1. Running head: Middle Adulthood 1
Abstract
Middle adulthood is a time of change. During middle adulthood, the period from 40 to 65, there
are slow declines in health and members in this group are more prone to diseases. Middle adults
of higher socioeconomic status have less incidents of disease, and middle adults of lower
socioeconomic have more incidents of disease. Changes in sexuality occur however, these
changes are not considered as significant as once thought. Despite declines in some areas of
intellectual activity, middle adults maintain a high degree of cognitive competence. The
normative-crises and life events models provide insights into how middle adults live their lives.
However, the belief that many middle adults will experience a midlife crisis filled with fear,
turmoil, and stagnation is not support by research. This paper presents data which suggests that
for many middle adulthood is a time of mellowing and enjoying life.

2. Middle Adulthood2
Middle adulthood is a time of transition; however, there is more than one viewpoint
concerning personality development during middle adulthood (Bode et al., 2007, p. 42): these
viewpoints are currently known, according to Feldman, as the normative-crises versus life events
models. The traditional view of development, the normative-crisis model, focuses on a set of
stages associated with “…age-related crises” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511), in contrast, the life events
model view indicates that events in middle adulthood influences personality development
(Feldman, 2011, p.511). Middle adults can develop proactive reactions to events (Bode et al.,
2007, p.42).
During middle adulthood, the time period from 40 to 65, there are slow declines in health;
members in this group are, according to Feldman, more prone to diseases (2011). Feldman tells
us:
“(m)iddle adulthood is generally a healthy period, but people become more
susceptible to … arthritis, diabetes, and hypertension, and they have a higher
death rate than before. However, the death rate among people in middle adulthood
in the United States has been steadily declining” (2011, p. 506).
Middle adults of higher socioeconomic status have fewer incidents of disease and middle
adults of lower socioeconomic have more incidents of disease (Feldman 2011). People gain
weight, decline in height and strength, and the lens of the eyes change causing diminished night
vision; middle adults, also, experience declines in near vision and awareness of three dimensions
(Feldman 2011). Also, cases of glaucoma, one of the diseases that causes blindness, increases
during middle adulthood; hearing ability also declines, this involves being unable to pick some
high-frequency sounds and some loss of “sound localization” (Feldman, 2011, p.505). Middle
adults often have increased reaction times and slower reactions “…are largely offset in complex

3. Middle Adulthood3
tasks by increased skill due to years of task rehearsal” (Feldman, 2011, p. 505). Changes in
sexuality occur , among middle adults, according Feldman, however, these changes are not
considered as significant as once thought (Feldman 2011).
According to Feldman, despite declines in some areas of intellectual activity, middle adults
maintain a high degree of cognitive competence (Feldman, 2011, p. 506). Moreover, “(t)hose
who divide intelligence into two main types-fluid and crystallized-generally find that fluid
intelligence slowly declines through middle adulthood while crystallized intelligence holds
steady or even improves” (Feldman, 2011, p. 506). Aging does not appear to lead to declines in
short term or long term memory; middle adults may have problems with how they map, access ,
store, and retrieve information middle adults:
“…interpret, store, and recall information in the form of memory schemas,
which organize related bit of information, set up expectation, and add meaning to
phenomena. Schemas are based on prior experiences and facilitate interpretation of new
situations and recall of information that fits the schema” (Feldman, 2011, p. 506). Mnemonic
aids can help middle adults enhance their memories: “by forcing them to pay attention to
information as they store it (the keyword technique), to use cues to enable retrieval (the encoding
specificity phenomenon), or to practice information retrieval (rehearsal)” (Feldman, 2011, p.
506).
Moreover, according to Allemand, after testing 445 middle aged adults, 42-46, and 420
older adults, 60-64, results indicated that during middle adulthood average changes in personality
occur, and each person changes differently (Allemand, Zimprich, et al., 2007). In context of
the normative-crisis model, Erik Erikson, who studied with the father of psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud, views middle adulthood as a stage of psychosocial development which

4. Middle Adulthood4
occurs, according Martin, as the result of the blending of two energies: “…each stage of
development presented a unique challenge or crisis brought about by the combining forces of
both physiological change and psychosocial need” (Martin, 2008, p. 123).
Erikson’s theory views personality in context of fixed stages which are considered
universal and one must successfully complete one stage at a time; Michelle Martin, a well-
known author and human service professional tells us that “(t)he successful navigation of each
stage is dependent the preceding stages” (2008, p. 124). Therefore, for example, people who
failed to develop an understanding of stage one’s basic trust would have a very limited
understanding of stage two’s personnel autonomy; their limited understanding causes them to
fail to evolve beyond stage one to stage two successfully (Martin 2011). Erikson seeks to
predict a series of stages which are connected to crises which occur from birth to death: “(t)hese
stages are related to specific crises in which an individual goes through an intense period of
questioning and even psychological turmoil” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511). Research indicates that
those who are successful in going through the stages may have a greater sense of life having
more meaning (Hill, Brandenberger, et al., 2010). Research also suggests that crises during
middle adulthood enhance problem solving skills (Chang, D’Zurilla, et al., 2009).
According to Erikson, middle adulthood is the generativity-versus-stagnation stage; during
this time, people focus on “…making a personal contribution to family, work, and society as a
whole, or in stagnation…focusing on the triviality of their own activity, people may come to feel
that they have made limited contributions to the world, that their presence has counted for little”
(Feldman, 2011, p. 511). Critics believe that the normative-crisis models are no longer helpful
because they are outdated: “(t)hey arose at a time when society had fairly rigid and uniform roles
for people. Traditionally, men were expected to work to support a family; women were expected

5. Middle Adulthood5
to stay at home, be housewives, and take of the children” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511). Moreover,
according to some theorists, people today do not age through fixed patterns: some people marry
late, some people never marry, others live together without marrying, and some people marry
and decide not to have children (Feldman, 2011). At 21, a woman may have her first child and
experience the same psychological changes as a woman of 39 having her first child; “(t)he result
is two women, despite their very different ages, share certain commonalities of personality
development” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511).
In context of the life events model, Daniel Levinson, an adult developmental theorist, wrote
two well-known books: The Seasons of a Man’s Life and The Seasons of a Woman’s Life.
Levinson indicates that “adults do not continue to grow and develop on an age-related
timetable…Levinson also believed that individuals progress through periods of stability that are
followed by shorter stages of transition” (Martin, 2011, p. 124). Levinson, also, indicates that
middle adults may experience a midlife crisis, and this crisis is experienced as a state of
uncertainty and indecision caused by people realizing that their life is not forever:
“(l)ooking toward the past, they may seek to define what went wrong and
look for ways to correct their past mistakes. The midlife crisis, then, is a
painful and tumultuous period of questioning” (Feldman, 2011, p. 512).
Levinson believes many middle adults will experience a midlife crisis (Feldman 2011).
Robert Feldman, the author of Development Across the Life Span, a popular graduate level
textbook, believes Levinson’s view, that most middle adults will have a midlife crisis, is based
on research that is limited;
“…his initial theorizing was based on a group of only 40 men, and his
work with women was carried out years later and once again on only a

6. Middle Adulthood6
small sample. Furthermore, Levinson overstated the consistency and generality
of the patterns he found in the samples he used to derive his theory” (Feldman, 2011,
p. 513).
According to Feldman, there is little evidence supporting a large number of middle adults
having a midlife crisis (Feldman 2011). Most middle adults report that they are not experiencing
a midlife crisis and research indicates that, for many middle adults, this may be a peaceful time;
“(m)any middle-aged people find that their careers have blossomed…and far
from being in a crisis, they may feel quite content with their lot in life. Rather
than looking toward the future, they focus on the present, seeking to maximize
their ongoing involvement with, family, friends, and other social groups”
(Feldman, 2011, p. 513).
Feldman tells us research indicates that middle adults, who feel negative about how they
managed their past, will work hard to make positive changes to improve their lives and “… end
up better off psychologically” (Feldman, 2011, p. 513).
Feldman points out that research indicate that middle adults feel younger than their age:
“…most people feel younger than they actually are” (2011, p. 513). Research also shows that
what people believe about the midlife crisis is not supported by evidence:
“ (i)n short, the evidence for a midlife crisis experienced by most people is no more
compelling than the evidence for a stormy adolescence… Yet, like that notion, the idea that
the midlife crisis is nearly universal seems unusually well entrenched in “common
wisdom” (Feldman, 2011, p. 513).
Those who do experience turmoil during middle age draw a lot of attention to themselves
and are more remembered by observers. For example, Feldman tells us:

7. Middle Adulthood7
a 40-year-old man who divorces his wife, replaces his sedate Volvo station
wagon with a red Saab convertible, and marries a much younger woman is likely
to be more conspicuous than a happily married man who remains with his wife (and
Taurus) throughout middle adulthood. As a consequence, we are more likely to notice
and recall marital difficulties than the lack of them” ( 2011, p.513).
During our life time, both Erikson and Levinson suggest that our personality experiences many
changes and these changes occur in patterns; “Erikson’s stages and Levinson’s seasons describe
set patterns of change” (Feldman, 2011, p. 515). However, research indicates that
“..at least in terms of individual traits, personality is quite stable and
continuous over the life span. Developmental psychologists Paul Costa
and Robert McCrae find remarkable stability in particular traits. Even-tempered
20-year-olds are even-tempered at age 75; affectionate 25-year-olds become
affectionate 50-year-olds; and disorganized 26-year-olds are still disorganized at age 60”
(Feldman, 2011, p. 515).
The empty nest syndrome is also time of transition for many middle adults. The empty nest
syndrome refers to the sadness, depression, worry, and sense of aloneness some parents
experience when the kids grow up and leave home (Feldman 2011). This can be a difficult time
for stay at home mothers who focus most of their time on taking care of the children, and little
research is devoted to the empty nest effects on fathers (Feldman 2011). 25% of fathers, in one
of the studies that did occur, experienced sadness in context of not having more time to spend
with their children (Feldman 2011). According to research, the stage of motherhood is not easy,
and data indicates that many mothers feel a great sense of freedom when this stage is completed

8. Middle Adulthood8
(Feldman 2011). Research also indicates that, for many moms and dads, the sense of loss and
sadness they experience when the kids grow up and leave is temporary (Feldman 2011).
Moreover, Feldman tells us, that after the kids leave, mothers have more time and choices:
they can go back to school, start a new career, and become more active in their church and
community (2011). Feldman also suggests, that after the kids go, there’s more time for mom and
dad to be alone together which can lead to greater happiness for each partner (2011). Research
indicates that children may need to return home after leaving: mothers understand, but fathers
may have to adjust (Feldman 2011). When the kids return home after graduating from college,
fathers need to try to be more understanding; they should realize that the kids are back because
the job market is in a difficult state (Feldman 2011).
In conclusion, each of the models and research data provide insights into how middle adults
live their lives. However these models and research data do not provide absolute answers.
Middle adulthood is a time of change; however, the belief that many middle adults will
experience a midlife crisis filled with fear, turmoil, and stagnation is not support by research.
Research indicates that for many middle adulthood is a time of mellowing and enjoying life.
If changes need to be made, they happen based on proactive efforts. The proactive approach is
also helpful when many middle adults must adjust to declines in body functioning and health.

9. Middle Adulthood9
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