tabOccupational Safety & Health for Technologists, Enginee.docx

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Occupational Safety & Health for Technologists, Engineers, and
Managers
By David L. Goetsch
© 2011, 2008, 2005, 2002, 1999 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
Chapter 21 - Radiation Hazards
Radiation Hazards
Chapter 21 – Section 13
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
Radiation Hazards
Radiation hazards in the workplace fall into one of two
categories: ionizing nonionizing
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
IONIZING RADIATION: TERMS AND CONCEPTS An ion is
an electrically charged atom (or group of atoms) that becomes
charged when a neutral atom (or group of atoms) loses or gains
one or more electrons as a result of a chemical reaction.If an
electron is lost during this process—a positively charged ion is
produced.If an electron is gained—a negatively charged ion is
produced.To ionize is to become electrically charged or to
change into ions.Ionizing radiation is radiation that becomes
electrically charged or changed into ions.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
IONIZING RADIATION: TERMS AND CONCEPTS
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
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By David L. Goetsch

IONIZING RADIATION: TERMS AND CONCEPTS OSHA
CFR 1910.1096 - Basic terms and concepts:Radiation -
energetic nuclear particles.Alpha, beta, gamma rays & X-
rays.Neutrons, high-speed electrons, and high-speed
protons.Radioactive material - material that emits corpuscular
or electromagnetic emanations.As the result of spontaneous
nuclear disintegration.Restricted area - any area to which access
is restricted
in an attempt to protect employees from exposure to radiation or
radioactive materials.An unrestricted area is any area to which
access is not controlled because there is no radioactivity hazard
present.
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By David L. Goetsch
CFR 1910.1096 - Basic terms and concepts:A dose is the
amount of ionizing radiation absorbed per unit of mass by part
of the body or the whole body.Rad - measure of the dose of
ionizing radiation absorbed by body tissues stated in terms of
the amount of energy absorbed per unit of mass of tissue.One
rad equals the absorption of 100 ergs per gram of tissue.Rem -
measure of the dose of ionizing radiation to body tissue stated
in terms of its estimated biological effect relative to a dose of 1
roentgen (r) of X-rays.Air dose - means that an instrument
measures the air at or near the surface of the body where the

highest dosage occurs to determine the level of the dose.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
CFR 1910.1096 - Basic terms and concepts:Personal monitoring
devices are devices worn or carried by an individual to measure
radiation doses received.Widely used devices include film
badges, pocket chambers, pocket dosimeters, and film rings.A
radiation area - any accessible area in which radiation hazards
exist that could deliver doses as follows: Within one hour, a
major portion of the body could receive
more than 5 millirems. Within five consecutive days, a major
portion of the body
could receive more than 100 millirems.A high-radiation area -
any accessible area, in which radiation hazards exist, that could
deliver a dose in
excess of 100 millirems within one hour.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch

EXPOSURE OF EMPLOYEES TO RADIATION
Maximum doses for individuals
in one calendar quarter.
Employers are responsible for ensuring
that these dosages are not exceeded.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
EXPOSURE OF EMPLOYEES TO RADIATION
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations specify total
internal & external dose for employees may not exceed 5 rems
per year.This same revision established a total exposure limit of
0.6 rem over the entire course of a pregnancy for female
employees.According to the NRC, the average radiation
exposure of nuclear plant workers is less than 400 millirems
annually.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch

PRECAUTIONS AND PERSONAL MONITORING
OSHA requires personal monitoring precautions for employees
of companies that produce, use, release, dispose of, or store
sources of ionizing radiation.Employers must conduct
comprehensive surveys to identify/evaluate radiation hazards in
the workplace.Employers must provide personal monitoring
devices such as film badges, pocket chambers/dosimeters & film
rings.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
PRECAUTIONS AND PERSONAL MONITORING
Employers must require the use of appropriate personal
monitoring devices by the following: Any employee who enters
a restricted area where he/she is likely to receive a dose greater
than 25% of the total limit of exposure specified for a calendar
quarter.Any employee 18 years of age or less who enters a
restricted area where he/she is likely to receive a dose greater
than 5% of the total limit of exposure specified
for a calendar quarter.Any employee who enters a high-
radiation area.
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Managers

By David L. Goetsch
CAUTION SIGNS AND LABELS
fg21_00000_AAHVLMB0
The universal color
scheme for caution
signs/labels warning
of radiation hazards
is purple or magenta
superimposed on a
yellow background.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
fg21_00000_AAHVLMB0
OSHA & NRC require caution signs in radiation areas, high-
radiation areas, airborne radiation areas, areas which contain
radioactive materials,

and containers in which radioactive materials are stored or
transported.
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By David L. Goetsch
fg21_00000_AAHVLMB0
On containers, the label should also include the quantity of
radioactive material, kinds of radio-active materials & date
on which the contents
were measured.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
EVACUATION WARNING SIGNAL
Companies that produce, use, store, or transport radioactive
materials are required to have a signal-system that can warn of

the need for evacuation.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
EVACUATION WARNING SIGNALOSHA describes the signal
system as:…a mid-frequency complex sound wave amplitude
modulated at a subsonic frequency.”…not be less than 75
decibels at every location where
an individual may be present whose immediate, rapid,
and complete evacuation is essential.…a sufficient number of
signal generators must be installed to cover all
personnel……unique, unduplicated, and instantly
recognizable……long enough in duration to ensure that all
potentially affected employees are able to hear it.…the signal
generator must respond automatically without the need for
human activation ….fitted with backup power.
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Managers
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INSTRUCTING AND INFORMING PERSONNELOSHA has

established specific requirements for companies to keep
employees informed concerning radiation hazards & precautions
for minimizing them.All employees must be informed of
existing radiation hazards and where they exist.The extent of
the hazards, and how to protect themselves.All employees must
be advised of any reports of radiation exposure requested by
other employees.All employees must have ready access to 29
CFR 1910.1096 and related company operating procedures.
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STORAGE/DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALTo
preclude handling & transport, intentional or inadvertent, of
radioactive materials by persons not qualified to move them
safely, radioactive materials stored in unrestricted
areas…“…shall be secured against unauthorized removal from
the place of storage.”A danger inherent in storing radioactive
materials is that an employee, may unwittingly attempt to move
the container and damage it in the process.This could release
doses that exceed prescribed acceptable limits.
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By David L. Goetsch

STORAGE/DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALThere
are only three acceptable ways to dispose
of radioactive waste: Transfer to an authorized
recipientTransfer in a manner approved by the Atomic Energy
Commission.Transfer in a manner approved by any state that
has an agreement with the Atomic Energy Commission pursuant
to Section 27(b) 42 U.S.C.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
NOTIFICATION OF INCIDENTS
An incident is defined by OSHA as followsExposure of the
whole body of any individual to 25 rems
or more of radiation.Exposure of the skin of the whole body of
any individual
to 150 rems or more of radiation; Or exposure of
feet/ankles/hands/forearms to 375 rems or more.Release of
radioactive material in concentrations which,
if averaged over a period of 24 hours, would exceed
5,000 times the limit specified. If an incident meeting one of
these criteria occurs, the employer must notify the proper
authorities immediately.

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NOTIFICATION OF INCIDENTSCompanies regulated by the
AEC are to notify the commission—all other companies are to
notify the U.S. assistant secretary of labor.Telephone or
telegraph notifications are sufficient to
satisfy the immediacy requirement.Notification requirements are
eased to 24 hours…Where whole-body exposure is between 5
and 24 rems.Exposure of the skin of the whole body is between
30
and 149 rems.Exposure of feet/ankles/hands/forearms is
between 75
and 374 rems.Employers are required to follow up with a
written report within 30 days.
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REPORTS AND RECORDS OF OVEREXPOSURE When a

report is filed concerning overexposure of an employee, it
should be given to the employee.Records should contain
cumulative doses for each monitored employee.
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By David L. Goetsch
NOTICE TO EMPLOYEES The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) publishes NRC Form 3 to inform employees
of the standards for protection against radiation.What is the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission?An independent federal
regulatory agency responsible for licensing and inspecting
nuclear power plants and other commercial uses of radioactive
materials.What does the NRC do? NRC’s primary responsibility
is to ensure that workers and the public are protected from
unnecessary or excessive exposure to radiation and that nuclear
facilities,are constructed to high-quality standards & operated
in a safe manner.
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By David L. Goetsch

of the standards for protection against radiation.What
responsibility does my employer have? Any company that
conducts activities licensed by the
NRC must comply with the NRC’s requirements.What is my
responsibility? For your protection & that of your coworkers,
you should know how NRC requirements relate to your work,
and obey them.What if I cause a violation? If you engage in
misconduct that may cause a violation of NRC requirements or
would have caused a violation if not detected, or provided
inaccurate/incomplete information to the NRC or your
employer, you may be subject to enforcement action.
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By David L. Goetsch
of the standards for protection against radiation.How do I report
violations and safety concerns?If you believe that violations of
NRC rules or the terms of the license have occurred, or if you
have a safety concern, you should report them immediately to
your supervisor.You may report violations/safety concerns
directly to the NRC.What if I work with radioactive material or
in the vicinity
of a radioactive source? If you work with radioactive materials
or near a radiation
source, the amount of radiation exposure that you are

permitted to receive may be limited by NRC regulations.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
of the standards for protection against radiation.May I get a
record of my radiation exposure? Yes. Your employer is
required to advise you of your dose annually if you are exposed
to radiation for which monitoring was required by NRC.How are
violations of NRC requirements identified? NRC conducts
regular inspections at licensed facilities to assure compliance
with NRC requirements.May I talk with an NRC inspector? Yes.
NRC inspectors want to talk to you if you are worried about
radiation safety or have other safety concerns about licensed
activities.
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By David L. Goetsch

of the standards for protection against radiation.May I request
an inspection? Yes. If you believe that your employer has not
corrected violations involving radiological working conditions,
you
may request an inspection.How do I contact the NRC? Talk to
an NRC inspector on-site, or call or write to the
nearest NRC Regional Office in your geographical area.Can I be
fired for raising a safety concern?Federal law prohibits an
employer from firing or otherwise discriminating against you
for bringing safety concerns to the attention of your employer
or the NRC.
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
NONIONIZING RADIATION
Nonionizing radiation has a frequency (hertz, cycles per second)
of 1015 or less, and a wavelength in meters of 3 Hz 10-7 or
less.Visible, ultraviolet, infrared, microwave, radio & AC
power.
Radiation at these frequency levels does not have sufficient
energy to shatter atoms and ionize them.However, such
radiation can cause blisters and blindness.There is mounting
evidence of a link between nonionizing radiation and cancer.
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By David L. Goetsch
The warning symbol for radio frequency radiation.
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By David L. Goetsch
NONIONIZING RADIATION Visible radiation comes from
light sources that create distortion, a hazard to employees
whose
jobs require color perception.8% of the male population is red
color-blind and cannot properly perceive red warning signs..The
most common source of ultraviolet radiation is the sun—
potential problems include sunburn, skin cancer, and
cataracts.Precautionary measures include special sunglasses
treated to block ultraviolet rays, and protective clothing.Other
sources of ultraviolet radiation include lasers, welding arcs, and
ultraviolet lamps.
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By David L. Goetsch

Infrared radiation creates heat—problems involve heat stress
and dry skin and eyes.Primary sources of infrared radiation are
high-temperature processes such as the production of glass and
steel.
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By David L. Goetsch
NONIONIZING RADIATION Radio frequency (RF) &
microwave (MW) radiation are electromagnetic radiation in the
frequency range of 3 kilohertz (kHz) to 300 gigahertz
(GHz)Microwaves occupy the spectral region between 300 GHz
and 300 MHz & RF or radio waves are 300 MHz to 3 kHz.RF
and MW radiation are nonionizing in that there is insufficient
energy to ionize biologically important atoms.Primary health
effects of RF and MW energy are considered to be
thermal.Absorption of RF and MW energy varies with
frequency.Microwave frequencies produce a skin effect—you
can literally sense your skin starting to feel warm.RF may
penetrate the body & be absorbed in deep body organs without
the skin effect that can warn an individual of danger.
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By David L. Goetsch
Use of RF and MW radiation includes:Aeronautical/citizen’s
(CB) radios, cellular phones, radar.Processing/cooking of foods,
heat sealers.Vinyl welders, high-frequency welders, induction
heaters, flow solder machines.Ion implant equipment,
microwave drying equipment, sputtering equipment, glue
curing, and power amplifiers.
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By David L. Goetsch
NONIONIZING RADIATION Extremely low frequency (ELF)
radiation includes alternating current (AC) fields & nonionizing
radiation from 1 Hz to 300 Hz.As ELF frequencies are low (on
the order of 1,000 km wavelengths), static electromagnetic
fields are created.ELF fields are considered as separate,
independent, nonradiating electric and magnetic fields.Electric
and magnetic fields (EMFs) at 60 Hz are produced by power
lines, electrical wiring, and electrical equipment.Electric fields
are produced by voltage and increase in strength as the voltage
increases.Measured in units of volts per meter (V/m).
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Managers
By David L. Goetsch
NONIONIZING RADIATION Magnetic fields are from the flow
of current through wires or electrical devices and increase in
strength as the current increases.Magnetic fields are measured
in gauss (G) or tesla (T).Electrical equipment usually must be
turned on for
a magnetic field to be produced.Electric fields are present even
when equipment is
turned off, as long as it is plugged in.Exposure to EMFs
depends on the strength of the magnetic field sources, the
distance from those sources, and the time spent in the magnetic
field.
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By David L. Goetsch
Hazards of lasers consist of a thermal threat to the eyes and of
electrocution from power sources.Smoke created by lasers in
some processes can be toxic.
Video display terminals (VDTs) emit various kinds

of nonionizing radiation—typically, levels are well below
established standards.Concerns persist about the long-term
effects of prolonged and continual exposure to VDT-based
radiation.
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By David L. Goetsch
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN THE WORKPLACEStudies
of potential effects on worker health of occupational exposure
to electric & magnetic fields reported a variety of subjective
complaints, including problems with their cardiovascular,
digestive, and central nervous systems.While much of the
research has been inconclusive, the case for a clear link between
EMFs and a variety of health problems is strong.
The health problems most frequently associated with EMF
exposure are brain cancer, acute myeloid leukemia, leukemia,
and lymphatic leukemia
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By David L. Goetsch
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN THE WORKPLACE
Occupations with a higher-than-normal incidence of leukemia

and brain cancer:Telephone operators; Electrical manufacturing
workers.Power plant workers; Electrical engineers & line
workers.Power station operators; Electricians & cable splicers.
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By David L. Goetsch
Cancellation ApproachCancellation is an attenuation technique
in which the magnetic fields produced by sources of electricity
are, in effect, canceled out.Phase currents flowing through a
given conductor are canceled out or drastically reduced by
phase currents flowing in the opposite conductors.
In many cases, a principal source of magnetic fields is found to
be the conductor systems leading to tools or power
apparatus.These fields could be canceled via compaction of the
conductor systems.
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By David L. Goetsch
Shielding Approach Shielding, another approach to decrease
exposure to EMFs, requires the magnetic fields to be diverted
around the volume considered to be sensitive to the magnetic
fields, or to be contained within the device that produces the

fields.Effectively accomplishing shielding at either the source
or the subject requires extreme care in choosing the shielding
material.Both cancellation and shielding are highly technical
approaches requiring specialized knowledge.It may be necessary
to consult with EMF experts before attempting to implement
either approach.
1. Select a film from the following website that deals with a
business ethics or
human resources ethics topic
https://topdocumentaryfilms.com/all/
WRITE:
(Essay should be 5 FULL pages in length. Double-spaced, one
inch margins, 11 point
type)
******IMPORTANT
Read following additional resources articles to gain an
understanding of how to
write a film review.
1. How to Write a Reaction Paper to a Documentary
https://medium.com/@ExpertsEssays/how-to-write-a-reaction-
paper-to-a-documentary-
642a4a008faa

2. Rhetorical Analysis of a Documentary Film
http://ffc.twu.edu/issue_5-2/feat_White_5-2.html
3. How to Write a Film Review
https://www.thoughtco.com/write-a-film-review-1856807
NOTE: your writing should be clear to understand+ follow all
instructions in the above additional resources about how to
write a
film review.
DUE IN: April 11.
You have been hired as a safety consultant at a local lab
facility. The lab located in this facility has a radiation concern
and needs you to discuss radiation with the workers. Please
create a short discussion paragraph (minimum 250 words) to
describe the hazards associated with radiation and what can
workers and employers do to ensure safety.
Examples of questions that may help to answer this include:
1. What types of radiation can be dangerous to a worker’s
health?
2. What precautions should workers take when working with
radiation?
3. How do you monitor for radiation exposure?
4. What level of radiation exposure is acceptable according to

OSHA?
5. What OSHA standards relate to radiation?
Remember that you are creating a brief overview to present to a
group of lab workers who do not have prior training about
radiation. You are not simply answering the questions above but
creating an overview that may incorporate answers to those
questions.

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