Invitation to the Life Span Read chapters 13 and 14. Objectives: Describe psychosocial changes in adulthood. Describe and analyze personality theories that apply to adulthood. Analyze the physical and cognitive changes that occur during late adulthood. Adulthood and Late Adulthood Introduction The last module began an examination of adulthood. This module will finish the study of adulthood and begin a look at late adulthood. Psychosocial Development in Adulthood Erikson's seventh stage of generativity vs. stagnation occurs during this stage. Being generative means truly caring about the next generation (e.g., being a parent, teacher, coach, or conservationist) (Boeree, 2006b). The idea of a mid-life crisis has been a popular notion since the 1970s (see Berger's description of Levinson's research on page 459), but very little evidence for it exists. Modern personality theorists have backed off the word crisis, which implies a do-or-die decision point, and instead have started using terms like marker events, turning points, or passages (Sheehy, 1976). Abraham Maslow created another prominent theory of personality development (examine his five stages of the hierarchy of needs in Berger, 2010, Figure 13.1, p. 457). The lowest level, physiological needs, must be satisfied first, followed by the others in ascending order. Because people spend so much time satisfying the four lowest needs, very few reach the highest stage of self-actualization, where people live up to their potential; at one point, Maslow estimated the percentage of self-actualizers to be around 2% (Boeree, 2006a). Numerous longitudinal studies have shown evidence of considerable stability and continuity in personality across the adult years (see Berger's discussion of Costa and McCrae's research). Robert Havighurst (cited in Newman & Newman, 2010) states that adults in their 20s and 30s must face four developmental tasks. Tasks 1 and 2, marriage and childbearing, are affected by societal expectations (called the social clock). The probability of divorce hits its peak 2 to 4 years after marriage. Qualities for a successful marriage include similarity in personal characteristics, trust, sensitivity, and adjustment (including a mutually satisfying sexual relationship, economic factors, sleep patterns, food patterns, and toilet habits) (Kimmel, cited in Newman & Newman, 2010). Task 3 involves work, and includes four components: having technical skills, handling authority relationships, coping with unique demands of the job, and establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Task 4 involves establishing a lifestyle that is compatible for both spouses (as well as dealing with constraints placed on the marriage by the children) (Newman & Newman, 2010). For adults in their 40s and 50s, Havighurst (cited in Newman and Newman, 2010) discusses three crucial developmental tasks. Task 1 involves managing a household, including the following sub-tasks: 1) decision-making (about fina.

1. Invitation to the Life Span
Read chapters 13 and 14.
Objectives:
Describe psychosocial changes in adulthood.
Describe and analyze personality theories that apply to
adulthood.
Analyze the physical and cognitive changes that occur during
late adulthood.
Adulthood and Late Adulthood
Introduction
The last module began an examination of adulthood. This
module will finish the study of adulthood and begin a look at
late adulthood.
Psychosocial Development in Adulthood
Erikson's seventh stage of generativity vs. stagnation occurs
during this stage. Being generative means truly caring about the
next generation (e.g., being a parent, teacher, coach, or
conservationist) (Boeree, 2006b). The idea of a mid-life crisis
has been a popular notion since the 1970s (see Berger's
description of Levinson's research on page 459), but very little
evidence for it exists. Modern personality theorists have backed
off the word crisis, which implies a do-or-die decision point,
and instead have started using terms like marker events, turning
points, or passages (Sheehy, 1976).
Abraham Maslow created another prominent theory of
personality development (examine his five stages of the
hierarchy of needs in Berger, 2010, Figure 13.1, p. 457). The
lowest level, physiological needs, must be satisfied first,
followed by the others in ascending order. Because people
spend so much time satisfying the four lowest needs, very few
reach the highest stage of self-actualization, where people live
up to their potential; at one point, Maslow estimated the
percentage of self-actualizers to be around 2% (Boeree, 2006a).

2. Numerous longitudinal studies have shown evidence of
considerable stability and continuity in personality across the
adult years (see Berger's discussion of Costa and McCrae's
research).
Robert Havighurst (cited in Newman & Newman, 2010) states
that adults in their 20s and 30s must face four developmental
tasks. Tasks 1 and 2, marriage and childbearing, are affected by
societal expectations (called the social clock). The probability
of divorce hits its peak 2 to 4 years after marriage. Qualities for
a successful marriage include similarity in personal
characteristics, trust, sensitivity, and adjustment (including a
mutually satisfying sexual relationship, economic factors, sleep
patterns, food patterns, and toilet habits) (Kimmel, cited in
Newman & Newman, 2010). Task 3 involves work, and includes
four components: having technical skills, handling authority
relationships, coping with unique demands of the job, and
establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Task 4
involves establishing a lifestyle that is compatible for both
spouses (as well as dealing with constraints placed on the
marriage by the children) (Newman & Newman, 2010).
For adults in their 40s and 50s, Havighurst (cited in Newman
and Newman, 2010) discusses three crucial developmental
tasks. Task 1 involves managing a household, including the
following sub-tasks: 1) decision-making (about finances,
shelter, education, daily activities, vacations and recreations,
social life, and child-rearing activities), 2) future planning
(including short-term, intermediate, and long-range goals), 3)
assessing needs and abilities of household members, 4)
assigning responsibilities (single-parent power, both parents'
power, or group power), 5) organizing time, and 6) establishing
relationships with other organized social structures (e.g.,
community, religious, and political groups). Task 2 examines
the different stages of child-rearing: 1) pre-parental (whether or
not to have children), 2) childbearing and postnatal years (both
adults are tense and exhausted, but they must convey love and
trust to the infant), 3) years in which children are toddlers

3. (parents must learn self-control, as children assert their
rudimentary authority), 4) years in which children are in
elementary and middle school (parents act as chauffeurs,
secretaries, and buffers between their children and the outside
world; parents may join PTA), 5) years in which the children
are in high school (in these very trying years, parents must give
support as well as freedom), 6) years in which the children have
just left home ("empty nest" years, in which parents must
redefine their roles), 7) years in which children begin their own
households (parents must accept new people into the family,
including the new son- or daughter-in-law and in-laws), and 8)
grandparenthood (see Module 8). The original research on the
empty nest syndrome reported parental sadness when the last
child left. Today's research shows that marital satisfaction
increases after the last child has left (the upswing hypothesis)
(Santrock, 2009; Berger, 2010, Table 13.2, p. 469). Task 3
includes managing a career, including being a manager or
mentor as well as an employee (adapted from Newman &
Newman, 2010). Researchers explore both the intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards associated with work. In addition, the many
alternatives of working schedules (e.g., flextime, job sharing,
and telecommuting) are also factors that affect job satisfaction
and productivity (Berger, 2010).
Coping with stress is essential (see Module 6 for the research on
PNI). Lazarus (in Berger, 2010) discovered that problem-
focused coping techniques (designed to reduce the problem) are
generally more effective than emotion-focused coping strategies
(designed to reduce anxiety, but not the problem). Social
support provides an important buffer from stress; this perhaps
contributes to the fact that married persons live longer than
singles (Santrock, 2009). Sarason reported that the chief
stressor for men is work, whereas for women, the top two are
health and family (Santrock, 2009).
Religion is important for the majority of Americans. Allport
divided people into two categories: those with intrinsic (or
devout) faith, and those with extrinsic (or superficial) faith.

4. James Fowler (cited in Hood, Hill, & Spilka, 2009) constructed
a theory of religious development, which consists of seven
stages. 1) In primal faith (infancy), the child is beginning to
trust others. 2) intuitive-projective faith (early childhood) is
where the child is becoming aware of the sacred, prohibitions,
and morality. 3) In mythical/literal faith (elementary school
years), the child is thinking more logically about faith matters;
religious beliefs and symbols are accepted literally. 4)
synthetic/conventional faith (early adolescence) is where the
teenager is thinking more abstractly, which can lead to a desire
for a personal relationship with God. 5) With individuative/
reflective faith (late adolescence/early adulthood), the person
can critically examine his/her values and beliefs. 6) conjunctive
faith (middle adulthood or beyond) is where the person
appreciates that truth is both multidimensional and
interdependent. 7) In universalizing faith (unspecified age),
only a few people (e.g., Mother Teresa, Gandhi, Martin Luther
King) arrive at this last stage; this stage involves a commitment
of love and justice for all people, and overcoming oppression
and violence. See Berger's discussion of Fowler's theory on
pages 448-449 of the textbook.
Physical Development in Late Adulthood
This last stage of life (roughly age 60 to death) abounds with
negative stereotypes and prejudice (called ageism). However, as
the "Baby Boomers" (those born between 1946 and 1964) are
starting to reach retirement, our society is paying more attention
to this stage (Quadagno, 2005). The fields of gerontology
(scientific study of the aged) and geriatrics (the medical
equivalent) are increasing. Some researchers have even
speculated that this last period is perhaps two or even three
stages (e.g., 60 to 75, "young-olds," 75 to 85, "old-olds," and
85+, "oldest olds") (Berger, 2010). Interestingly, while average
life expectancy has increased by about 30 years over the last
century (currently 75.4 for men and 80.7 for women), the
maximum life span still hovers around 120 to 125 years

5. (Santrock, 2009; Quadagno, 2005).
Numerous theories exist as to why people age. Microbiological
theories include speculations about intracellular changes, such
as mutations in DNA and RNA, autoimmunity, and the increase
of cellular garbage, free radicals, and toxins. Another theory,
cellular clock theory, holds that cells can only divide about 75
to 80 times. A theory generating a lot of current interest is
mitochondrial theory, which holds that aging is due to the
destruction of mitochondria, the cell's chief energy source.
Macrobiological theories point to a decrease in one's organ
reserve and an increase in homeostatic imbalance and stress-
related hormones (Santrock, 2009).
Several physical changes occur in this stage, some of which
occur in everyone (primary aging) and others that occur due to
poor health and/or genetic factors (secondary aging). The
elderly person thinks and moves more slowly, resulting in
increased cautiousness. The skin becomes drier and loses its
elasticity. Sensory acuity diminishes in sensitivity of touch,
hearing, and vision (in the form of cataracts, macular
degeneration,and/or glaucoma) (see Berger, 2010, Table 14.1, p.
503). Gums recede, and loss of teeth may change one's facial
appearance. Hair color changes to gray and white, and wrinkles
abound. The most common physical complaint is arthritis. One
type of arthritis, osteoporosis, the loss of bone calcium, can
become a serious health threat, especially in women
(Silverstone & Hyman, 1982). The leading causes of death are
cardiovascular disease (including myocardial infarction, or
heart attack, and angina pectoris, or severe pain over midchest),
cancer (an uncontrolled growth of a tissue or portion of an
organ, which may be benign or malignant), and stroke (death of
part of the brain). Other common diseases of the elderly include
1) AlzheimerDisease, an incurable degeneration of the cortex,
causing personality changes and loss of memory, 2)
atherosclerosis, a narrowing and closing of the arteries
supplying blood to the brain, 3) congestive heart failure, a

6. weakened heart muscle, 4) hypertension, high blood pressure,
which can lead to arterial disease, and 5) Type II diabetes, a
deficiency of insulin or a disturbance in the action of insulin
(Silverstone & Hyman, 1982, pp. 340-344). For the majority of
older adults, proper nutrition, regular exercise, and physical
activity will slow down the deteriorative effects of aging
(Santrock, 2009).
Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood
One way to test cognitive abilities is to use selective attention
and divided attention tasks. Selective attention is the ability to
focus on a particular stimulus, among competing ones, while
divided attention is the ability to shift back and forth between
two competing stimuli. Elderly adults can perform selective
attention tasks, but have significant problems with the latter.
Mnemonics techniques are good strategies to help senior adults
memorize materials. Elaboration is another good strategy,
although senior adults generally need more time for a technique
like this. Recognition memory (e.g., performance on a multiple-
choice test) is usually superior to recall memory (e.g.,
performance on an essay test). Riegel and Riegel have found
that often, there is a drop in intellectual ability about 5 years
before death (the terminal drop hypothesis) (Santrock, 2009).
There are numerous examples of elderly accomplishments: as
examples, Sophocles wrote his first play at age 75, Freud wrote
his last book at age 83, Franklin invented the bifocal lens at age
78, Wright completed the Guggenheim museum at age 91, and
Michelangelo painted the Sistine Chapel from ages 71 to 89
(Berger, 2010). Taylor (1974) found that a different type of
creativity is seen in the elderly; he termed it emergentive
creativity, a creation of totally new or original ideas.
Productivity remains high in late adulthood, and older workers
have lower rates of accidents and job turnover, compared to
young adults. Nevertheless, the problems of ageism and
obsolescence (work skills becoming obsolete) occur.
Depression is a significant problem in late adulthood. The rate

7. of suicide (25%) is higher for those over age 65 than for any
other stage of life. One's spirituality is often a comfort in
helping the person adjust to all of the changes occurring in this
stage (Santrock, 2009).
Conclusion
In this module, psychosocial development in adulthood was
examined and late adulthood was touched upon. In the last
module, additional research on late adulthood will be examined.
Some of the issues that will be discussed include retirement,
grandparenting, life satisfaction, widowhood/ widowerhood, and
frail elderly. The topic of death and dying will also be
discussed, with a focus on definitions of death, near-death
experiences, theories of death, dying, and bereavement, and
hospice care.
References
Berger, K. S. (2010). Invitation to the life span. New York:
Worth Publishers.
Boeree, C. G. (2006a). Abraham Maslow. Retrieved August 23,
2010 from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.html.
Boeree, C. G. (2006b). Erik Erikson. Retrieved August 23, 2010
from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/erikson.html.
Hood, R. W., Hill, P. C., & Spilka, B. (2009). The psychology
of religion (4th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Newman, P. R., & Newman, B. (2010). Development through
life: A psychosocial approach (10th ed). Boston: Wadsworth.
Quadagno, J. (2005). Aging and the life course (3rd ed.).
Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Santrock, J. W. (2009). Life-span development (12th ed.).

8. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Sheehy, G. (1976). Passages. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co.,
Inc.
Silverstone, B., & Hyman, H. K. (1982). You and your aging
parent. New York:Pantheon Books.
Taylor, I. (1974). Creativity and aging. In E. Pfeiffer (Ed.),
Successful aging: A conference report. Durham, NC: Center for
the Study of Aging and Development.
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