1. Runninghead: EXPLORING ATTRIBUTION THEORY 1
Exploring Attribution Theory: The Importance and Determinants of Varying Attribution
Belief Systems
Tony Weeda
Social Emotions Lab
University of California, Santa Barbara

2. EXPLORING ATTRIBUTION THEORY 2
Exploring Attribution Theory: The Importance and Determinants of Varying Attribution
Belief Systems
This paper seeks to understand the importance of individual attribution style, and
its influence on an individual’s interpretation of negative and positive events. Fritz
Heider first introduced Attribution Theory in 1958. At this time, Heider utilized this
theory to help understand how individuals interpret human behavior (Encyclopedia of
Social Psychology 2007). Since then, attribution theory has provided the foundation for
many researchers’ pursuits. This theory has increased the understanding of causal
attributions, and corresponding explanatory styles, role in determining academic
achievement, long-term health, immune functioning, and mental health (Kinderman &
Bentall 1997; Nezu, Nezu & Nezu 1986; Perry & Magnusson 1989; Peterson & Barrett
1987; Peterson, Seligman & Vaillant 1988; Segerstrom, Taylor, Kemeny, Reed &
Visscher 1996). Also, how we acquire these belief systems may be linked to an
individual’s culture, religion, and/or social phenomenon (Encyclopedia of Social
Psychology 2007; Li, Johnson, Cohen, Williams, Knowles & Chen 2012; Menon, Morris,
Chiu & Hong 1999). Ultimately, our attribution style shapes how we respond to
environmental cues. How we interpret these environmental cues may shape our future.
Literature Review
Influence of Attribution Styles
Perry & Magnusson (1989) noticed that students engage in certain strategies to
handle academic failure and success. They believed how success and failure is interpreted
may be determined by a student’s casual attribution belief system. This belief system was
determined by the student’s interpretation of the event’s locus (internal/external), stability

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(stable/unstable), and control (controllable/uncontrollable). To illustrate, a student
receives a poor grade on an exam in a difficult cognitive neuroscience course. Perry &
Magnusson (1989) argued the student’s interpretation of this failure feedback would
determine later academic achievement. For example, if the student interprets this failure
due to ability (internal, stable, uncontrollable), then reduced future effort is expected.
This belief system has been identified as an explanatory style (how an individual
interprets negative events (Peterson & Barrett 1987)) that may lead to academic learned
helplessness.
Peterson & Barrett (1987) explored the use of explanatory styles among incoming
college freshman. Of interest was the negative explanatory style internal, stable, and
global. Citing previous literature, they argued this explanatory style might develop a form
of learned helplessness with regards to academic performance. Thus, a negative
explanatory style would determine a student’s poor academic performance. To test this,
Peterson & Barrett (1987) sampled 87 incoming freshman. The freshman filled out
questionnaires to determine explanatory style and the researchers collected objective data
(i.e. SAT scores, GPA at end of year, and number of visits to academic advisors). The
results of the study matched Peterson & Barrett (1987) predictions. Compared to students
with external, unstable, and specific explanatory styles, students with negative
explanatory styles had poorer academic performance at the end of their first year.
In a 35-year longitudinal study, Peterson, Seligman & Vaillant (1988) wanted to
explore the role explanatory styles played on influencing long-term health. Specifically,
they were interested in individuals who interpret negative events as stable, global, and
internal. Their sample consisted of 99 graduates of Harvard University from 1942-1944.

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Peterson, Seligman & Vaillant (1988) coded open-ended questionnaires that the
participants completed at age 25. To determine attribution style, responses were coded for
participant’s causal explanation of negative events. Following this, health was rated at 8
different ages using objective measures, i.e. physical exams, X-rays, blood tests.
Peterson, Seligman & Vaillant (1988) found men with negative attribution style at 25 had
poorer health outcomes later in life. Although, the distinction was made this was not
indicative of short-term health. Nonetheless, this provides solid evidence for the
influence of attribution style on long-term health outcomes.
In an 18-month longitudinal study, Segerstrom, Taylor, Kemeny, Reed &
Visscher (1996) sought to understand how attributions affected the immune response of
HIV infected gay and bisexual men. Similar to previous research, they identified
individual attributions as internal/external, stable/unstable, and
controllable/uncontrollable. Segerstrom et al. (1996) argued the negative attribution style
(internal, stable, uncontrollable) posed an increased risk for negative health patterns.
Therefore, they predicted this negative attribution style would lead to a CD4 decline
among HIV-positive men. Segerstrom et al. (1996) found those who made negative
internal evaluations about the self had significant decreases in CD4 levels. This supported
their prediction that negative attribution style would lead to a lowered immune
functioning.
Nezu, Nezu & Nezu (1986) were interested in identifying a link between
depressed individuals and attribution style. Their sample consisted of 134 undergraduate
students. The students completed questionnaires to identify depressive symptoms and
attribution style. Nezu, Nezu & Nezu (1986) discovered a strong correlation among

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students who possessed a negative attribution style and depression. For example, students
who rated higher on distress were more likely to possess internal attributions for negative
events. Additionally, Kinderman & Bentall (1997) found similar results among patients
receiving treatment for clinical depression. In this study, they found depressed
individuals consistently made internal casual attributions when encountering negative
events. This research provides evidence that attributions may be linked to negative
mental health outcomes.
Determinants of Attribution Style
Cultural factors may provide some understanding to attribution processes among
different individuals. For example, in Western culture emphasis is placed on the
individual. This individualistic ideology places emphasis on internal characteristics that
stress autonomy and uniqueness. In comparison, Eastern cultures emphasis the group and
value interdependence. Thus, collectivistic influenced individuals place more emphasis
on external stimulus when interpreting cues from the environment (Encyclopedia of
Social Psychology 2007) Therefore, when these individuals encounter events, positive
and negative, responses may be culturally conditioned.
Menon, Morris, Chiu & Hong (1999) wanted to explore the difference among
cultures when making inferences about environmental cues. In one of their studies, they
presented participants with a vignette that presented a situation that incurred negative
outcomes. This negative event was the result of both individual and organizational
outcomes. Menon, Morris, Chiu & Hong (1999) were interested in the difference between
Western students (United States) and Eastern students (Chinese) in identifying the cause
of the negative event. They predicted the Western sample would place more focus on the

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individual, and the Eastern sample the organization. The results matched the predictions.
US students placed more focus on the internal attributes of the individual, where as
Chinese students placed emphasis on the group. These results support the idea that
cultural influence may play a significant role in interpreting different events.
Li, Johnson, Cohen, Williams, Knowles & Chen (2012) provide evidence that
religious beliefs may affect attribution belief systems. They hypothesized that a
Protestant sample would incur more internal attributions, compared to a Catholic sample.
Li et al. (2012) argued the Protestant religions “emphasis on the soul” places more focus
on dispositional internal characteristics. In the manipulation, they presented a vignette
that was intended to identify attribution style. This was followed by a questionnaire
intended to identify differences among internal and external attributions. They (Li et al.
2012) found Protestants were more likely to make internal attributions towards the
protagonist in the vignette than Catholics. These results further support the idea that
cultural variables play an important role in determining attribution belief systems.
The Actor Observer Asymmetry may help explain how individuals perceive
situations and interactions. The basic premise of this idea is actors will identify
situational influences to explain negative events. In comparison, observers will make
dispositional inferences (Encyclopedia of Social Psychology 2007). To illustrate, Paul
(actor) is giving a presentation on his research proposal to a group of peers. Paul has been
up all night preparing and is lacking sleep. His presentation is organized, but his lack of
sleep has influenced his performance. Paul brushes it off due to lack of sleep (situational).
From his peer’s perspective (observers), Paul appears to be disheveled and his speaking
skills, subpar. Paul must not be good at presenting (dispositional). This illustration may

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help us understand the positive attribution style. Paul understands that his performance
was based on lack of sleep (external) and he generally sleeps well (unstable). Therefore,
his positive attribution style helps him to make a healthy interpretation event. Thus, this
phenomenon may provide some insight into how positive attribution style operates in
daily life.
Conclusion and Future Directions
How we interpret situations is important in many different ways and has
implications in every facet of our life. The focus of this paper has been on the positive
and negative outcomes of different attribution styles. Foremost, perceiving negative
events in external, unstable, and controllable terms has positive outcomes, i.e. health and
increased immune functioning (Peterson, Seligman & Vaillant 1988; Segerstrom et al.
1996). However, possessing a negative attribution style can have very serious
consequences, i.e. poor mental health, reduced academic achievement, and shorter life
span (Kinderman & Bentall 1997; Nezu, Nezu & Nezu 1986; Peterson & Barrett 1987;
Peterson, Seligman & Vaillant 1988). Ultimately, from this evidence, we observe
attribution and/or explanatory styles may lead to engrained belief systems that possibly
hinder the potential of individuals.
From research, we understand that belief systems may be acquired through
cultural, religious, or phenomena channels (Encyclopedia of Social Psychology 2007; Li
et al. 2012; Menon, Morris, Chiu & Hong 1999). However, it may be possible to change
these negative attribution styles. Further research may investigate the use of vignettes to
promote more positive attribution styles. For example, encouraging individuals with
negative attribution styles to adapt more positive belief systems may produce beneficial

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outcomes. Ultimately, the changing of negative attribution styles may help change the
lives of many individuals for the better.

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