
requirements set by United States
copyright law for the inclusion of any materials that are not the
author’s creation or in the
public domain.
© Copyright 2015 by First Name Last Name.
All rights reserved.
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to XXXXX for supporting me throughout

17. my educational
journey. Without his patience and understanding the completion
of this work would not
have been possible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank XXXXXXXX and XXXXXXX for their support,
patience, and
understanding. I also wish to thank….. {You want to
acknowledge anyone who inspired
you or supported you throughout your educational journey.}
I have found my coursework throughout the Homeland Security
Program to be
valuable in helping me gain a better understanding of the
multiple issues surrounding
homeland security.

18. ABSTRACT
US POLICIES ON TWO TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES, ILLICIT
DRUG TRAFFICKING
AND CYBER-LAUNDERING, WILL NOT SECURE THE
HOMELAND FROM TERRORIST
THREATS
by
First Name Last Name
American Public University System, May 5, 2012
Charles Town, West Virginia
Dr. Christopher Reynolds, Thesis Professor
The purpose of this paper is to explore US Government
policies targeting illicit drug
trafficking and cyber-laundering while identifying
vulnerabilities within the policies (if any) and

19. its impact on threats from terrorist organizations. Transnational
crime, narcotics, and terrorism
financing are not geographical concerns. All three can be
linked specifically by having potential
effect across national borders. Transnational Organized Crime
(TOC) has established a
significant and increasing threat to national and international
security, with dire implications for
public safety, public health, democratic institutions, and
economic stability across the globe
(Finckenauer, 2006). The US Government have many
Presidential Directives (PD) and policies
that target these areas, but are they really having an impact?
Without a shadow of a doubt, drug
trafficking has resulted in funding that has supported terrorism
and in some cases such as the
Madrid bombing, drugs were being utilized as the currency.
The same scenario can happen in
any small or large city in America. US Government policies
must be able to compliment or
supplement other Nations policies in the fight against
transnational crime. Because of varies
religious beliefs and political views of western nations, the
tasking will be equivalent to finding a

20. cotton ball in the field of snow.
Cybercrime is such a lucrative criminal adventure because
anyone can be anyone and
anywhere in a digital environment. The utilization of electronic
funding transactions
domestically and or internationally can create difficult detective
efforts for any government, not
just the US. In a world where there appear to be an increase in
ordinary criminals, extremist
groups, and or terrorist organizations seeking to conduct their
business through cyber means, US
policies must be specific to be effective. Additionally, policies
must not infringe upon civil
liberties that may expose an area of opportunity for terrorist
threats. Despite US initiatives to
combat transnational crimes, the relationship between
transnational crime, narcotics, and
terrorism financing seemingly has continued to expand.

21. TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER PAGE
I.
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………
…………….....01
II. LITERATURE
REVIEW……………………………………………………………..0
3
III. THEORETICAL
APPROACH............................................................................
.........14
IV.
METHODOLOGY.……..……………………………………………
……………….15
V.
RESULTS…............................................................................
......................................16
Transnational Crime vs Organized
Crime…………………………………………….16
The Relationship between Transnational Crime and

22. Terrorism……………………....19
Illicit Drug Trafficking: A Continued Security Threat to the
Homeland……………..20
Cyber-laundering: A Continued Security Threat to the
Homeland…………………...29
US Policy Designed to Combat Illicit Drug Trafficking &
Cyber-laundering……….37
VI.
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………
.……………..42
LIST OF
REFERENCES…….………….…………………………….………
………….......51

23. LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES PAGE
1. Figure 1 - Unity of Effort that is required to Eliminate Gaps
in US Policies…………..14
2. Table 1 - Classification of Transnational
Crimes……………………………………… 17
3. Figure 2 - Model of Transnational Organized Crime
Operation in Illicit Markets……. 18
4. Figure 3 - Statistics and Trend Analysis of the Illicit Drug
Market…………………… 21
5. Figure 4 - Global Trends in Drug Use, 2006-
2012……………………………………. 22
6. Figure 5 - South
America……………………………………………………………....
23
7. Figure 6 - Most Important Cocaine Trafficking Routes to
Europe……………………. 24
8. Figure 7 - Cannabis
Consumption………………………………………………….......27
9. Figure 8 - Marijuana Legalization Status (January 20,
2015)……………………….....28

24. 10. Figure 9 - Internet Users in the World Distributed by World
Regions – 2014…………31
11. Figure 10 - Internet Users in the World by Geographic
Region – 2014…………….. ...32
12. Figure 11 - World Internet Penetration Rates by Geographic
Regions…………….......33
13. Figure 12 - Transnational Cyber-laundering in a Snap-
Shot……………………………35
14. Figure 13 - Top Five Reported Crime
Types………………………………….……......47
15. Figure 14 - Major Fraud Types Reported in
2011……………………………..……….47
1
INTRODUCTION
The threats to America that are imposed from transnational
crimes are constantly changing.
The threats may originate from other nations throughout the
world; but, the impacts throughout
America is surreal. The US Government fight against

25. transnational crimes are nothing less than
intricate. US interests abroad are impacted by these threatening
networks. Weapons trafficking,
intellectual property theft, cybercrime, human smuggling,
trafficking in persons, and illicit drug
trafficking contribute to other crimes that evolves around these
transnational crimes. The bottom
line is that the threats created by these crimes are not isolated to
one specific nation or a specific
region in the world. The US Government policies that are
designed to combat transnational
crimes must address both present-day threats and potential
future threats.
The horrible events that were caused by terrorist over the
past two decades have instilled long
lasting memories of suffering and pain for so many families
throughout the world. The events
that occurred on September 11, 2001 in one of the most iconic
cities in the US, New York, sent a
chilling effect throughout the world. While threats persist, our
nation is stronger than it was on
9/11, more prepared to confront evolving threats, and more
resilient in the face of our continued
challenges (Department of Homeland Security 2011, 1). US

26. policies have made a difference in
global security; but, the fight against illicit drug trafficking and
cyber-laundering that contributed
to the events leading up to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, continues
to be a major security challenge.
In the US the illicit drug market is significantly profitable.
Insurgents and criminals of all
types exploit the financial gains from the US and abroad. Over
time, this profitable illegal
business has attracted diverse aggressive and sophisticated drug
traffickers. The drug network
begins with the growth of raw ingredients that are processed,
packaged, and smuggled into the
US or other nations. The smuggling of illegal drugs can be by
way of air, land, or sea. Because
of the multiple possible entry points into the US specifically,
the policies must address all facets
domestically and internationally.
The cyber network has no boundaries. Therefore cyber-
laundering can occur from any
location throughout the world. The two primary limits are the
integrity of the equipment being
utilized to conduct the illegal act and the skills or ingenuity of
the person committing the act with

27. all intent to deceive government and law enforcement
authorities. The art of hiding the origin,
the material, or illegal application of income, and then masking
money received to make it
appear lawful are attributes of a network that best supports
illegal drug traffickers, insurgents,
2
and terrorist organizations. More and more supporters of
terrorist organizations and terrorist
organizations themselves are using underground financial
networks to sustain their operations.
Additionally, the reach to terrorist supporters from around the
world has increased to a number
that has yet to be calculated.
This research paper will provide scholars that have interest
in homeland security and
Department of Homeland Security leadership the effects of US
policies that empower terrorist
organizations; subsequently, increasing homeland security
threats from terrorist organizations.
Approximately 15 years ago, in the year 2000, a treaty
addressing transnational organized crime

28. was adopted by the United Nations. In years to follow, the US
conducted a thorough review in
2010. The review revealed the growth and influence of criminal
networks that posed an
enormous threat to the US and the international community.
The report follows many years from
the initial introduction and enactment of the Uniting and
Strengthening America by Providing
Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism
(USA PATRIOT) Act of 2001.
The USA PATRIOT Act grants federal officials greater powers
to trace and intercept terrorists’
communications both for law enforcement and foreign
intelligence purposes. It reinforces federal
anti-money laundering laws and regulations in an effort to deny
terrorists the resources necessary
for future attacks (Doyle 2002).
The US Government has policies that address transnational
crimes. By conducting a quick
review of these policies without considering implications will
most likely not reveal possible
gaps or disconnects. This paper proposes the following
research question: Are there

29. vulnerabilities in current US Government policies targeting
transnational crime on illicit drug
trafficking and cyber-laundering that will increase homeland
security threats from terrorist
organizations?
In order for US policies targeting illicit drug trafficking and
cyber-laundering to be effective,
the requirement for international support must be paramount.
The current policies may address
the threats of the past and possibly some of the current threats.
Unfortunately, terrorist
organizations are forever changing. Terrorist organization
leadership, support structure, and its
members are constantly changing. This paper will analyze US
Government policies that are
specifically designed to target two transnational crimes, illicit
drug trafficking and cyber-
laundering. Possible vulnerabilities that may be identified
throughout the research will result in
improvement or mitigation recommendations.
3

30. LITERATURE REVIEW
A wealth of academic literature on transnational crimes has
increased over the past decade.
In particular, illicit drug trafficking and cyber-laundering, are
two of the most active crimes that
are being utilized to support terrorist organizations. The first of
the resources for this research
paper comes from Jay S. Albanese’s 2012 Deciphering the
Linkages between Organized Crime
and Transnational Crime from the Journal of International
Affairs, Volume 66, Issue 1. The
significance of this particular literature is that it provides
characteristics of organized crimes and
transnational crimes which is important for this study. The
review of this literature highlights the
linkage between organized crimes and transnational crime while
making the point clear that the
two are distinctively separate. By having a sound
understanding in the particulars are critical as
US policies are reviewed and discussed for analysis throughout
the research. The root conduct
of both organized crime and transnational crime parallels each
other according to studies. A

31. synopsis of this literature provides distinct differences between
transnational crimes and
international crimes in that transnational crime are those crimes
leading to or resulting in
individual profit. One of three elements, if not two or all three,
may exists during the
identification of transnational crimes. The elements are illegal
substances, the arrangement for
illegal labor, and or penetration of either commercial or
government businesses operations.
Additionally, the literature characterizes international crimes as
those crimes that involves crimes
against humanity that sometimes includes several countries.
There are three classifications of
transnational crimes, Provision of Illicit Goods; Provision of
Illicit Services; and Infiltration of
Business or Government (Albanese 2012, 2). Studies have
shown that the existence of
transnational crime is nothing new. These crimes have in fact
existed for many decades and
there has been little to no change in them; but, the innovative
technology has advance the means
in which these crimes are executed.

32. Another literature review provides an in-depth concern for
political officials. John Rollins
and Liana Wyler convey these concerns clearly in their 2010
article International Terrorism and
Transnational Crime: Security Threats, U.S. Policy, and
Considerations for Congress. The
literature adds value to the research because the recognition of
political disconnects and law gaps
that terrorist organizations exploit are highlighted. In this report
to Congress there are
conceivable strains between counterterrorism and anti-crime
policy objectives; to include, the
4
usefulness of integrating financial intelligence techniques for
combating terrorist financing with
counterinsurgency using a concept referred to as “threat
finance” (Rollins and Wyler 2010, 36).
The Internet Crime Complaint Center (iC3) 2011 Internet
Crime Report is specifically
utilized in this study to highlight the dangers of transnational
organized crimes when loop holes

33. in laws and policies continues without check. The mission of
iC3 is (iC3 2011, 4):
To serve as a vehicle to receive, develop and refer criminal
Complaints regarding the rapidly expanding arena of
cybercrime.
The Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) gives the victims of
cybercrime a convenient and easy-to-use reporting mechanism
that
alerts authorities to suspected criminal or civil violations. For
law enforcement and regulatory agencies at the federal, state,
local,
tribal and international levels, IC3 provides a central referral
mechanism for complaints involving Internet-related crimes.
The IC3’s success has captivated global interest. Countries
other than the US such as Canada, the
United Kingdom and Germany use the IC3 as an ideal for
similar cybercrime centers. In
expanding of its continuing support of foreign law enforcement,
the IC3 composed country-
specific statistical reports and distributed several of complaint
referrals to the Federal Bureau of
Investigations (FBI) field offices throughout the world.

34. Gilipowski W. Paraschiv’s 2013 Conceptualizing
Transnational Organized Crime:
Economic, Management, and Financial Markets, Volume 8,
Issue 2, is an eye opening piece of
literature. The purpose for inserting this literature within the
research is to exclusively bring to
the forefront the enormous amount of resources and assets that
it will take to unify the
international community in order for US policies to be more
effective. A clear synopsis of this
literature supports other areas of research in making it clear that
the boundaries of transnational
organized crimes are nonexistence. The article provides an
understanding to how the
international community realizes that transnational organized
crime is a common threat while
highlighting the division in international law and policies.
Additionally, the article highlights
transnational organized crime having developed in various
countries throughout the world;
subsequently, making this emergence a phenomenon. The
literature illustrates the political
influence throughout the international community that makes
US policies vulnerable. For an

35. example, Asia’s footprint consists of multiple loop holes added
with corruption and a lack of
5
effective governance (Paraschiv 2013, 173-178). Without a
clear definition or understanding to
distinguish between gangs and organized crime, the political
initiatives could have challenges. If
there is not an objective to influence politicians to establish
judicial authority at the national level
to combat organized crime, many efforts to minimize this
baseline that influences transnational
crime will be doomed at the start. The size and growth of
transnational crime cannot truly be
determined because the crime groups often establish and
maintain contingent ties with each
other. Worthy to note is the hierarchical structure described in
this article that clearly articulates
the complexity in comprehending the international community’s
ability to fight and stop
transnational crime, the global threat impact of transnational
crime, and the business and

36. economic dimensions of these crimes.
The Congressional Research Service describes various
patterns that parallels to interaction
among terrorist groups leading to transnational security issues.
In recognition of these activities,
the US Congress continues to respond with policies in attempts
to remain abreast with the rapid
changing environment in Terrorism and Transnational Crime:
Foreign Policy Issues for
Congress by John Rollins and Liana Wyler, 2013. US global
security interests are threatened by
transnational crimes and to this extent, in 2011 President
Obama issued the Strategy to Combat
Transnational Organized Crime. Although, the US security
strategies maybe multidimensional
in focusing on citizen security and dismantling illicit networks,
the support from governments
throughout the international community is needed. The
literature is significant and support the
research in defining the complexity to establish policies to
support the people to carry out
strategic objectives that are identified within this study, starting
at the top of the political stage.
In Congress charge to evaluate the current policies and practices

37. in determining if the US is
synchronized in effectively fighting transnational crimes, the
committee realizes that the
conceptualization of transnational crime will require
interagency coordination with international
cooperation. Yet the question remain, “Should a specific
agency or an interagency coordinating
body be designated as leading U.S. government responses to
crime-terrorism threats (Rollins and
Wyler 2013, 21)? Adding to the challenge of loyalty and total
commitment is geographic
regions and politics. Clapper’s testimony to Congress in 2012
emphasized that illicit networks
have been fundamental in the growth of transnational crimes
that has led to profitable terrorist
networks; subsequently, increasing the threats to US national
security.
6
The research study focuses on two specific transnational
crimes, illicit drug trafficking and
cyber-laundering. The first of several literature reviews to

38. support this research study in the area
of illicit drug trafficking is a thorough analysis of US drug
policy by David Boyum and Peter
Reuter in 2005, An Analytic Assessment of US Drug Policy.
The review of this literature
supports the claims that policies targeting the prohibition of
drugs are universally ineffective.
The constant development of illicit drugs and its distributions
are staying ahead of policies and
counterdrugs programs designed to combat such activity.
American drug policies are
unconvincing Boyum and Reuter 2005, 93). Although drugs
growth in quantity are
geographically limited, the sophistication involved in
establishing an illicit transnational drug
trafficking network makes the fight against these crimes more
challenging. Another key point to
highlight from the review is that US policies along with tougher
laws will not materially reduce
the use or illegal sale of drugs. The study within this literature
exclusively discusses the need for
drug treatment services that is in short supply. The ability to
treat drug users is a key aspect in
fighting the war on drugs; however, some US policies do not

39. address the root issue or concern.
The absence of US policies to target this area is a gap requiring
lawmakers and politicians
attention. The identified gap contributes to the research
findings and establish ground for later
discussions.
Drug Policy in Understanding America: The Anatomy of a
Exceptional Nation by Jonathan
P. Caulkins and Mark A. R. Kleiman, 2008, highlights the
counterdrug initiatives carried out by
the US. The literature supports the study in many ways; but,
specifically in such a way to
magnify discussions surrounding US policies. In accordance to
this literature, the US fight on
illicit drugs has led to more arrest and imprisonments than its
European partners (Caulkins and
Kleiman 2008, 563). A sense of relevancy is established in this
literature that aid the
conceptualization of illegal drug trafficking. The US parallels
countries like Columbia and
Nigeria in comparison to its severe drug problem. The
literature focuses many efforts on
comparing the US with other countries throughout the world to
highlight the use of illicit drugs.

40. The results of studies performed are anything less than
stunning. Combating the trafficking of
transnational illicit drug exhausts many US resources that
include equipment, money, and
people. Before the US could actually identify the chaos
associated with its leading illicit drug,
cocaine, Americans embraced the illicit drug before its
exposures. Other countries simply watch
the effects that it took throughout the US before trying the drug.
To this extent, other countries
7
did not have the capability in availability for cocaine. The US
have large Colombian immigrants
communities in Florida and New York and with so much legal
trade occurring in these areas, the
literature suggests that the capability to effectively hide the
illegal trafficking of cocaine is
almost seamless.
The Congressional Research Service study focusing on the
illegal drug trade in Africa has

41. direct ties to the US policies designed to combat illicit
transnational drug trafficking. The
majority of the illicit drug growth and trafficking in Africa is
directed towards South America
and European countries according to Liana S. Wyler and
Nicolas Cook in their 2009
congressional research Illegal Drug Trade in Africa: Trends and
U.S. Policy. However, other
illegal products such as heroin and precursors required to make
illicit drugs do enter the various
borders of the US. The issue that is revealed in the literature is
the threat to US policy and its
interests both at home and abroad. Because of the enormous
illegal drug production
environments throughout the western portion of Africa, US
policies combating transnational
illicit drug trafficking faces an uphill battle. The challenge
becomes even more complex when
terrorist organizations occupy various parts of the region for
safe havens. Additionally, the
revelations of US policies being in its early stages or formative
stages are exposed during this
study (Wyler and Cook 2009, 27). The study further suggests
that there is not a solid

42. commitment or coordination on roles from both the US and the
international community’s
counternarcotic agencies.
Continued support that suggests the US policies for
combating illicit drug trafficking are
ineffective comes from a review of the updated 2006
Congressional Research Service Report for
Congress, International Drug Trade and U.S. Foreign Policy by
Raphael F. Perl. U.S.
international drug control policy is implemented by a
multifaceted strategy that includes the
following elements: eradication of narcotic crops; interdiction
and law enforcement activities in
drug-producing and drug-transiting countries; international
cooperation; sanctions/economic
assistance; and institutional development (Perl 2006, 3). In
pursuit to establish the perfect anti-
drug control policies, the US finds itself in a political storm that
results from contradictions of
national policy interests. The relevance of this literature to the
study is significant because the
findings proves invaluable in that the links between drug and
terrorist organization are brought to
the forefront. Additionally, another gap in US policy is

43. exposed that sets the stage for follow on
discussions throughout the research. The multiple programs
that are discussed within this
8
literature contributes to the confirmation of findings relative to
this research study. Finally, the
background regarding the rise in production of opium,
marijuana, and coca supports discussions
relative to US policies being insufficient due to the corruption
of national leaders.
An in-depth review of the United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime World Drug Report
2014 provides analytical data that will bring merit to this
research study. The World Drug
Report provides an annual overview of the major developments
in drug markets for the various
drug categories, ranging from production to trafficking,
including development of new routes
and modalities, as well as consumption (United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime 2014, ix).
The data reviewed and collected from this source will prove

44. valuable to the support of this
research in gaining a conclusion. The literature exclusively
highlights the growth of clandestine
drug laboratories and the impact to the international
community’s fight against illicit drugs. The
analysis from this report will serve as evidence towards US
policies.
The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) describes the
greatest cyber threats to be the
illegal acquiring of assets, sensitive data such as economic
information or military classified
intelligence. Gordon M. Snow’s 2011 article, Federal Bureau of
Investigation: The cybersecurity
threat, focuses on the cyber threats to the US private sector,
supply chain, and critical
infrastructure. The article suggests that the US critical
infrastructure will not be 100% intrusion
free; thereby, always being available for anyone with the ability
and means to gain access. There
are tremendous economic losses resulting from cyber threats.
Although, the FBI constantly
changes its methods in dealing with cybercrimes, so does
terrorist organizations. Innovation of
new cyber technology improves national and international
relations. Unfortunately, this same

45. advance technology becomes available or can be gain through
illicit means by terrorist
organizations. The article clearly make a point to address the
theft of intellectual property and
supply chain issues that can be interrupted by terrorist
organizations. The threat, although
specifically discussed targeting US interests, is not an isolated
threat for one nation. The
growing cyber threat is an international issue with
improvements in the availability and the
ingenuity placed in creating malicious software that makes
current national security policies an
issue. Transnational crimes such as cyber laundering can be
hidden through multiple layers of
cyber access points created by automation increase
requirements. Another issue is that with
internal support given to adversaries by recruiting business and
intellectual individuals, as
suggested by the article, the damages caused by cybercrimes
will continue to grow, making it
9

46. impractical to calculate. This is another reason that Snow
suggests that one agency cannot
combat the threat alone (Snow 2011, 5). Information gained
from this article contributes to
further analysis of US policies targeting cyber-laundering.
Lieutenant Colonel John W. Brennan’s 2012 literature
United States Counter Terrorism
Cyber Law Policy, Enabling or Disabling recognizes the need
for political lawmakers and
national decision-makers to place emphasis on the modification
to current US policies. This
study was conducted to determine if US counter terrorism cyber
laws and policies were enabling
or disabling government initiatives to counter the fight on
terrorism in cyberspace. There appear
to be no optimization on the use of national counter terrorism
assets according to the study; to
include, a lack of policies update that are designed to
effectively support government officials.
Although there are US strategies such as the 2011 International
Strategy for Cyber Space, the
study emphasizes the need to initiate a comprehensive sourcing
for domestic and international

47. law (Brennan 2012, 17). The failure to take these actions will
continue to hinder the
professionals from performing their jobs effectively whom are
the very ones the strategy is
designed to support. The gap that is created resulting from
inconsistencies between national
security, counter terrorism and its cyber strategies, and the laws
and policies currently
established enables terrorist organizations to occupy and
operate cybercrimes successfully;
including, cyber laundering. The review of this document
increases the awareness of US policies
that are not fully supported by domestic or international law.
A 2008 report to Congress by Clay Wilson, Botnets,
Cybercrime, and Cyberterrorism:
Vulnerabilities and Policy Issues for Congress, reveals the
modernization and sophistication of
cybercrime. The report supports this research in that evidence
is provided that support gaps
within current US policies targeting cyber-laundering.
Additionally, the literature specifically
bridges the two researched transnational crimes, illicit drug
trafficking and cyber-laundering.
The article points out the fact that normal business practices for

48. some IT business consists of
developing more advance computer codes for the sole purpose
to be utilized for cybercrimes
(Wilson 2008, 9). The illicit profits are recognized as being
extraordinary. Modern technologies
continue to surpass policy for law enforcement. Complications
of coordination among agencies
of different nations, also with clashing national policies about
crime in cyberspace, cultivate to
the benefit of cybercriminals who can select to function from
geographic locations where
penalties may not exist for some forms of cybercrime. Value is
added to the research with the
10
insertion of specifics from this literature because it magnifies
the complexities that must be taken
into consideration during the establishment of new US policies
or the modification of current US
policies.
Cyber-laundering techniques that are utilized by criminals or
terrorist organizations are

49. discussed in Wojciech Filipkowski’s 2008 article Cyber
Laundering: An Analysis of Typology
and Techniques. The purpose of this literature is to add
examples and highlight symptoms of
cyber laundering. Additionally, facts and evidence revealed in
this literature substantiate many
claims within this research in regards to criminals or terrorists
organizations who want to
legitimize their illicit profits (Filipkowski 2008, 15-27).
Policies and laws that are tailored to
human beings may exist in both the physical natural
environment and the cyber environment.
Unfortunately, the authority to enforce policies and laws
amongst digital profiles in the cyber
environment is not a simple task. The ability to exchange or
transfer currency in a digital
environment swiftly, easily, securely, and mostly anonymously
are all great attributes of the use
of the Internet. The issue arise in the increase use of these
same attributes by terrorist
organizations for both illicit drug trafficking and illicit cyber-
laundering.
A review of Douglas Farah’s 2012 document, Transnational
Organized Crime, Terrorism,

50. and Criminalized States in Latin America: An Emerging Tier-
One National Security Priority,
establishes a different perspective when considering the fight
against illicit drug trafficking and
cyber-laundering. Farah points out the fact that the emergence
of new hybrid (state and non-
state) transnational criminal/terrorist franchises in Latin
America operating under broad state
protection now pose a tier-one security threat for the United
States (Farah 2012, 1). The
possibility of these hybrid franchise models expanding
throughout the world is a considerable
factor for national security. This source supports the research
in that the corruption of
government at its highest levels are exposed.
The pursuit of literature to support the concept that the
international community must be
involved in the fight against illicit drug trafficking and cyber-
laundering paid off after reviewing
the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized
Crime and the Protocols
Thereto, a product produced by the United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime. The literature is

51. in contrast with other literature in that within this literature, the
international community
demonstrated the political will to answer a global challenge
with a global response (United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2004). The literature
discusses the challenges that are
11
created with innovative technology and how criminals and
terrorists use this same technology to
expand their illicit activities by exploiting the gaps in an open
globalization market.
The research study would not be complete without a review
of The White House Strategy to
Combat Transnational Organized Crime. President Barrack
Obama directed his Administration
to the pursuit of four enduring national interests: security,
prosperity, respect for universal
values, and the shaping of an international order that can meet
the challenges of the 21st century
(The White House 2011). The immediate threat to this strategy
is the increasing size, purview,

52. and stature of transnational organized crime. The strategy
recognizes the comprehensive
challenges that are created through continued technological
innovations. Although innovations
are normally for the good of mankind, the strategy suggests that
transnational criminal
organizations have taken advantage of innovations over the past
several years to spread their
illicit activities. The strategy further supports this research
study in that it supports evidence
throughout the study that points to the fact that these networks
also threaten U.S. interests by
forging alliances with corrupt elements of national governments
and using the power and
influence of those elements to further their criminal activities
(The White House 2011, 3). The
strategy is further analyzed to identify gaps in US policies that
are meant to support this strategy.
A 2014 report by Attorney General Kamala Harris, Gangs
Beyond Borders: California and
the Fight Against Transnational Organized Crime, addresses all
three emerging pillars of
transnational criminal activity: the trafficking of drugs,
weapons and human beings; money

53. laundering; and high-tech crimes, such as digital piracy,
hacking and fraud (Harris 2014, 1). The
significance of this document that it recognizes transnational
organized crime as a notable
problem; but, also suggests that it is not insurmountable (Harris
2014, 1). Key portions of this
literature provides evidence that is contrary to other resources
and thereby presents follow-on
arguments that are discussed throughout this study.
The idea for law enforcement agencies to work together at
every level is not a new concept
when having the conversation to combat illicit drug trafficking
or cyber-laundering. The
additional resources that compliments law enforcement agencies
comes from state and local
leaders, community-based organizations, private sector and
international partners (Department of
Homeland Security 2011, 1). The 2011 Strengthening the
Homeland Security Enterprise
document by the Department of Homeland Security, highlights
many initiatives taken to increase
the US security in pursuit to deter or minimize threats. The
purpose of this document is to

54. 12
analyze the things that have been accomplished and determine
the link between previous or
standing US policy. The task is to determine the effectiveness
of the implemented efforts and
confirm or deny its relativeness to US policy against illicit drug
trafficking and cyber-laundering.
Charles Doyle’s analysis of the Uniting and Strengthening
America by Providing
Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism
(USA PATRIOT) Act provides
general regulatory data that was established following the
September 11, 2001 terrorists attacks.
The document, The USA PATRIOT Act: A Legal Analysis,
supports research findings related to
cyber laundering. The Act, in section 325, empowers the
Secretary of the Treasury to
promulgate regulations to prevent financial institutions from
allowing their customers to conceal
their financial activities by taking advantage of the institutions’
concentration account practices
(Doyle 2002, 31). In relations to combating cyber-laundering,

55. the USA PATRIOT Act is
designed to place additional initiatives to combat money
laundering. Furthermore, the Act
places more effort in the prevention of money laundering to
counter terrorists attempt to gain
resources for attacks. The literature is utilized to either confirm
or deny consistency in US
policy. According to the USA PATRIOT Act, federal
authorities attack money laundering
through regulations, international cooperation, criminal
sanctions, and forfeiture (Doyle 2002,
24).
Tara Raghavan’s 2003 In Fear of Cyberterrorism: An
Analysis of the Congressional
Response gives a profound perspective regarding the US
national security system. The focus is
directly aimed on combating cyberterrorism. The link between
cyberterrorism and cyber-
laundering may not be as revealing on the surface; however, the
two are integral involved in
illicit cyber activities. Cyber-laundering that supports
cyberterrorism remains a viable option for
any individual or group wanting to use it to further their goals
(Raghavan 2003, 297). The

56. literature provides additional perspectives regarding the USA
PATRIOT Act, the Cyber Security
Enhancement Act of 2002 (CSEA) that is an improvement to the
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
of 1986 (CFAA), and invaluable details on cybersecurity-related
laws that were passed by
Congress. The data adds to the analysis of laws and the impacts
regarding possible loop holes
that are exploited by terrorist organizations when it comes to
US policies on cyber-laundering.
In simple text, cyberterrorism would most likely be linked to
computer hijacking or execution
of viruses and malware on a specific organization or entity.
Saint-Claire’s 2011 Overview and
Analysis on Cyber Terrorism expands the horizon of both
meaning and application of
13
cyberterrorism. The analogy is specifically unique with much
value to this study in that it
recognizes the enormous advantages that criminals and
terrorists organizations have within cyber

57. communications. The data obtained from this analysis will be
linked to US policies to determine
the effectiveness of such policies against cyber-laundering. The
use of cyber activities are not
limited to simply communicating messages; but, can be linked
to supporting the underground
network for illicit drug trafficking. The similar advantages the
Internet and superior technology
bring to the public and to business -- speed, security and global
linkage -- are helping
international terrorist groups arrange their lethal and disorderly
activities (Saint-Claire 2011, p.
95). The Internet becomes the vehicle of travel for terrorist
organizations and so the discussion
is to determine if US policies are protecting the cyber roadways.
To no surprise, the Internet can be considered the backbone
of the US digital infrastructure.
The growing sophistication and breadth of criminal activity,
along with the harm already caused
by cyber incidents, highlight the potential for malicious activity
in cyberspace to affect U.S.
competitiveness, degrade privacy and civil liberties protections,
undermine national security, or

58. cause a general erosion of trust, or even cripple society. To this
extent, the reviewing of the
2010 Cyberspace Policy Review: Assuring a Trusted and
Resilient Information and
Communications Infrastructure, a product by The White House,
was not optional in this research
study. Cyber-laundering is in essence a breach of security
because attempts to conceal or falsify
pertinent information is being performed; to include, gaining
entry to a legitimate banking
network to conduct illicit activities. In November 2008, the
compromised payment processors of
an international bank permitted fraudulent transactions at more
than 130 automated teller
machines in 49 cities within a 30-minute period, according to
press reports (The White House
2010, 2). The literature exclusively makes the point that
without major advances in the security
of these systems or significant change in how they are
constructed or operated, it is doubtful that
the United States can protect itself from the growing threat of
cybercrime and state-sponsored
intrusions and operations (The White House 2010, i). The
document gains support from other

59. reviewed sources in that it too recognizes the need for
cooperation from the international
community. The United States needs to develop a strategy
designed to shape the international
environment and bring like-minded nations together on a host of
issues, including acceptable
norms regarding territorial jurisdiction, sovereign
responsibility, and use of force (The White
House 2010, p.20). The document supports various discussions
within the study and aims to
14
suggest that a more integrated approach to policy making will
result in a more unified,
aggressive fight against transnational crimes.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The growth of drug trafficking through Africa poses new
challenges to international counter-
narcotics efforts, as well as a variety of emergent threats to the
US; additionally, US counter-
narcotics policy responses to the rise in trans-Africa drug

60. trafficking are in the formative stages
(Wyler & Cook 2009). The incongruence between national
counterterrorism cyber policy, law,
and strategy degrades the abilities of federal counterterrorism
professionals to interdict
transnational terrorists from within cyberspace (Brennan 2012).
Combating these challenges
without vulnerabilities within US policies that empowers
terrorist organizations is the basis for
this research paper. Without the support of the international
community, US policies targeting
illicit drug trafficking and cyber-laundering will have
vulnerabilities that will increase homeland
security threats from terrorist organizations. The effectiveness
of US policy impacts both the
international community as well as local communities as
displayed in Figure 1. Attacking the
threats at each level requires coordination and synchronization
with total commitment from
government officials at every hierarchy.
METHODOLOGY
In efforts to clearly understand the research problem, both

61. quantitative and qualitative
research and methods are utilized throughout this study. The
mixed methods research design
15
approach to this research establishes a frame of questions that is
relative to the theory. A key
feature of mixed methods research is its methodological
pluralism or eclecticism, which
frequently results in superior research (compared to mono-
method research) (Johnson and
Onwuegbuzie 2004, 14-26). Conducting an in-depth,
comprehensive quantitative and qualitative
data analysis to bridge a literature-based research is significant
to the overall study. The means
to accomplish a clear and concise research will include
historical and comparative analysis of
various collected data. Analyzing historical US policies and the
effects of those policies will
establish facts that will support the conclusion of this research.
Additionally, comparing past
policies to current policies will parallel situations in the present

62. to identify possible
vulnerabilities in current US Government policies targeting
transnational crime on illicit drug
trafficking and cyber-laundering that will increase homeland
security threats from terrorist
organizations. The analogy is to identify and confirm the direct
relationship of cause and effect
related to US policies, illicit drug trafficking and cyber-
laundering. The basis is to collect
quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously; however,
analyze the two separately. The
results of the two analysis will be merged during interpretation
as both will have equal value for
understanding the research problem.
The reviewing of multiple collected literature is essential to
gaining a base knowledge for the
research. The sources will provide data with evidence that
supports the facts in determining the
best recommendations at the conclusion of the study. The
mixed method approach ensures the
collection of sufficient data that is invaluable and relevant to
this research study. The results are
indicative of the findings throughout the research in pursuing a
clear and concise response to

63. answering the research question. All recommendations are
based on collected and analyzed data
with the researcher’s interpretation that does not reflect
practical experience within the field.
This research study addresses all threats and activities
associated with transnational organized
crime of both illicit drug trafficking and cyber-laundering and
the intersection thereof with US
policies targeting these two specific areas. The study is to
attempt to find the policy gaps, and
organizational redundancies that makes the policy subjective to
exploitation by terrorist
organizations. The research findings are intentionally separated
in order to ensure clarity
throughout the study. All related data that is relevant to
transnational crimes on illicit drug
trafficking is analyzed first. Second is the analysis of all
collected data relevant to cyber-
laundering. The two transnational crimes are brought together
during the analysis of US policies
16

64. that targets illicit drug trafficking and cyber-laundering.
Subsequently, gaps that are identified in
US policies that presents threats to the homeland by allowing
criminals and terrorist
organizations to exploit are revealed. The review does not
provide an in-depth analysis of
options; however, it presents the necessity for a greater
balanced and integrated policy-making
approach to address illicit drug trafficking and cyber-
laundering.
RESULTS
A comprehensive and thorough analysis of the data results in
the finding of gaps in US
policies targeting two specific transnational crimes, illicit drug
trafficking and cyber-laundering.
The gaps identified presents opportunities for criminal groups
and terrorist organizations to
exploit current US policy to their advantage while enhancing
the threats to the US homeland and
its interest abroad. The gaps can be mitigated, but requires the
coordination and total
cooperation of the entire international community. In order for
the US to be successful in

65. combating these two transnational crimes, US policy must meet
the needs of local, state, federal,
and international institutions and fully integrate the
international community.
In the analysis to differentiate transnational crime from
organized crime, the results revealed
many similarities between the two. The evidence obtained
suggests that the separation of the
two are extremely minor resulting from the nature in how they
overlap in relation to the crimes
committed, the perpetrator involved, and how certain criminal
opportunities are harness for
profit. Additionally, both transnational crimes and organized
crimes share lineage of the same
principal conduct and the same types of offenders. The
opportunities to conduct criminal acts
are similar; although, over the years many have changed in
form. In continuing to clarify
misconceptions of transnational crimes, Table 1, Classification
of Transnational Crimes
(Albanese 2012, 2) separates the crimes into categories: Goods;
Services; and Infiltration.

66. 17
A thorough review of the offenses listed in Table 1 portrays the
majority types of transnational
crime has a nucleus consisting of organized crime activity
rather than on standard, independent,
or politically influence crimes. The norm for conducting these
crimes usually require two or
more people to plan and execute with the goal to gain some sort
of profit. Additionally, the plan
is well organized and stretches through two or more countries
given the extent of transnational
crimes. As reflected in Table 1, there is not an infinite number
of transnational organized
crimes, but there is a finite number of criminal activities that
distinguish the majority of
organized crime.
The following is an example to assist with the understanding
of how transnational crimes are
committed. Subject X establishes an online auction that reaches
out to multiple countries using

67. resources such as Craigslist and eBay. Buyers from the US and
other countries electronically
purchased the desired product using their bank transfers;
unfortunately, the items were simply a
hoax. Subject X, not only moved from and to various cities to
conceal his or her identity, new
bank accounts were able to be establish to continue the illicit
practice. The example is a clear
case of a transnational crime committing fraud. Basically, you
have a violation of the law that
involves and impacts multiple countries, unlike traditional
crimes within a specific country.
18
Figure 2, Model of Transnational Organized Crime Operation in
Illicit Markets, portrays a
simple concept of operations of the underground networks
(Albanese 2012, 10). The bottom line
is to provide an illicit good while eluding laws and avoiding

68. competition in efforts to reach the
customer to gain maximum profit.
The study revealed another clear distinction between
transnational crimes and international
crimes. Transnational crimes has a denominator that consists of
the involvement of two or more
nations whereas international crimes, which involve crimes
against humanity, may or may not
involve multiple nations. Examples of international crimes
include genocide and terrorism, as
well as violations of human rights, often without a profit
motive—a central objective of virtually
all transnational crimes (Albanese 2012, 2). The word terrorism
is made mention in the previous
sentence because the threat exceeds the traditional non-state
theory of limited activity, such as
drug trafficking and money laundering. These two activities,
drug trafficking and money
laundering, could possibly be linked to the procurement and
trafficking of weapons of mass
destruction by terrorist organizations and their sponsors, hence
the relationship between
transnational crimes and terrorism.

69. 19
There are activities conducted with the support of regional
and extra-regional state actors
whose leadership is entangled in criminal activity that generate
well into the billions of dollars in
illegal proceeds annually. These corrupt governments have a
common belief of asymmetrical
warfare against the United States and its allies. The criminal
networks are not decreasing;
unfortunately, these networks are expanding and branching out
their activities. According to
Kleiman, drug trafficking — in source countries, transit
countries, and consumer countries,
including the United States — could contribute to the problems
of terror in at least five distinct
ways (Kleiman 2004, 1-2):
1. Supplying cash for terrorist operations.
2. Creating chaos in countries where drugs are produced,
through which they pass, or in
which they are sold at retail and consumed — chaos sometimes
deliberately

70. cultivated by drug traffickers — which may provide an
environment conducive to
terrorist activity.
3. Generating corruption in law enforcement, military, and other
governmental and
civil-society institutions in ways that either build public support
for terrorist-linked
groups or weaken the capacity of the society to combat terrorist
organizations and
actions.
4. Providing services also useful for terrorist actions and
movements of terrorist
personnel and materiel, and supporting a common
infrastructure, such as smuggling
capabilities, illicit arms acquisition, money laundering, or the
production of false
identification or other documents, capable of serving both drug-
trafficking and
terrorist purposes.
5. Competing for law enforcement and intelligence attention.
No government is exempt from the temptations of illicit
activities. Transnational organized

71. crime constitute a devastating and flourishing threat to national
and international security, with
dreadful consequences for public safety, public health,
democratic institutions, and economic
security across the world.
In nations with frail governance, there are corrupt officials
who pivot the opposite direction to
transnational organized crime. The emergence of crime as an
international security problem
arises from the increasing interdependence of global markets
and the emergence of resilient
cross-national crime groups (Paraschiv 2013, 173-178).
Transnational organized crime networks
20
maneuver themselves into the political process in a mixture of
ways. To no surprise they attempt
to pursue their goals through direct bribery. Other ways may be
running for a political office,
setting up shadow economies; infiltrating financial and security
sectors through coercion or
corruption; and positioning themselves as alternate providers of

72. governance, security, services,
and livelihoods (The White House 2011, 5). Transnational
organized crime piercing of
governments leads to corruption and eroding governance, rule
of law, democratic institution-
building, and transparency.
Terrorist groups utilizes criminal techniques, including drug
trafficking and cyber-laundering,
to raise funds in order to sustain their operations. In today’s
world of innovation, terrorist
organizations and criminal organizations that have been
unrelated are starting to unite and work
together. So as criminals expand their activities in support of
terrorist organizations; terrorism,
drug trafficking, cyber-laundering, and other transnational
organized crimes becomes entwined.
The absence of transnational crimes such as drug trafficking and
or cyber-laundering could have
a devastating impact to terrorist operations throughout the
world. The development of US
policies to directly strike this area is critical to the security of
the homeland and US interest
abroad.

73. Illicit drug trafficking is a major transnational organized
crime activity that terrorists and
insurgents have increasingly engaged to produce funding and
obtain logistical support to conduct
their threatening acts. The link between transnational organized
crime and terrorism is obviously
apparent in the fight targeting illicit drug trafficking. The
Department of Justice reports that 29
of the 63 organizations on its FY 2010 Consolidated Priority
Organization Targets list, which
includes the most significant international drug trafficking
organizations (DTOs) threatening the
United States, were associated with terrorist groups (The White
House 2011, 6). The demand for
illegal drugs throughout the world increases the power and
violence of criminals, insurgents, and
terrorist around the world. These may include non-drug-related
transnational organized crime
networks and, potentially, U.S.-designated foreign terrorist
organizations, including the leftist
rebel group, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
(FARC), and Hezbollah (Wyler and
Cook 2009, 4). Additionally, the history of these two groups
reflects the participation of drug

74. trafficking and money laundering in other regions of the world.
21
The trafficking of illicit drugs starts in many countries,
some more prominent than others, but
they all have the common goal to avoid getting caught, beating
arrival competition, and making
profit through an underground organized network. The drugs
ranges from heroin, coca/cocaine,
marijuana, opiates, cannabis, and various types of amphetamine
and hallucinogens. The bottom
line is that drugs are a profitable business and a fountain of
global criminal activity. Illicit drugs
remain a serious threat to US citizens’ safety, security, and
financial well-being as well as US
allies and other nations throughout the world. A key analysis
within this research is to examine
the drug profiles by category in order to effectively highlight
any gaps within US policies

75. designed to target illicit drug trafficking as a whole.
The top three illicit drugs that closed out a 2012 United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC) annual report questionnaire are opioids/opiates,
cannabis, and cocaine. See Figure 3
(UNODC 2014, 1). Opioids/opiates are utilized to relieve pain.
Common name drugs include
morphine, hydrocodone, codeine and related drugs. Cannabis is
considered to be a depressant
type drug. The most common description of this type drug is
marijuana. Finally, there is
cocaine and its use dating back to the early 1980s which is
considered to be a psychoactive
22
substance, derived from coca leaves. A thorough analysis of the
data obtained from UNODC
clearly suggests that the popularity of opioid use is growing
world-wide. According to UNODC
the rise results from increased misuse of prescription opioids,
whereas the prevalence of opiate
(heroin and opium) use has been stable at the global level and

76. declining in some regions such as
Europe (UNODC 2014, 12). Figure 3 highlights the demand for
cannabis is higher than that for
cocaine. Although cocaine use corresponds to significant
trauma, the far higher number of
cannabis-dependent users results in more global demand.
The evidence is clear. The continued increase of illicit drug
trafficking results from the
demands world-wide. See Figure 4 (UNODC 2014, 1).
Combating drug trafficking is one issue;
however, the add-ons associated with drug trafficking is
another. Case in point is the linkage
between drugs and terrorism in Colombia. Terrorist groups are
linked to drug producers and
distributors in the Western Hemisphere; to include, illicit drug
trafficking by members of radical
Islamic groups.
In order to confront an issue, the examination of pertinent
data and resources are essential.
To this extent, the discussion points must involve the countries
that are supporting illicit drug

77. trafficking either knowingly or unknowingly. The Andean
region is the source of virtually all
23
the world's cocaine (Beers and Taylor 2002, 2). Coca and other
finalized products from the coca
plant are primarily produced by Colombia, Peru and Bolivia.
The exploitation of drugs as a key
revenue source is only fitting for terrorist organizations located
or operating discreetly in
Columbia and Peru. Transnational organized crime seeks
openings that yields little to no
hostility. Because of these tactics by criminals and terrorist
organizations that are seeking to
bring harm to the US and its allies, the policies established must
be free of loop holes.
Nevertheless, the country of Bolivia provides both, an excellent
geographical location for
terrorist networks. Unfortunately, the additional dangers that
this unique area presents are
threats to its national and citizen security.
The research study involves the analysis of illicit drugs

78. trafficking routes. This area is
important to the study because any US policy established must
consider the nations involved or
impacted by the illicit travel network. Starting with the country
of Bolivia which has become an
anchor area of South America’s illegal narcotics trade. The
country also produces its own
cocaine. To make this network more complex, Bolivia borders
both Brazil, the second biggest
consumer of illegal drugs in the world, Peru the world’s
principal producer of cocaine, and
Paraguay, South America’s primary producer of marijuana.
24
In Bolivia, the Colombians can produce its illicit drugs and
move drug shipments across the
Bolivian border into Brazil or Argentina with the least risk of
interdiction and nearly no risk of
extradition. These two nations also act as transshipment points
for the most lucrative markets of

79. all: Europe and Asia (McDermott 2014, 6). Illicit drug
trafficking principal ports into Europe are
Spain and Holland. For example, cocaine is produced in
Bolivia that is transported to either
Brazil or Argentina which are not land lock nations.
Subsequently, transported to Europe or
Asia. Traditionally, cocaine bound for Europe traveled a
northerly route from South America.
From there the illicit drug travels through the eastern Caribbean
and the Azores, to landing points
on the Iberian Peninsula and the Netherlands. There has been a
rise in cocaine trafficking to
Europe through West Africa. Enormous shipments of cocaine
are now moved from Colombia
and onward to Brazil, Venezuela, and some little destinations,
from where they finally enter
West Africa. The largest known loads of cocaine en route to
Europe via West Africa have been
transported by boat (including fishing boats, sailing yachts, and
speedboats) and on container
ships and other so called mother ships that hand off shipments
to smaller, faster boats outside
territorial waters (Wyler and Cook 2009, 11).

80. 25
This research also revealed that small private airplanes are
also utilized for illicit drug
trafficking. France, Portugal, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands
are major European entry points
for cocaine flowing through West Africa. While more
circuitous than direct routes between
South America and Europe, the southern trans-Atlantic oceanic
distance between South America
and Africa is geographically shorter and thus more secure for
trafficking purposes than that
between South America and Europe (Wyler and Cook 2009, 11).
Many people do take the
ultimate risk in trafficking cocaine by ingesting tiny amounts of
the narcotic or hiding it in their
luggage or clothing on flights from South America to Europe.
A common channel for smuggling between east and west, the
Balkans has become a modern
environment for the cultivation and growth of transnational

81. organized crime. Frail institutions in
Albania, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina have enabled
Balkan-based transnational
organized crime groups to gain control of vital drug and human
trafficking routes and Western
European markets. The Balkans region has become a new entry
point for Latin American
cocaine, a source of synthetic drugs, and a transit region for
heroin chemical precursors for use in
the Caucasus and Afghanistan (The White House 2011, 10).
West Africa has become a key transit point for illicit drug
shipments to Europe and for
Southwest Asian, heroin to the US. Also, this route has become
a source and transit point for
methamphetamine destined for the Far East. West Africa also
serves as a transit route for illicit
profits going back to source countries throughout the European
environment. Transnational
organized crime inflame wrongdoing and subvert the rule of
law, democratic processes, and
business practices in multiple African states that already endure
from fragile institutions. Due to
its lack of law enforcement capabilities, its susceptibility to
corruption, its porous borders, and its

82. strategic location, Guinea-Bissau remains a significant hub of
narcotics trafficking on the verge
of developing into a narco-state (The White House 2011, 10).
The Government of Guinea-
Bissau understands the extent of the drug problem and desires
to take action; unfortunately, in
this part of the world, a crippling lack of resources and position
continues to delay any progress
towards combating drug trafficking.
Russian and Eurasian organized crime networks are a
significant threat to economic
expansion and democratic institutions. Russian organized crime
syndicates and criminally linked
oligarchs may attempt to collude with state or state-allied actors
to undermine competition in
strategic markets such as gas, oil, aluminum, and precious
metals (The White House 2011, 10).
26
Simultaneously, transnational organized crime networks in the
region are creating new ties to

83. international illicit drug trafficking networks. The US will
continue to cooperate with Russia and
the nations of the region to combat illicit drugs and
transnational organized crime (The White
House 2011, 10).
Transnational organized crime networks, specifically those
involved in illicit drug trafficking
are integrating their activities in the Asia/Pacific region. Due to
the region’s global economic
ties, these lawless activities have grave implications globally.
The economic importance of the
region also heightens the threat posed to intellectual property
rights, as a large portion of
intellectual property theft originates from China and Southeast
Asia. Human trafficking and
smuggling remain significant concerns in the Asia/Pacific
region, as demonstrated by the case of
convicted alien smuggler Cheng Chui Ping, who smuggled more
than 1,000 aliens into the
United States during the course of her criminal career,
sometimes hundreds at a time (The White
House 2011, 11). Transnational organized crime networks in
the region are also active in the
illicit drug trade as well as trafficking precursor chemicals to be

84. used in illegal drug production.
Additionally, a concern related to the North Korean government
entities are possible ties with
established crime networks that manufacture counterfeit US
monies, threatening the global
integrity of the US dollar.
In analyzing other illicit drug trafficking, the focus turns to
the country of Afghanistan. Over
the past decade, Afghanistan has become a focal point for
terrorist activities. News headlines of
terrorist threats, bombings and massive killings seemed to have
placed illicit drug trafficking in
the shadows. In the mist of all the other chaotic activities,
Afghanistan, which has an enormous
opium poppy cultivation, saw an extraordinary growth in the
area under cultivation. Supporting
evidence suggests that Afghan heroin is increasingly reaching
new markets, such as Oceania and
South-East Asia. Furthermore, the long-established Balkan
route seems to remain a corridor for
the transit of Afghan heroin to the lucrative markets in Western
and Central Europe (UNODC
2014, x). The “southern route,” as it is referred, is growing
with heroin being illegally moved

85. through the southern parts of Afghanistan reaching Europe, via
the Middle East and Africa, as
well as directly from Pakistan (UNODC 2014, x). Indeed drug
trafficking has produced funding
for insurgency and terrorist acts throughout the world,
encompassing in transit regions. Without
a shadow of a doubt, drug trafficking has resulted in funding
that has supported terrorism and in
27
some cases such as the Madrid bombing, drugs were being
utilized as the currency. The same
scenario can happen in any small or large city throughout the
world.
Unlike drugs, varying trafficking routes, and dissimilar
organizations have distinct
relationships to terrorist threats. Mexican drug trafficking
organizations are increasing their
violence in effort to bring their market share together within the
Western Hemisphere, secure
their operations in Mexico, and enlarge their reach into the US.
The bottom line is that the U.S.

86. demand for illicit drugs foster the black markets for Mexican
drug trafficking organizations;
possibly being a contributor to the increase of violence in parts
of Mexico.
The evidence supporting this study confirms that North America
is the number one customer for
cannabis (marijuana). In recent years with US laws changing
and authorizing the legal use of
marijuana in some of its states, these actions may have
influenced drug trafficking organizations
in Mexico to increase its illicit trafficking activities.
History recalls many years of illicit marijuana drug
trafficking from Mexico to the US via the
Cartels. A deeper research into the current state of marijuana
trafficking reveals that the
trafficking of marijuana to the US has reverse. Cartels are
conducting illicit trafficking of high
quality marijuana from the US to Mexico for illicit sales. US
Drug Enforcement Administration
(DEA) spokesman Lawrence Payne told U.S. News that
traffickers working in the US are

87. stealing marijuana that’s much higher quality and more
expensive than pot that isn’t grown
legally (Engel 2014). As a result, violence between various
cartels such as the Sinaloa Cartel
and the Los Zetas Cartel are beginning to escalate.
28
The legalization of marijuana within the US may have
devastating impacts to areas such as
Culiacan, Sinaloa, which is located in the heartland of Mexico.
As in some nations, the same
holds true for Mexico when it comes to harvesting illegal drugs
for the sake of earning a living to
supplement income to take care of family needs. Will the US
find itself participating in illicit
drug wars with Mexico cartels? The question is legitimate for a
possible follow-on research.
Nevertheless, in so much as establishing US policies to combat
illicit drug trafficking from
entering the US, the policies must also confront illicit drug
trafficking out of the US. Additional

88. questions are raised after further analysis of current US
cannabis/marijuana status. Will
insurgents and terrorist organizations seek to buy into any US
illicit cultivation marijuana land
fields or even legitimate business that are designed to produce
marijuana for medical purposes?
Are there laws or policy to prevent terrorist supporters or
groups from exploiting this new era
within the US? Will US citizens become more involved in an
illicit drug trafficking network in
pursuit of higher profits from foreign black markets? Did the
US just invite insurgents and
terrorist organization to exploit US national security posture?
The list of questions can go on and
on. For now, we will have to watch any changes that may occur
over the next few years.
The Mexican drug cartels are some of the most
comprehensive and prosperous organized
crime networks in history. They are advanced, transnational
criminal enterprises that control and
29

89. regulate access to illicit supply routes across the Western
Hemisphere. There is increasing
evidence that the cartels’ influence is emerging throughout
South Asia, Africa, Europe, and
Australia. Drug trafficking, because of its connections to other
forms of transnational organized
crime, is vital national security challenge that requires
unwavering attention from the US
government, its allies, and international partners. As with
terrorism, drug trafficking will be
around for several years, continuing the opportunities to fund
terrorist organizations. All of the
corruption and violence that is directly or indirectly due to the
demand for illicit drugs such as
cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamines will continue unless
there is an absolute global
fundamental change.
Information is insufficient in regards to the distribution of
proceeds from illicit drug sales, but
foreign supply cartels employ influential control over wholesale
distribution in the US illicit
proceeds are frequently laundered and invested through foreign
financial institutions.

90. Transnational organized crime networks are becoming more and
more connected in cybercrime,
which results in the loss of billions of dollars annually. The
threats are surreal to corporate and
government computer networks, and undermines global trust in
the international financial
system. The impacts of negligence or illicit activities through
cybercrime by transnational
criminal organizations or terrorist organizations could easily
hinder e-currency, banking systems,
stock markets, and credit card services. These services are vital
for the existence of the world
economy. The Internet through the use of computers or mobile
devices play a significant role in
most transnational crimes, either as the target of interest or the
weapon used in the crime. The
good thing about the use of the Internet, personal computers,
and mobile devices is that a trail of
digital evidence is created during use. Depending on which side
of the law you are on, this could
be bad or good. Frequently the correct investigation of this
evidence trail demands highly
trained and competent individuals. Unfortunately, in today’s
environment, the rate of

91. cybercrimes being committed are out pacing the investigations
processes. The shortage of
investigators with the expertise to effectively and efficiently
analyze increasing amounts of
potential digital evidence does not help the fight against
cybercrime. In fact, such shortages can
be viewed as a hindrance.
To have a comprehensive background on cybercrime is
essential before moving forward in
discussing cyber-laundering (money laundering). A conceptual
view of cybercrime could very
be that it is transforming to a transnational organized business.
Criminals or terrorists can
30
leverage the Internet to conduct crimes as previously discussed
such as distributing illegal drugs.
Moreover, they exploit the digital environment to facilitate
crimes like payment card fraud or
identity theft. This research study revealed that there are
various views and opinions when it
comes to defining cybercrime. Cybercrime is crime that is