2Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak)

2
Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak) and
Reaction Time
Jenna Lantrip
October 2nd, 2022
Reaction Time
There are many reasons that can cause depression and a
cognitive developmental delay, but this review is going to be
looking at depression that comes from a relational breakup
(heartbreak) and how this effects their reaction time. When an

individual undergoes emotional distress that was caused by
heartbreak it can lead the individual to negative effects such as,
having an increased risk of physical illness and stress-related
diseases (Izzati & Takwin, 2018). Young-adults, according to
Erikon’s theory are going thothe developmental stage of
intimacy versus isolation (Izzati & Tawkin, 2018; Erikson
1968). This emphasizes that young adults are either developing
intimate relationships with other individuals or they are being
isolated from society. Naturally when an individual is actively
pursuing an intimate relationship with another individual and
this fails, heartbreak is expected. One should never
underestimate the effects that a heartbreak can cause to an
individual. Heartbreak can result into emotional distress and
even in grief responses (Izzati & Takwin, 2018; Kaczmarek et
al., 1990 in Lepore & Greenber, 2002). There can be different
levels of heartbreak, an extreme level can cause emotional
distress from a heartbreak that can link a person to horrid
scenes, such as psychopathology or even death (Izzati &
Takwin, 2018; Field, 2011).
The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between
depression from heartbreak and the effects of cognitive
development, more specifically, reaction time in individuals
who range from 14-24 years of age. The participants were
assessed by using the Beck Depression Inventory Scale
(Streiner, 2002) and The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time
Test (TCRTT). Results from this study could be beneficial to
mental health professionals and individuals of these ages in
understanding why they have a slower or faster reaction time
than others.
Background of the Study
When an individual goes through a breakup from a
relationship, this can cause many different negative experiences
to happen. Whenever there is an increase of stress coming from
an event, there is an increased risk for developing depression
(Verhallen et al., 2019). Conducting research studies on

stressful and emotional upsetting events can provide for great
insight as to why there are individual differences when talking
about stress-related coping and the link for stress and
depression. Previous research has shown that the breakup from a
romantic relationship can have such a strong emotional
upsetting there can be multiple symptoms that are related to
sadness, grief, and depression (Verhallen et al., 2019). There
can even be a result of having an increased risk of developing a
depressive episode (Verhallen et al., 2019). Women have
reported for a higher distress score compared to men in the
study. In the study (Stoessel et al., 2011) the participants with a
relationships breakup in the following six months and
experiencing sadness ended over the breakup ended up having
the same symptoms of being clinically depression. For women
after the break up after four months, they reported high levels
of complicated grief (Verhallen et al., 2019). There was also a
different brain pattern that was an increased activity in
posterior regions such as the cerebellum and decreased in
activity in the anterior regions. This was found in these women
when they were ruminating about their breakup and the ex-
individual in comparison with thinking about an acquaintance.
The study by Verhallen et al. (2019) was conducted to examine
if the breakup from a romantic relationship could be used as an
experimental method for studying a depression-like state. The
results from this study indicated that the effects of experiencing
a relationship breakup can be captured with two descriptors:
“sudden loss” and “lack of positive affect”. The sudden loss and
lack of positive affect are both associated with severity of
depression and the symptoms. The researchers proposed that
this life-event is a viable experimental model that can help with
investigating symptoms of depression in individuals who have
not been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder.
Rationale/GAP
Although previous studies have found that the working
memory becomes altered after a romantic relationship break up,
no study to date has examined an individual’s reaction time

after a romantic relationship breakup. According to Verhallen et
al. (2021), acute stress and even chronic stress has the ability to
impair an individual’s effect on working memory in healthy
individuals. Chronic stress and dysregulation of stress response
can be a leading factor for mood disorders, including depression
(Bale, 2006). Resulting from Rose and Ebmeier (2006),
depressed participants showed a reduced performance on their
working memory task than the healthy control group did. The
results from the study by Verhallen et al. (2021) concluded that
there is less precuneus activation and identified a working
memory-related brain network within their heartbreak
population that relates to depressive symptom severity. The
results from this study suggest that there is a relationship
between depression from heartbreak and cognitive functioning.
According to Schoofs et al. (2008), there has been a slower
reaction time and lower accuracy rates due to social stress in
male subjects. There has not been research conduction on the
cognitive development in terms of reaction time during
depression that resulted from a heartbreak and that is what this
study will be focusing on.
Research Questions and HypothesesThis study’s primary
purpose is to explore if depression from heartbreak impacts an
individual’s reaction time. The primary research question and
hypothesis which guides this study are: Research Questions
RQ. Is there a relationship between depression (from
heartbreak) and reaction time in 14-24-year-
olds? HypothesesH0: There is not a statistically significant
relationship between depression (from heartbreak) and reaction
time in 14-24-year-old’s. Ha: There is a statistically significant
time in 14-24-year old’s. Nature of the Study
This quantitative correlational study is aimed at
identifying the relationship between depression (from
heartbreak) and reaction time in 14-24-year old’s. The Beck
Depression Inventory Scale (Streiner, 2002) and The Taylor
Competitive Reaction Time Test (TCRTT) will be conducted by

using an online format to evaluate the relationship of depression
and heartbreak.
Significance of the Study
Having an understanding on how depression from a
heartbreak can affect an individual’s reaction time in
individuals 14-24 years of age is crucial for developing
preventions, interventions, and services to help decrease their
chances of cognitive impairment. This study can provide
information that can help individuals with their mental health,
provide coping skills for depression, and give a better
understanding as to why individuals may be struggling with
their reaction times. This can also give mental health
professionals the knowledge to prepare interventions and have
more of an understanding of cognitive development for
depressed individuals from having their heart broken. The
intention of this study is to add to the literature already
available about the effects of depression from heart break. This
study will allow individuals to participate in treatment’s since
they now are aware.
Methods
Participants
The participants that will be included in this study are high
school and college students who range from the ages of 14-24
years old in the United States. This can include any state, ethnic
background, and gender. This will create for a diverse group of
subjects to participate. The participants will be equally both
female and male. The participants will be required to speak and
read English at an understandable level. The total number of
participants that this study will aim to gain is N=200.
Keiser University Institutional Review Board will need to give
approve for this study before recruiting subjects to participate
in the study. This study will gain participants by posting the
questionnaires online for subjects to participate if they qualify

as a subject. The study will be posted on social media cites,
such as; survey monkey, Facebook, Twitter, Group chats, etc.
This will get the study more diversity among states and
different groups of individuals rather than going into a school
classroom to gain participants. Since the questionnaires are
online this will be possible to succeed at.
According to Bosnjak and Tuten (2003), prepaid incentives
in web surveys have shown that prize draws increase the
completion rate of online surveys and they reduce the
possibility of an incomplete survey participation. To increase
the chance of the subjects participating in the study, the
participants will be entered to into a prize draw.
Measures
The Beck Depression Scale
The Beck Depression Inventory Scale is a 21-item questionnaire
scale that was the first formal attempt at using self-ratings to
assess the severity of depression (LeBlanc et al., 2002). This
can be used in normal and psychiatric populations (Jackson-
Koku, 2016). The questionnaire was developed from clinical
observations of attitudes and symptoms that were occurring
frequently in depressed psychiatric patient and infrequently in
non-depressed psychiatric patients. The Beck Depression Scale
has 21 items that are on a 4-point scale from 0 (no symptoms) to
3 (severe symptoms). The minimum score is zero while the
maximums core is 62. The higher the scoring means the higher
severity of depression. When the score is 0-13 this indicates
that there is minimal depression, 14-19 (mild), 20-28
(moderate), and 29-63 (severe depression). The content validity
of this has improved with item replacements and rewording of
the DSM-IV to reflect the criteria needed for major depressive
disorders. Construct validity is high for medical symptoms that
are measured by the questionnaire. There has also been high
concurrent validity demonstrated between the questionnaire and
other measures of depression. For criterion validity the

instruments are positively correlated with the Hamilton
Depression Rating Scale with having a high one week test-retest
reliability.
The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test
The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test (TCRTT) was
modified to use noise blasts instead of using electric shocks,
which is how it was first designed (Ferguson & Rueda, 2009).
The noise blasts are easily adaptable to a computer-driven
format and is more ethical. These noise blasts do not cause the
participant any physical harm to their ears/body. During this
test, participants are playing a reaction time game against an
“alleged” human opponent, who does not really exist. The noise
blasts would happen if the participant losses the game. The
variation of the noise bust can be administrated through a PC or
Mac computer, which would require no additional machinery.
The noise blast can be determined in regards to how intense and
the duration of them by the computer. Reaction time can be
measured by this instrument by how fast the participants react
to the noise burst. This could look like a flinch, blinking, or any
sort of movement/vocalization.
Procedure
The data collected for this study was all collected online from
the instruments that were used. The results from The Beck
Depression Test and The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time
Test (TCRTT) were all inserted into the SurveyMonkey website.
The subjects of this study would then be giving access to the
survey by sending out a link on different social media
platforms. This link would bring participants to the instructions
of the survey.
When the survey link opens, it will lead to information
about the study, what will happen during the study, and the
purpose of the study. It will not actually give the goal of the

study to the participants, just everything that they need to know
to sign consent forms. The participants will be given a section
of on the link to sign consent forms, these will include that their
information will be kept confidential and if the participants
choose to not participant then they do not have to. The purpose
of not telling the participants the entire reason and goal for the
study is so that they will not tell other participants. If other
participants are told then they can alter results if the
participants know what the researchers are looking for. When
participants agree to the study and meet criteria they then will
be brought to the survey questions. For the participants that did
not agree or did not meet criteria will then leave the study. At
this point the remaining participants will taking The Beck
Depression test and The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test
(TCRTT) would combined time should be about 30 minutes for
competition of the study for participants.
Results This study’s primary purpose is to explore if depression
from heartbreak impacts an individual’s reaction time. The
primary research question and hypothesis which guides this
study are: Research Questions
time in 14-24-year-old’s. Ha: There is a statistically significant
time in 14-24-year old’s. The hypothesis of this study is
predicting that there will be a reaction time between depression
from heartbreak and reaction time. It is predicted that the more
depression resulting from heartbreak then there will be a slower
reaction time for those individuals. Individuals who are not
experiencing depression or not as severe depression will have a
faster reaction time. Due to there being a range of depression
scores, continuous data will be collected. According to
Verhallen et al. (2021) a relational breakup can be a severely

stressful event for individuals that can lead to depressive
symptoms in healthy people. It was found that for the
heartbreak group, there is a negative association with depressive
symptom severity and brain networking presenting mostly the
precuneus, anterior cingulate gyrus and supplementary motor
cortex (Verhallen et al., 2021). This study suggest that the
breakup effect is accompanied by workload-dependent working
memory alterations. The findings from this study creates for an
expected effect from depression on an individual’s reaction
time.The Pearson’s Correlation statistical test will be used to
compare the relationships between depression from heartbreak
and reaction time. There will be a preliminary analysis ran to
make sure that the data met the required criteria. It is predicted
that there will be a significant, positive correlation between
depression from heartbreak and reaction time for individuals.
Figure 1 represents the hypothetical results of a Pearson’s
r correlation between depression and reaction
time.
Figure 1. Relationship between depression and
reaction time.
Discussion
Depression from romantic relationships that results from
heartbreak can create very stressful events. This chronic
depression can create for many life altering physical effects on
the body. This literature review focused on the effects of
reaction time for participants. This study took the time to make
sure that the measures and procedures were all conducted in an
ethical manner and was approved by the Keiser Institute Review
Board. The participants were made aware of the instructions,
age requirements, and what instruments were being used before
they participated in the study. The participants were made
aware that if they did not want to participate at any time during
the study, that they were free to leave without any harm done.
The instruments were all conducted in English for primary
English speakers. Due to the potential of The Beck Depression

Inventory Test bring up past trauma or depressive/sensitive
subjects, the participants were given a number to call for free
counseling if they needed it.
This study will certainly give informational results about
depression and reaction time, but there will also be limitations
of this study. The first limitation of this study is that there are
no prior mental health disorders being tested. There could be
other factors playing into the participants depression other than
heartbreak that they are not disclosing. This would affect the
study with not knowing if the depression results are purely from
a relationship break up. Future research needs to be conducted
on participants that are measured for other mental health
disorders to make sure that they do not have any.
Another limitation of this study is that this study is a
correlational design, having a causal relationship between
depression and reaction time will not be determined. Future
research should focus this study on an experimental design to
create for more definite results.
The third limitation of this study is that gender was not
looked at during. There was not a comparison in the different
genders when the results were determined. Having more
research on this topic and comparing genders will help with the
results of this study.
Peer Review
Methods
Participants
The participants in this study will be high school and college
students who are 14-24 years old in the United States. This can
include any state, ethnic background, and gender. This will
create for a diverse group of subjects to participate. The
participants will be equally both female and male. The
participants will be required to speak and read English at an
understandable level. The total number of participants that this
study will aim to gain is N=200.
Measure/Stimuli
The Beck Depression Inventory Scale will be the study's initial

measurement. This 21-item questionnaire scale was developed
to try to gauge how severe a person's depression is. This scale
employs a 4-point scale from 0 (no symptoms) to 3 to rate
various depressive symptoms (severe symptoms). The lowest
possible score is 0, and the highest possible score is 62.
Indicators of depression range from 0 to 13, from 14 to 19, from
20 to 28, and from 29 to 63, which denotes severe depression.
This scale has been shown to have high construct, concurrent,
and criterion validity, as well as high test-retest reliability.
The second measurement that will be used in this study is the
Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test (TCRTT). This test uses
a game versus an "alleged" human opponent to assess an
individual's response speed. If the contestant loses the game,
they will be exposed to varied intensity and duration loud
blasts. Reaction time can be measured by observing the
participant's reaction to the noise blast, such as a flinch, blink,
or any sort of movement/vocalization. This test has been shown
to be a reliable measure of reaction time.
Procedure
The procedure for this study will involve the participants taking
the Beck Depression Inventory Scale and the Taylor
Competitive Reaction Time Test online. The participants will be
given access to the survey via a link on different social media
platforms. Once they click on the link, they will be taken to a
page with information about the study, what will happen during
the study, and the purpose of the study. They will then be asked
to agree to the terms of the study and sign a consent form. After
agreeing to the terms of the study, they will be taken to the
survey questions. The survey should take about half an hour to
complete.
Sampling Procedures
The study was conducted by administering the Beck Depression
Inventory Scale and the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test
to participants online. Students in high school and college, ages
14 to 24, made up the participants. The purpose of the study
was to investigate the connection between 14–24-year-olds'

response times and depression brought on by heartbreak. The
study's main hypothesis was that among 14–24-year-olds, there
would be a statistically significant correlation between response
time and depression brought on by heartbreak. The results of the
study showed that there was a statistically significant
relationship between depression from heartbreak and reaction
time in 14-24-year-olds. The participants for this study will be
recruited from high schools and colleges in the United States.
The participants will be given access to the survey via a link on
different social media platforms. The link will take them to a
page with information about the study and a consent form that
they will need to agree to in order to participate. After agreeing
to the terms of the study, they will be taken to the survey
questions. The survey will take approximately 30 minutes to
complete.
Research Design
The research design for this study was a quantitative
correlational study. The study was conducted as a between-
subjects design. The experimental group will be exposed to the
intervention (a relationship breakup), while the control group
will not be exposed to the intervention. The intervention will be
administered at the beginning of the study. Subjects in the
experimental group will be asked to recall a time when they
experienced a relationship breakup. They will be asked to rate
their level of depression on a scale of 1-10, with 1 being not at
all depressed and 10 being extremely depressed. They will then
be asked to take the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test.
Subjects in the control group will not be asked to recall a time
when they experienced a relationship breakup. They will be
asked to rate their level of depression on a scale of 1-10, with 1
being not at all depressed and 10 being extremely depressed.
They will then be asked to take the Taylor Competitive Reaction
Time Test.
The study was conducted online, so the setting for the study was
the participants' homes or wherever they had access to a
computer and the internet. The Beck Depression Inventory Scale

and the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test were both
administered online. The participants were given access to the
survey via a link on different social media platforms. Once they
clicked on the link, they were taken to a page with information
about the study, what would happen during the study, and the
purpose of the study. They were then asked to agree to the terms
of the study and sign a consent form. After agreeing to the
terms of the study, they were taken to the survey questions. The
survey took approximately 30 minutes to complete.
Results/Data Analysis
The data collected in this study showed that there is a
relationship between depression from heartbreak and reaction
time in 14-24-year-olds. The results from The Beck Depression
Test and The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test (TCRTT)
were all inserted into the SurveyMonkey website. The subjects
of this study would then be giving access to the survey by
sending out a link on different social media platforms. This link
would bring participants to the instructions of the survey. When
the survey link opened, it was to lead to information about the
study, what would happen during the study, and the purpose of
the study. The participants were given a section of on the link
to sign consent forms, these included that their information
would be kept confidential and if the participants choose to not
participant, then they do not have to. The purpose of not telling
the participants the entire reason and goal for the study was so
that they would not tell other participants. If other participants
were told then they could alter results if the participants knew
what the researchers were looking for. When participants agreed
to the study and met criteria, they then were brought to the
survey questions. The participants taking The Beck Depression
test and The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Test (TCRTT)
would combine time should be about 30 minutes for competition
of the study.
The appropriate variables were analyzed in this study based on
the hypothesis. The hypothesis was that there is a relationship
between depression from heartbreak and reaction time in 14-24-

year-olds. The variables that were analyzed were The Beck
Depression Test and The Taylor Competitive Reaction Time
Test (TCRTT). These two tests were used to collect data on the
relationship between depression and reaction time.
The graph indicates the correct variables that are being studied
in the hypothesis. The hypothesis is predicting that there will be
a reaction time between depression from heartbreak and reaction
time. It is predicted that the more depression resulting from
heartbreak then there will be a slower reaction time for those
individuals. Individuals who are not experiencing depression or
not as severe depression will have a faster reaction time. Due to
there being a range of depression scores, continuous data will
be collected. The graph in this study shows the relationship
between depression and reaction time. The x-axis represents
depression levels and the y-axis represents reaction time. The
graph illustrates that when the reaction time is lower, the
depression rate is high and vice versa. For instance, from the
graph, when the reaction time is at 20, the depression rate is at
80, and when the reaction time is at 80, the depression rate is at
20.
Discussion
Limitation of the Study
Despite the reasonable limitations, the study provides some
valuable insights into the relationship between depression and
reaction time. The results suggest that there is a significant
correlation between the two variables, which provides support
for the hypothesis that depression can impact reaction time.
Additionally, the study provides some useful information on the
potential mechanisms by which depression may impact reaction
time. For example, the finding that depression is associated with
less activity in the precuneus and anterior cingulate gyrus
suggests that depression may impact reaction time by affecting
working memory
Overall, the limitations seem reasonable. Given that this is a
correlational study, it is not possible to determine a causal

relationship between depression and reaction time. However,
the other limitations are manageable and do not significantly
impact the study. For example, the lack of information on
participants' prior mental health history could be addressed by
including a question on the survey about whether participants
have ever been diagnosed with a mental health disorder.
Additionally, gender could be included as a variable in the
analysis to see if there are any differences between male and
female participants.
The generalizability of the results is considered to some extent.
The study includes a diverse group of participants in terms of
age, state, and ethnic background. However, the study does not
consider other important factors such as gender, which could
potentially impact the results. Additionally, the study only
includes participants from the United States, which limits the
generalizability of the results to other countries. The survey is
only available in English. This could potentially limit the
number of participants who are able to take the survey and may
not be representative of the general population. Additionally,
the study does not consider other important factors such as
gender, which could potentially impact the results. The study
only looked at the effects of depression from heartbreak on
reaction time. The study did not look at other cognitive
functions, such as working memory or attention span. This
could have given more information about the effects of
depression on cognitive functioning. Another missed out
limitation is that the study did not look at other populations,
such as people from different countries. This could have given
more information about how depression from heartbreak affects
people from different cultures.
References
Bale, T. L. (2006). Stress sensitivity and the development of
affective disorders.

Horm. Behav. 50, 529–533. doi:
10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.033
Bosnjak, M., & Tuten, T. L. (2003). Prepaid and promised
incentives in web surveys: An experiment.
Social science computer review,
21(2), 208-217.
Ferguson, C. J., & Rueda, S. M. (2009). Examining the validity
of the modified Taylor competitive reaction time test of
aggression.
Journal of Experimental Criminology,
5(2), 121-137.
Fischer, A. H. & Manstead, A. S. R. (2016). Social Functions of
Emotion and Emotion Regulation. In L. Feldman Barrett, M.
Lewis, & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.),
Handbook of Emotions, 4th Ed.
(pp. 424-439). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Izzati, S., & Takwin, B. (2018, July). The Effects of Written
Emotional Disclosure to Subjective Distress and Mood on
Individuals Experiencing Heartbreak. In
Universitas Indonesia International Psychology
Symposium for Undergraduate Research (UIPSUR 2017) (pp.
217-223). Atlantis Press.
Jackson-Koku, G. (2016). Beck depression inventory.
Occupational Medicine,
66(2), 174-175.
LeBlanc, J. C., Almudevar, A., Brooks, S. J., & Kutcher, S.
(2002). Screening for adolescent depression: comparison of the
Kutcher Adolescent Depression Scale with the Beck Depression
Inventory.
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology,

12(2), 113-126.
Rose, E. J., and Ebmeier, K. P. (2006). Pattern of impaired
working memory during major depression.
J. Affect. Disord. 90, 149–161. doi:
10.1016/j.jad.2005.11.003
Schoofs, D., Preuß, D., and Wolf, O. T. (2008). Psychosocial
stress induces working memory impairments in an N-back
paradigm.
Psychoneuroendocrinology 33, 643–653. doi:
10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.02.004
Streiner, D. L. (2002). Breaking up is hard to do: the heartbreak
of dichotomizing continuous data.
The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,
47(3), 262-266.
Stoessel C, Stiller J, Bleich S, Boensch D, Doerfler A, Garcia
M, et al. Differences and similarities on neuronal activities of
people being happily and unhappily in love: a functional
magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuropsychobiology.
2011;64: 52–60. pmid:21606659
Stoessel, C., Stiller, J., Bleich, S., Boensch, D., Doerfler, A.,
Garcia, M., ... & Forster, C. (2011). Differences and similarities
on neuronal activities of people being happily and unhappily in
love: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study.
Neuropsychobiology,
64(1), 52-60.
Verhallen, A. M., Alonso‐Martínez, S., Renken, R. J., Marsman,
J. B. C., & Ter Horst, G. J. (2021). Depressive symptom
trajectory following romantic relationship breakup and effects
of rumination, neuroticism and cognitive control.
Stress and Health.

Verhallen, A. M., Renken, R. J., Marsman, J. B. C., & Ter
Horst, G. J. (2019). Romantic relationship breakup: An
experimental model to study effects of stress on depression (-
like) symptoms.
PloS one,
14(5), e0217320.
Horst, G. J. (2021). Working memory alterations after a
romantic relationship breakup.
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Continuous Variables for Correlation
Y 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 80 70 60 50 40
30 20
Reaction Time
Depression
image1.png
WEEK 6
Cognitive & Affective Basis of Behavior
Assignments

■ Assignments
■ 1. Discussion
■ 2. Peer Review of Partner's Draft Methods, Expected Results,
Limitations
Topic:
Development
■ The emergence of human emotions
■ The development of children’s concepts of emotion
■ Emotional development in adolescence
■ Emotion and aging
■ Article: Leclerc, C. M. & Kensinger, E. A. (2008). Effects of
age on detection of emotional
information. Psychology and Aging, 23(1), 209-215.
Part 1
Choose one concept, research finding, or question that stood out
to you in your readings and content assigned for
this week. Find an empirical research article about this that was
published in the scientific literature and provide a
summary of that article here answering the following questions.

Attach the article to your post, and provide an APA
style reference for it at the bottom of your post.
1. What is the item that stood out to you and why?
2. What did the authors of the study you selected examine in
their research? What did they hypothesize and
why (rationale)?
3. What methods did they use?
4. What were the most meaningful findings the authors
reported?
5. What is one limitation to their study?
6. How do the findings from this study help you better
understand the content from this week?
Part 2
State your hypothesis.
Include the graph you plan to use for hypothetical results in the
final paper (screenshot or copy/paste). You may use
the graph from Week 5 draft and modify if needed.
Explain the graph and how it supports your hypothesis.
Peer Review

■ Can you follow the methods?
– Is this section divided into Participants,
Measures/Stimuli and Procedure?
– Do the methods logically relate to the
hypothesis?
– Are all variables defined? Are groups
explained?
Results/Data Analysis
■ Can you see how they would analyze their data?
– Does the data analysis proposed assist in testing the
hypothesis?
– Are the appropriate variables analyzed based on hypothesis?
– Does the graph indicate correct variables (groups vs
continuous) found in
hypothesis?
0
1
2

3
4
5
Group 1 Group 2
Hypothetical Chart for Groups
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Variable 1 (IV)
Continuous Variables for Correlation
Limitations
■ Do the limitations seem reasonable?
– Is generalizability of results considered?
– Any limitations they may have missed?
APA GUIDELINES FOR
RESEARCH PAPERS
Methods, Results, Discussion
Methods
■ describes in detail how the study was conducted, including
operational definitions of the variables
used in the study.

■ Enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of your
methods and also permits experienced
investigators to replicate the study.
■ Participants
– Detail the sample's major demographic characteristics, such as
age; sex; ethnic and/or racial
group; level of education; socioeconomic, generational, or
immigrant status; disability status;
sexual orientation; gender identity; and language preference as
well as important topic-
specific characteristics (e.g., achievement level in studies of
educational interventions).
– As a rule, describe the groups as specifically as possible, with
particular emphasis on
characteristics that may have bearing on the interpretation of
results.
Methods
■ Sampling procedures
– Describe the settings and locations in which the data were
collected as well as any
agreements and payments made to participants, agreements with

the institutional
review board, ethical standards met, and safety monitoring
procedures.
■ Research design
– Specify the research design in the Method section. Were
subjects placed into conditions
that were manipulated, or were they observed naturalistically?
If multiple conditions
were created, how were participants assigned to conditions,
through random
assignment or some other selection mechanism? Was the study
conducted as a
between-subjects or a within-subject design?
– Experimental manipulations or interventions
– Include the details of the interventions or manipulations
intended for each study
condition, including control groups (if any), and describe how
and when interventions
(experimental manipulations) were actually administered.
Methods
■ Provide information about (a) the setting where the

intervention or manipulation was
delivered,
■ (b) the quantity and duration of exposure to the intervention
or manipulation (i.e., how many
sessions, episodes, or events were intended to be delivered and
how long they were
intended to last),
■ (c) the time span taken for the delivery of the intervention or
manipulation to each unit (e.g.,
would the manipulation delivery be complete in one session, or
if participants returned for
multiple sessions, how much time passed between the first and
last session?), and
■ (d) activities or incentives used to increase compliance.
Results
■ summarize the collected data and the analysis performed on
those data relevant to
the discourse that is to follow.
■ Report the data in sufficient detail to justify your
conclusions.
■ Mention all relevant results, including those that run counter

to expectation; be sure
to include small effect sizes (or statistically nonsignificant
findings) when theory
predicts large (or statistically significant) ones. Do not hide
uncomfortable results by
omission.
■ Do not include individual scores or raw data, with the
exception, for example, of
single-case designs or illustrative examples
Results
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statistical methods. Do
not review basic concepts and procedures or provide citations
for the most
commonly used statistical procedures.
■ If, however, there is any question about the appropriateness
of a particular
statistical procedure, justify its use by clearly stating the
evidence that exists for the
robustness of the procedure as applied.

Discussion
■ Open the Discussion section with a clear statement of the
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original hypotheses, distinguished by primary and secondary
hypotheses. If hypotheses were
not supported, offer post hoc explanations. Similarities and
differences between your results
and the work of others should be used to contextualize, confirm,
and clarify your conclusions
■ Your interpretation of the results should take into account (a)
sources of potential bias and
other threats to internal validity, (b) the imprecision of
measures, (c) the overall number of
tests or overlap among tests, (d) the effect sizes observed, and
(e) other limitations or
weaknesses of the study.
■ End the Discussion section with a reasoned and justifiable
commentary on the importance
of your findings. This concluding section may be brief or
extensive provided that it is tightly
reasoned, self-contained, and not overstated.

Checklist…
■ Re-examine your hypothesis:
■ Methods:
– Are my participants appropriately selected based on my
hypothesis?
– If comparing groups, do I include criteria and how many in
each group?
– Do my scales measure the variables in my hypothesis?
– Does my procedure explain how participants will take my
scales or intervention?
■ Results:
– Do my expected results analyze the variables in my
hypothesis?
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variable type?
■ Limitations:
– Do my limitations take into account other factors that could
influence my results?
Don’t forget….
■ Send the draft to your Peer Partner

5
Reaction Time
Jenna Lantrip
September 18th, 2022
Reaction Time
There are many reasons that can cause depression and a
cognitive developmental delay, but this review is going to be
looking at depression that comes from a relational breakup
(heartbreak) and how this effects their reaction time. When an
individual undergoes emotional distress that was caused by

heartbreak it can lead the individual to negative effects such as,
having an increased risk of physical illness and stress-related
diseases (Izzati&Takwin, 2018). Young-adults, according to
Erikon’s theory are going thought the developmental stage of
intimacy versus isolation (Izzati&Tawkin, 2018; Erikson 1968).
This proves that young adults are either developing intimate
relationships with other individuals or they are being isolated
from society. Naturally when an individual is actively pursuing
an intimate relationship with another individual and this fails,
heartbreak is expected. One should never underestimate the
effects that a heartbreak can cause to an individual. Heartbreak
can result into emotional distress and even in grief responses
(Izzati&Takwin, 2018; Kaczmarek et al., 1990 in Lepore
&Greenber, 2002). There can be different levels of heartbreak,
an extreme level can cause emotional distress from a heartbreak
that can lead a person to horrid scenes, such as psychopathology
or even death (Izzati&Takwin, 2018; Field, 2011). Comment by
user: Headings are very important. You would have started by
illutrating this is an introduction of your work. Comment by
user: I did not understand this point. Did you mean through or
thought?
The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between
depression from heartbreak and the effects of cognitive
development, more specifically, reaction time in individuals
who range from 14-24 years of age. In addition, the participants
gender was also investigated and taken into account when
examining the relationship between depression from heartbreak
and reaction time. The participants were assessed by using the
Beck Depression Inventory Scale (Streiner, 2002), the Everyday
Cognitive Instrument (Farias et al., 2008), and a sex assigned at
birth questionnaire. Results from this study could be beneficial
to mental health professionals and individuals of these ages in
understanding why they have a slower or faster reaction time
than others.
Background of the Study

When an individual does through a relationship breakup
this can cause many different negative experiences to happen.
Whenever there is an increase of stress coming from an event,
there is an increased risk for developing depression (Verhallen
et al., 2019). Conducting research studies on stressful and
emotional upsetting events can provide for great insight asa to
why there are individual differences when talking about stress-
related coping and the link for stress and depression. Previous
research has shown that the breakup from a romantic
relationship can have such a strong emotional upsetting there
can be multiple symptoms that are related to sadness, grief, and
depression. There can even be a result of having an increased
risk of developing a depressive episode(Verhallen et al., 2019).
Women have reported for a higher distress score compared to
men in the study. In the study (Stoessel et al., () the participants
with a relationships breakup in the following six months and
experiencing sadness ended over the breakup ended up having
the same symptoms of being clinically depression. For women
after the break up after four months, they reported high levels
of complicated grief (Verhallen et al., 2019). There was also a
different brain pattern that was an increased activity in
posterior regions such as the cerebellum and decreased in
activity in the anterior regions. This was found in these women
when they were ruminating about their breakup and the ex-
individual in comparison with thinking about an acquaintance.
The study by Verhallen et al. (2019) was conducted to examine
if the breakup from a romantic relationship could be used as an
experimental money for studying a depression-like state. The
results from this study indicated that the effects of experiencing
a relationship breakup can be captured with two descriptors:
“sudden loss” and “lack of positive affect”. The sudden loss and
lack of positive affect are both associated with severity of
depression and the symptoms. The researchers proposed that
this life-event is a viable experimental model that can help with
investigating symptoms of depression in individuals who have
not been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder. Comment by

user: This word makes the whole statemnt abit hard to
understand. Did you mean “goes”? Comment by user: Which
exact research has pointed out this? Comment by user:
Review this, to ensure proper citation
Rationale/GAP
Although previous studies have found that the working
memory becomes altered after a romantic relationship break up,
no study to date has examined an individual’s reaction time
after a romantic relationship breakup. According to Verhallen et
al. (2021), acute stress and even chronic stress has the ability to
impair an individual’s effect on working memory in healthy
individuals. Chronic stress and dysregulation of stress response
can be a leading factor for mood disorders, including depression
(Bale, 2006). Resulting from Rose and Ebmeier (2006),
depressed participants showed a reduced performance on their
working memory task than the healthy control group did. The
results from the study by Verhallen et al. (2021) concluded that
there is less precuneus activation and identified a working
memory-related brain network within their heartbreak
population that relates to depressive symptom severity. The
results from this study suggest that there is a relationship
between depression from heartbreak and cognitive functioning.
According to Schoofs et al. (2008), there has been a slower
reaction time and lower accuracy rates due to social stress in
male subjects. There has not been research conduction on the
cognitive development in terms of reaction time from
depression that resulted from a heartbreak and that is what this
study will be focusing on. Comment by user: Mention the
specific gender gap that you will be addressing in your work.
Comment by user: Was there any research on female
subjects?
Research Questions and HypothesesThis study’s primary
purpose is to explore if depression that is a result from
heartbreak is related to having an effect for the individual’s

cognitive development, more specifically in their reaction time.
The primary research question and hypothesis which guides this
study are: Comment by user: I am somehow lost in this
statement. Research Questions
time in 14-24-year-old’s. Ha:There is a statistically significant
time in 14-24-year old’s. Nature of the Study
This quantitative correlational study is aimed at
identifying the relationship between depression (from
heartbreak) and reaction time in 14-24 yearold’s. The Beck
Depression Inventory Scale (Streiner, 2002) and the Everyday
Cognitive instrument (Farias et al., 2008) will be conducted by
using an online format to evaluate the relationship.
Comment by user: State the relationship tested
Significance of the Study
Having an understanding on how depression from a
heartbreak can affect an individual’s reaction time in
individuals 14-24 years of age is crucial for developing
preventions, interventions, and services to help decrease their
chances of cognitive impairment. This study can provide
information that can help individuals with their mental health,
provide coping skills for depression, and give a better
understanding as to why individuals may be struggling with
their reaction times. This can also give mental health
professionals the knowledge to prepare interventions and have
more of an understanding of cognitive development for
depressed individuals from having their heart broken. The
intention of this study is to add to the literature already
available about the effects of depression from heart break. This
study will allow individuals to participate in treatment’s since
they now are aware.

References
Bale, T. L. (2006). Stress sensitivity and the development of
affective disorders.
Horm. Behav. 50, 529–533. doi:
10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.033
Fischer, A. H. & Manstead, A. S. R. (2016). Social Functions of
Emotion and Emotion Regulation. In L. Feldman Barrett, M.
Lewis, & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.),
Handbook of Emotions, 4th Ed.
(pp. 424-439). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Izzati, S., &Takwin, B. (2018, July). The Effects of Written
Emotional Disclosure to Subjective Distress and Mood on
Individuals Experiencing Heartbreak. In
Universitas Indonesia International Psychology
Symposium for Undergraduate Research (UIPSUR 2017) (pp.
217-223). Atlantis Press.
Rose, E. J., and Ebmeier, K. P. (2006). Pattern of impaired
working memory during major depression.
J. Affect. Disord. 90, 149–161. doi:
10.1016/j.jad.2005.11.003
Schoofs, D., Preuß, D., and Wolf, O. T. (2008). Psychosocial
stress induces working memory impairments in an N-back
paradigm.
Psychoneuroendocrinology 33, 643–653. doi:
10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.02.004
Streiner, D. L. (2002). Breaking up is hard to do: the heartbreak
of dichotomizing continuous data.

The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,
47(3), 262-266.
2011;64: 52–60. pmid:21606659
2011;64: 52–60. pmid:21606659
Verhallen, A. M., Alonso‐Martínez, S., Renken, R. J., Marsman,
J. B. C., & Ter Horst, G. J. (2021). Depressive symptom
trajectory following romantic relationship breakup and effects
of rumination, neuroticism and cognitive control.
Stress and Health.
Horst, G. J. (2019). Romantic relationship breakup: An
experimental model to study effects of stress on depression (-
like) symptoms.
PloS one,
14(5), e0217320.
Horst, G. J. (2021). Working memory alterations after a
romantic relationship breakup.
Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience,
15, 657264.

2Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak)

2Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak)

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