Write An Essay On The Relationship Between Cellular...

Write An Essay On The Relationship Between Cellular...
Cellular respiration makes ATP for animal cells, and photosynthesis makes sugars for plant cells.
Respiration starts with glucose undergoing the reactions of glycolysis in the cytosol. The net
outcomes of glycolysis are two ATP molecules, two NADH molecules, and two pyruvate molecules.
The mechanism for making ATP in glycolysis is called substrate–level phosphorylation. The
pyruvate molecules left at the end of glycolysis go on to the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria. At the
end of the Krebs cycle, all of the carbon atoms of the glucose have been released as carbon dioxide,
and more of the energy that was in the glucose molecule has been saved in the form of ATP, NADH,
and FADH2. The last part of respiration is called oxidative phosphorylation, which also happens in
the mitochondria. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is why you have to breathe. The electron transport chain also moves protons into the
mitochondria, and the resulting gradient in proton concentration is used to make more ATP by
chemiosmosis. The overall yield for each glucose molecule in cellular respiration is 36 to 38 ATP.
Photosynthesis is something like the reverse of respiration, but it happens in the chloroplasts instead
of in the mitochondria. Photosynthesis starts with an electron transport chain. The energy to drive
electrons along this transport chain comes from the absorption of sunlight instead of from NADH
and FADH2 as in respiration. The electrons for the photosynthetic electron transport chain come
from water, which is split at photosystem I to make O2, protons, and electrons for electron transport.
More sunlight energy is absorbed and used to boost the electron energy at photosytem II, and then
finally the electrons go on to NADP+ to make
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Chemistry: Cellular Repartition
Cellular repartition is a wonderful thing first there is glycolysis,which is the splitting of glucose into
two 3–carbon molecules. Next there is the preparatory reaction, which divides each 3–carbon
molecule into a 2–carbon molecule and CO2. Afterwards there is the citric acid also known as the
Krebs cycle, which produces CO2, NADH, FADH2, and ATP. The electron transport chain also
known as the electron transport system, assists in the production of the largest amount glycolisis
which occurs in the cytoplasm and electron transport chain occurs in the mitochondria. The Krebs
cycle produces the most CO2. Anerobic is the growing or metabolizing in the absence of oxygen.
Glycolysis and fermentation are steps which anaerobic seems to occur. Chemiosmotic

Cellular Respiration Process
Cellular Respiration is the combination of metabolic cells and processes that occur within the
organisms cells. This process coverts biochemical energy into ATP and results in the removal of
waste products. There are four main steps of Cellular Respiration. Glycolysis, Transport Reaction,
Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation. These processes and or steps involved in cellular
respiration are known as catabolic reactions. These reactions are important because they are what
cause the larger molecules to break down into smaller molecules releasing energy that is necessary
in order to carry out the rest of the process. The overall goal of cellular respiration is to make ATP
from the food that we consume. The Ending step of cellular respiration that is responsible for this is
Oxidative ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The interference in Oxidative Phosphorylation is know as 'uncoupling'. DNP causes protons to be
pumped across the gradient interfering with the pathway of hydrogen in the final energy production.
This completely interferes with the process of creating ATP because the leak of protons is
increasing. When this happens, Potential energy is transformed into heat instead of ATP (Grundlingh
et al. 2011). When the process of creating ATP fails, the body must compensate in other ways. To
fulfill this, metabolism increases and speeds up to create energy needed. By doing this, fat and
carbohydrates are broken down and being converted to energy. As this happens, more fat is being
burned and more heat is being produced and causes weight loss due to the heat being more abundant
(Cotton 2015). Throughout this 'uncoupled' inference, Hypothermia is the result. Hypothermia is
when the body is over heated and reaches an unsubstantial temperature. This is known as the failure
of Thermoregulatory homeostasis. DNP is creating too much heat causing this reaction (Grundlingh
et al.

Biochemistry Research Paper
Unit 1 This article relates to the biochemistry unit of AP biology, it explains how energy is a
necessary factor for many body functions such as cell growth, body movement and development.
Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are major fuel sources that every living organism needs as a and
each source requires a different way of being converted into energy. Each of these fuel molecules
are digested and absorbed in the digestive tract, the molecules are absorbed as glucose,
monoacylglycerol, a chain of fatty acids, peptides and amino acids, respectively. There are two ways
that ATP is synthesized: 1. Oxidative Phosphorylation, the main method for energy production and
the second is substrate level phosphorylation which is the transfer of a phosphoryl group and this
method can happen both in the cytoplasma and mitochondria. In oxidative phosphorylation,
electrons from the fuel molecules are removed by coenzymes, such as nicotinamide adenine and
flavin adenine through protein complexes also known as ETS (electron transfer systems). ... Show
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Acetyl CoA along with oxaloacetate will be condensed until citrate is produced. Although the kreb's
cycle is considered as an aerobic respiration, oxygen is not directly used. Glycolysis, another
process that converges with the TCA cycle and it is the process of breaking down glucose. The PEP
bonds from the molecules will be converted into the pyruvate molecules and this type of ATP
synthesis method is known as the substrate level phosphorylation. Fatty acids are oxidized through
four reactions where the fatty acid will be completely oxidized into acetyl CoA which leads to the
TCA cycle. Amino acids go through two reactions: Transamination which transfers an amino acid
group in into a keto acid and defamation which removes an amino acid group in the form of

The Liver and Mitochondrial Damage
What is the root cause of this Vicious Cycle?
Mitochondrial damage is a normal part of aging, but is accelerated in many metabolic disorders.
Chronic deficiencies and gut imbalances can destroys the mitochondrial membranes and lead to the
modern diseases we see today.
The liver is our most valuable organ, we can only survive one or two days if it shuts down. Some of
the most import functions of the liver include: Clearing the blood of waste products, drugs, and
other poisonous substances. The liver also produces immune factors and removes bacteria from the
bloodstream to help combat infection. There are many inflammatory conditions that can affect the
liver's detoxification process. The medical term hepatitis literally means inflammation of the liver.
Chronic fatigue, and many other chronic illnesses can be aggravated by a buildup of toxins. Multiple
chemical sensitivity can also be a problem that can include an intolerance to caffeine, alcohol,
perfumes, and cleaning agents. These intolerance's tends to get progressively worsen over time and
can be very damaging to the mitochondria.
The Sulfotransferase metabolism is very important in Phase II detoxification, which is responsible
for the detoxification of many compounds. Some of these compounds are phenols, amines, sulfide,
salicylates, food additives, and many other toxic molecules as well as nutritious foods considered to
be very healthy. Malfunction of the Phenol–Sulfotransferase (PST) enzyme can cause an overload

The Pathway Of Cancer Cells Essay
Cancer cells are characterized by unlimited cell growth, inefficient apoptosis and excessive
anabolism. The process of becoming cancer cells includes gene activation, micro–environmental
changes and metabolic reprogramming. All of which compound upon one another and lead the
cancer cells to continue with their overwhelming growth and activity. Malignant cancer cells invade
and destroy organ infrastructure and replace it with disorganized and damaging cells. (1) The
metabolic preference of cancer cells is wide ranging with cervical and glioma cells maintaining a
normal oxidative phosphorylation and others exhibiting the switch to glycolysis. (2) This metabolic
switch exhibits the adaptation to environmental changes and the tumor's energy needs and activity.
Overall, the carcinogenic process that defines each malignant tumor determines the metabolic
profile of the cells. For the purpose of examining the metabolic switch, this paper will focus
primarily on the Warburg principle with only slight examination of other cancer cell metabolic
profiles.
The Typical Cell Metabolism
In a typical cell, the mitochondria works to provide the cell with adequate energy (in the form of
ATP) in a well organized system. This system takes the glucose from the body and through
glycolysis breaks it down to pyruvate, releasing 2 ATP. The products of glycolysis then enter the
mitochondria, and are decarboxylated and attached to coA. Acetyl–coA can then enter the Krebs's
cycle. The Krebs cycle is

Mitochondria Metabolism Essay
Abstract Mitochondrial play a crucial role in energy transduction of myocardium. Cellular and
mitochondria metabolism observed in the course of hyperglycemia is associated with excessive
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Among other factors involve in ROS production, is
intracellular concentration of glucose secreted by the pancreatic β cells. Glucose play a key role in
the mitochondrial–dependent oxidative reaction thus involvement of insulin resistance contribute to
the influx of calcium ion Ca2+, generating excessive ROS. Therefore, mitochondrial radical ROS
production in response to hyperglycemia is associated with Ca2+ concentration linked to cardiac
mitochondrial dysfunction.
A) Introduction All cellular metabolic processes are driven by ATP synthase. Cardiac myocytes
generate and consume massive amount of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation to maintain
specialized cellular processes, including ion transport, and intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis.
Myocardial workload and energy substrate availability are in continual flux, yet the heart has a
limited capacity for substrate storage. Thus, ATP–generating pathways must respond proportionately
to dynamic fluctuations in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Glucose metabolism is largely dependent on mitochondria to generate energy in cells. The
inefficiency nutrients oxidation leads to an increased production of superoxide anions. Imbalance
between energy and nutrient expenditure leads to mitochondrial dysfunction. The progression to
heart failure of any cause is associated with oxidative damage from oxygen species leading to
diminished capacity for ATP production. Reduced capacity for energy transduction leads to
secondary dysregulation of cellular processes critical for cardiac pump function, including Ca2+
handling and contractile function, which results in increased energy demand and diminished
function (Brian and Sonia

Phhoscholation Of JNK Phosphorylation
Activator protein–1 (AP–1) is a transcription factor made up of a number of proteins such as c–Jun,
mentioned above, which forms a complex with others such as c–fos and is an important substrate of
JNK phosphorylation playing a role in regulation of gene expression relating to a number of
cytokines (Gius et al, 1999; Johnson and Lapadat, 2002; Weston and Davis, 2007). The c–Jun can
arrange into homodimers with itself but only occurs when c–fos is not present and it can also
arrange into a heterodimer with c–fos (Halazonetis et al, 1988). Phosphorylation by JNK on c–Jun
occurs at the N–terminal in the activation domain at serine 63 and serine 73 and creates the ability
for precision in signal transduction from the membrane into the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
UV radiation can produce apoptosis in cells however it was shown through c–Jun wildtype and c–
Jun null mutants in varying quantities of UV that mouse fibroblast cells lacking c–Jun had greater
levels of cell death. This occurrence could be seen with a number of the different UV quantities and
over many time points and was confirmed to be apoptosis through DNA end–labelling assays. The
paper suggested that the c–Jun could represent a checkpoint stopping growth and allowing DNA
repair or it could act to help initiate production of genes that inhibit cell death. Apoptosis may be
inhibited by JNK and c–Jun but a second cellular response suggests they may stimulate this method
of cell death (Leppä and Bohmann, 1999). One study showed that JNK1 initiation rose quickly
when in the presence of both a low and high quantity of UV–C radiation (Chen et al, 1996). They
created JNK1 overexpression Jurkat cells, which did not actually overexpress the JNK but did show
varying results to the wildtype. Through the use of flow cytometry, they showed that in all but one
of the overexpressing samples when exposed to radiation, apoptosis occurred, with samples that had
greater initiation of JNK also having higher sensitivity to cell death by radiation suggesting a link
between initiation of JNK and radiation–induced apoptosis. Cell death by both UV–C and radiation
was blocked by mutants with the

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, And Nucleic Acids
There are four types of biomolecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates are large chains of sugar found in food and living tissues. This includes sugars,
starch, and cellulose. They have the same ratio of hydrogen and oxygen that water has, 2:1. They are
broken down to release energy in the animal body. Lipids are any organic compounds that are fatty
acids and don't dissolve in water but do in organic solvents. Fatty acids can be found in natural oils,
waxes, and steroids. Proteins are macromolecules that do everything in the cell. They are tools and
machines that make things happen. Nucleic acids are long strands of nucleotides, and function
primarily in storage and transmission of genetic information. There are two types of nucleic acids,
DNA and RNA. DNA is the genetic material of all cellular organisms, and RNA sends out messages
from the information that is held in the DNA. These four biomolecules are metabolized by the
animal body. Each biomolecule is broken down in a different process. The end result of each process
is the creation of usable energy for the body. This energy is used to work and generate other
chemical reactions that help the body move and think. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids each provide energy to different places within the body that, in turn, stimulate other chemical
reactions to occur, creating a chain reaction of chemical reactions throughout the body. The
metabolization of these major

The Effect Of Magnetic Resonance On The Brain
The brain allows everything from motor control and sensory perception to emotion and executive
functioning to occur. However, this high complexity inherently makes understanding it a difficult
feat, one neuroscientists have been tackling for decades, and will likely tackle for many more (Choi
& Gruetter, 2012). The advancement of neuroscience methods and imaging permits progress in the
field; for example, once researchers could isolate neurons and glia from a sample, experiments
quickly followed which showed the two cell types had different metabolic profiles. Similarly, the
development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) has
enabled integration of multiple modalities of information, like structure, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
However, high rates of glycolysis are only possible if there is a constant supply of oxidized
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, commonly referred to as NAD+, which can be achieved by
lactate dehydrogenase converting pyruvate to lactate. Increased lactate concentration within the
astrocyte causes lactate to be pumped out into the extracellular space. The ANLS hypothesis
proposes that this lactate is shuttled into the neurons to enable them to maintain the tricarboxylic
acid cycle whose products enable mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation to continue. The ATP
produced in the mitochondria is used to sustain Na+/K+ ATPase at the cell membrane to enable
continued depolarization and sustained excitatory post–synaptic potentials from the glutamate
stimulation. Further, for the astrocyte to maintain glycolysis, uptake of glucose from surrounding
blood vessels is greater in astrocytes, relative to neurons. On the other hand, the parsimonious
hypothesis states that neurons are the primary consumers of glucose during activation (Lundgaard et
al., 2015). This glucose is used for glycolysis and subsequent biochemical processes for the creation
of ATP to meet the energy demands of the cell. This belief is the one traditionally held and what the
original interpretations of neuroimaging data were based on: In fMRI, increases in BOLD response
are due to the blood flow increases to supply glucose to the activated neurons,

Cellular Respiration Steps
Cellular respiration, the great giver of energy to cells, takes place in and around the mitochondria. It
involves a series of 3 steps which starts with a large molecule and ends in ATP energy. The first step
of this process is called glycolysis and this takes place outside the mitochondria. In this step 2 ATPs
are used to "phosphorylate" a glucose molecule making Fructose 1, 6–biphosphate, next the new
molecule is broken into 2, 3 carbon molecules, and finally rouge phosphorous are added and
hydrogens are removed through oxidation creating 4 molecules of ATP and 2 NADH+H+. The 3
carbon sugars become pyruvic acid. (There is a gain of 2 ATP in this step). The second step is the
Krebs cycle. In this step the pyruvic acids enters the mitochondria,

Cellular Respiration Lab Report
Energy in cells is responsible for carrying out different functions such as making polymers, sending
substances across the cell membrane, movement, and reproduction.
Energy is obtained from food and other sources and can also be stored for later use.
The process photosynthesis breaks down energy for cellular respiration, producing oxygen and
organic molecules for use.
Throughout the course of the chapter, cellular respiration and fermentation are the essential focus of
the chapter.
Section 7.1 – Catabolic Pathways Release Energy by Breaking Down Organic Molecules
Catabolic pathways break down big molecules into smaller molecules, releasing energy.
Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP
Organic molecules contain various bonds which enables ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Substrate level phosphorylation that occurs in the citric cycle to make more ATP.
The net result of the entire of cellular respiration with one glucose molecule is 32 ATP.
Fermentation – A catabolic process that anaerobically creates lactic acid.
Aerobic Respiration – Respiration that occurs with the presence of oxygen.
Cellular Respiration – A metabolic pathway that is responsible for anaerobic and aerobic respiration;
helps break down organic molecules to produce ATP.
Redox Reactions – A chemical reaction that transfer one electron from a reactant to another.
Oxidation – Loss of electrons.
Reduction – Gain of electrons.
Reducing Agent – Electron donor in redox reactions.
Oxidizing Agent – Electron recipient in redox reactions.
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) – A coenzyme that is an electron carrier.
Electron Transport Chain – Electrons are used in redox reactions to release energy for the production
of ATP.
Glycolysis – Sugar splitting to create pyruvate; found in all living things.
Citric Acid Cycle – An eight step process that breaks down glucose molecules to carbon

The Origin Of Life Arose From Earth
Oparin hypothesized that the origin of life arose from Earth in its primitive state, these conditions
allowed the production of inorganic molecules, which slowly transitioned into organic substances
(RF). The temperature of the earth would have also been several hundred degrees high to initiate
changes in hydrocarbons, correlating with Paneth's experiment (high temperatures to facilitate the
breaking of hydrocarbons into free radicals) (RF) and Russell and Hall's model. According to
Russell and Hall's model, life emerged in hot, reduced, basic and sulfuric waters opposed with
colder, more oxidized, iron–bearing water. (Russell and Hall) They proposed the origin of life would
have taken place in the deep Hadean ocean floor. The difference between acidity, temperatures and
redox potential of the waters would have facilitated a gradient of pH, temperature and redox
potential, becoming sustainable over geological time–scales, providing the continuity for conditions
that were favourable to organic chemical reactions required for the origin of life. This led to the
formation of membranes through biosynthesis and thus led to the creation of prokaryotes. The
membranes of the prokaryotes were believed to be composed of chains of ether–linked isoprene
units. Although it had been hypothesized that chemical evolution of straight fatty acid through
Fischer–Tropsch–like reactions (Simoneit et al., 2007) many facts indicate that ether–type lipid with
branched chains with isoprene units

Universal Process And Reflection : An Example Of Cellular...
Cellular respiration is a universal process and is an example for Catabolic Reaction that breaks
down glucose and produces ATP. It is the enzymatic breakdown of glucose (C6H12O6) in the
presence of oxygen (O2) to produce cellular energy (ATP):
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6 CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
Cellular respiration is the combination of citric acid cycle, the electron transport chain, and
oxidative phosphorylation that breaks down the very different molecules of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats into common molecules that go through the pathway to generate 'reducing power' in the
form of NADH, and FADH2 that then allow the cell to create a proton gradient across the inner
mitochondrial membrane. Lots of ATP are generated by a protein complex that acts like a windmill
and harnesses the energy of the H+ ions flowing through a pore and down a steep electrochemical
gradient (that was generated by NADH). Cellular respiration can be aerobic or anaerobic. In
anaerobic respiration, ATP is synthesized only from glycolysis via substrate level phosphorylation.
While in aerobic respiration, more ATP is generated from NADH/FADH via Electron Transport
Chain.
There are three important steps in cellular respiration, those are Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and
Electron transport chain(ETC). The breakdown of glucose is called Glycolysis (Glycol = Glucose +
Lysis = breakdown), it occurs in the cytoplasm and is the preliminary step in Glucose breakdown or
respiration. It is an anaerobic process which means it

A Short Note On Na K Cl Cotransporter
Introduction
The Na–K–Cl cotransporter is a group of ubiquitous membrane transport proteins. This secretory
cotransporter maintains electroneutrality by transporting ions with the stoichiometry of 1Na+: 1K+:
2Cl–. Two different gene isoforms of the Na–K–Cl cotransporter have been found. Both varieties of
the symporter act to regulate and maintain cell volume and intracellular Cl– concentrations.
However, the two different isoforms of NKCC vary structurally as although NKCC2 is around 60%
homologous to NKCC1, it is lacking exon 21 (Delpire et al., 1994). The loss of this exon leads to
the differential sorting of the two isoforms therefore they are targeted to different membrane
domains (Carmosino et al., 2008). The first isoform, NKCC1, is a major component in mediating
Cl– influx in the basolateral membrane. Contrastingly, NKCC2 is selectively expressed in the apical
membrane of cell such as in thick ascending limb of Henle and primarily involved in NaCl
reabsorption (Darman and Forbush, 2002).
In humans, the Na+–K+–2Cl– cotransporter is encoded by the SLC12A2 gene. These proteins have
the same predicted structure with a large, hydrophobic region containing 12 transmembrane α–
helices surrounded by the hydrophilic N– and C– terminal cytoplasmic regions. The
transmembrane–spanning domains function to allow ion transport and the N– and C– terminal
regions are responsible for regulation. There is also a large, extracellular, glycosylated loop located
between helices 7 and 8

Role Of Phosphorylation Of Second Messenger Dependent On...
1. What is the role of the phosphorylation of GPCRs in the process known as "receptor
desensitization?" First describe the process, or what is meant, by the term "receptor desensitization."
What does it mean when we say that the receptor is "uncoupled" versus "down–regulation" of the
receptor? Define and contrast the roles of the "second messenger–dependent" protein kinases versus
the "G protein–coupled receptor" kinases in the process of receptor desensitization. What do the
terms "homologous" versus "heterologous" desensitization refer to? (Ferguson, Pharmacological
Reviews 53:1–24, 2001; Gainetdinov et al., Annual Review of Neuroscience 27:107–144, 2004;
Vasudevan et al., Cell Cycle 10:3684–3691, 2011).
Receptor desensitization: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This process called the "uncoupled". "Down regulation" means the receptor mRNA and protein
synthesis decrease and the preexisting receptor degradation. The "uncouple" and "down regulation"
are both involved in the receptor desensitization, but in different steps. These steps are following
described. First, the receptor uncouple from heterotrimeric G proteins; Second, cell surface
receptors internalize into intracellular membranous compartments; Third, receptor mRNA and
protein synthesis decrease result in the down regulation of the total cellular complement of
receptors, as well as both the lysosomal and plasma membrane degradation of pre–existing
receptors. There are two generally kinases which are G protein coupled receptor kinase GRKs and
second messenger–dependent protein kinases(e.g., PKA and PKC). The G protein coupled receptor
kinase only act on the phosphorylate agonist activate receptor. For example, GRK family members
work on activated receptors, and then promote the binding of cytosolic arrestins, which sterically
uncouple the receptor from heterotrimeric G protein. In contrast, second messenger–dependent
proteins kinases act on both phosphorylate agonist–activated GPCRs and other phosphorylates
receptors that have not been exposed to agonist. Thus, agonist–independent phosphorylation can
only happen with the second messenger–dependent protein kinases, but GRKs cannot do it. When
we recognize the

Rate Of Fumarate Lab Report
diphosphate kinase" produce ATP with GTP and ADP, that is the only reaction of the cycle to
produce directly ATP. The sixth reaction is the oxidation of succinate to fumarate : Succinate is
oxidized in fumarate, this reaction is coupled with the reduction of FAD+ in FADH2. The enzyme
that catalyze the reaction is "succinate dehydrogenase", it is the only enzyme of the cycle to have a
links with the inner mitochondrial membrane. The seventh reaction is the hydration of fumarate to
malate : The fumarate undergoes an hydration of his double bond to become the malate. The enzyme
who catalyze this reaction is the fumarase. This reaction is reversible. The eighth reaction is the
oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate : The malate is oxidized, the alcohol function of malate become
a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The enzyme is the malate dehydrogenase. That is the last reaction of the cycle. At the end of this
cycle we have two molecule of CO2, one molecule of ATP, three molecules of NADH and one
molecule of FADH2. The reaction of the cycle is : Acetyl–CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi
+2H2O → 2CO2 + CoA + 3NADH + FADH2 + GTP The regulation of the Kreb's cycle : The kreb's
cycle can be regulated by the substrate availability, like the acetyl–CoA, if there is a few acetyl–CoA
the flux of material in the cycle will be weak. The regulation of kreb's cycle can be done by the
coenzyme disponibility, for example, if the cellular activity is weak, the rate of NADH will be high
and the rate of NAD+ will be weak, that limit the speed of the reaction. And we can regulate the
cycle if we act on the enzymes, for example if the enzyme is inhibited by his products, the feedback
inhibition. The inhibitor is ATP, Acetyl–CoA, NADH, citrate, fatty acids, succinyl–CoA. The kreb's
cycle is a supplier of intermediate compounds for the biosynthesis. For example, the biosynthesis of
amino acids by the α–ketoglutarate .Or the biosynthesis of glucose

Fructokicose And Glucose Research Paper
2a) Blood glucose levels are controlled by the liver where glucose is produced and sent out through
the body via blood. This glucose is used to produce energy in the form of ATP. When blood glucose
levels are low, there is an insufficient amount of glucose available than what the body needs, so
glucagon is released. This promotes the production of glucose through amino acids into Acetyl–CoA
and then glucose. It is released into the bloodstream and blood glucose levels return back to normal.
When blood glucose levels are high, insulin levels in the bloodstream also rise and this causes the
synthesis of fructose–2–6–biphosphate. This molecule activates phosphofructokinase and inhibits
fructose biphosphatase. Phosphofructokinase is responsible for catalyzing the breakdown of glucose
to pyruvate while fructose biphosphatase is responsible for stopping the production of glucose. ...
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This is done by the enzymes glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase. These catalyze
opposite reactions in the sense that one catalyzes the breakdown of glycogen while the other
catalyzes the synthesis of glycogen. When blood glucose levels are high, glycogen phosphorylase is
activated and glucose is broken down via the addition of an inorganic phosphate. If blood glucose
levels are low, glycogen synthase couples the reaction to UTP and glucose is formed.

Essay about Effect of Rotanone
Comparing LC50 of Insectisides Pirimicarb and Rotenone on Blowfly, Blowfly larvae, Woodlice
and Daphni Abstract The LC50 of insecticides rotenone and pirimicarb were compared by testing
blowfly, blowfly larva, woodlice and daphnia. Rotenone is a NADH dehydrogenase inhibitor
causing death by oxidative stress however pirimicarb causes toxicity through acetylcholinesterase
inhibition. It was found that rotenone had large toxic effects on daphnia, blowflies and woodlice but
not maggots and pirimicarb had low toxic effects on all of the organisms tested. Due to the low
percentage death caused by pirimicarb a LC50, however in rotenone a LC50 was performed for
daphnia, woodlice and blowfly the LC50 for each organism was compared concluding ... Show
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Woodlice are nocturnal and are classified as primary decomposers, feeding on organic materials
such as bark, leaves, dead plant and animal matter and hardwood, decomposing the debris into soil
which is vital for the ecosystem (Nardi 2009, Poole 1994 & CapineraI 2010). Woodlice can
also be classified as secondary decomposers as they feed on their own faeces to replenish the copper
containing oxygen –absorbing pigment lost when they defecate. Urine is also recycled in the water
conducting channels along with water that is taken up from the environment, the ammonia of the
urine evaporates and from the remaining water in the water conducting channels oxygen is absorbed
by pleopods (Nardi 2009). Daphnia, also known as water fleas, are small crustaceans about 1mm–
5mm long and are part of the freshwater zooplankton (Ebert 2005, Hutchinson 2005 & Clifford
1991). Daphnia can be found in most fresh water habitats such as freshwater springs, ponds and
reservoirs and are the predominant food for planktivorous fish. Dapnia are 'filter feeders' meaning
they feed on small particles suspended in the water which can include algae. It has been found that
daphnia tend to migrate to the upper parts of the water at night and return to the lower parts of the
water in the day to hide from predators (Ebert 2005) (Hutchinson 2005). Daphnia can reproduce
through sexual reproduction and also asexual

Phosphorylation At S13 And S114 Case Study 1
Validating the candidate kinases phosphorylating at S13/S16 and S116
Kinase gain of function (GOF) analysis: The hit cDNAs of kinases will be co expressed along with
cDNAs Htt exon 1, Htt 171 and Htt 586 containing 16Q–23Q in HEK 293 cells and the Phosho
S13/s16 and S116 Htt will be examined using the appropriate antibody, Phos –tag SDS–PAGE
method (Bustamante et al., 2015) also method of IP of Htt and mass spectrometry. Kinases will also
be co expressed with appropriate S to A variants of the above Htt cDNAs to confirm the specificity
of phosphorylation and definitive site of phosphorylation. We will also test any pharmacological or
genetic method to activate kinases of interest (ex. Phosphatase inhibitors or siRNA that can increase
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
S13 and S16 phosphorylation has been found to regulate the ubiquitylation, SUMOylation and
acetylation of Htt exon 1 (Thompson et al., 2009). We will examine these regulations also upon
kinase co expression with Htt using HEK293 cells. We will also generate K6R, K9R, K15R Htt
exon 1 mutations examine the effect of S13 and S16 phosphorylation.
Validating the effects of candidate kinases using the Hek293 cells with inducible Htt full length
(FL): We have obtained the Hek293 cell, which can express the FL Htt with 17Q and 43Q upon
doxycycline treatment (Huang et al., 2015). We will carry out the kinase LOF and GOF experiments
as described above in this cell lines to validate the results obtained in our initial assays using the
HEK293 cells. We will closely monitor the total levels of Htt in these cells upon kinase LOF and
GOF to determine the effect on kinase phosphorylation on Htt clearance. If we find effects in Htt
clearance, we will examine the molecular mechanism.
Validating the effects of candidate kinases in primary neurons: The hit kinase from the above assay
will be again re–examined to confirm observations by LOF and GOF assay in the rat primary striatal
neurons. We will test the effect of pharmacological, RNAi or crisper/cas9 based inhibition of
candidate kinases on endogenous Htt and viral vector based exogenous Htt phosphorylation and
total levels. We will also use the viral vectors to co express the kinase cDNA along

Glycolysis, Oxidation Of Pyruvate, Citric A
When cellular respiration occurs, glucose is being broken down into carbon dioxide and water in
order to provide ATP, energy, for the cell. This process goes through four steps to ensure that the cell
goes through reactions that convert glucose into ATP, and then release waste products. Glycolysis,
Oxidation of Pyruvate, Citric Acid Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation are the steps that help cells
function properly. Glycolysis is the first step that takes place inside of the cytoplasm. The first half
of glycolysis uses two ATP molecules in the phosphorylation of glucose, which is then split into two
three–carbon molecules. The second half of glycolysis involves phosphorylation without ATP
investment and produces two NADH and four ATP molecules per glucose. Pyruvate Oxidation is the
second step that takes place in the mitochondria matrix. Upon entering the mitochondrial matrix, a
multi–enzyme complex converts pyruvate into acetyl CoA. In the process, carbon dioxide is
released and one molecule of NADH is generated. Citric Acid Cycle is the third step that takes place
in the mitochondria matrix also. the acetyl group from acetyl CoA is attached to a four–carbon
oxaloacetate molecule to form a six–carbon citrate molecule. Through a series of steps, citrate is
oxidized, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Electron Transport Chain occurs when there is a need to pump protons into the intermembrane
space in order to make a concentration gradient. As electrons are passed from protein to protein
down the chain, they lose energy to protein by redox reactions. In oxidative phosphorylation, the pH
gradient formed by the electron transport chain is used by ATP synthase to form ATP. Protons flow
back into the matrix through an enzyme called ATP synthase, making ATP. At the end of the electron
transport chain, oxygen accepts electrons and takes up protons to form

Synaptic, Redox Control, And Epigenetic Modifications
Abstract: Deregulation of cellular energetics is a cancer hallmark associated with tumor cells'
abilities to reprogram the metabolism to support biosynthetic demands of rapidly proliferating cells.
This mini review will serve to provide an overview of the biochemical mechanisms involved in
deregulated cancer metabolisms and the implications of these activities on signaling, redox control,
and epigenetic modifications.
Malignant cancers often exhibit fundamentally altered cellular energetics, conferring advantages to
tumor cells by reprogramming the metabolism to support neoplastic proliferation and promote
biosynthesis of macromolecules. Deregulated cellular energetics is observed quite widely across a
number of human cancers, and is therefore considered a hallmark of cancer. The role of metabolism
in cancer has been a topic of interest since the early 1920s when Otto Warburg proposed the
Warburg Effect. Under normal conditions, cells metabolize glucose through oxidative
phosphorylation and the TCA cycle. However, cancer cells often exhibit increased anaerobic
glycolysis. Although glycolysis is less efficient than the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, it
is faster and produces many of the precursor building blocks necessary for the cancer cells to fulfill
the metabolic demands of rapidly proliferating cells. Additionally, TCA cycle intermediates are
often used in cancer as precursors for macromolecule biosynthesis. Altered energetics can be further
observed in

Atus Case Study
Increased ROS levels in ATII cells in emphysema patients. Normal cellular metabolism leads to the
production and elimination of ROS. Their significant amount is generated by mitochondrial electron
transport chain. Since ATII cell death is a characteristic feature of emphysema (REF), we
hypothesize that these cells isolated from individuals with this disease have high ROS generation
and impaired their elimination. This may lead to cell injury and contribute to alveolar wall
destruction. We determined ROS production in freshly isolated ATII cells using DCF–DA staining
by flow cytometry analysis. Our results show significantly higher ROS levels in ATII cells isolated
from patients with emphysema in comparison with non–smokers (p<0.05; Figs. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
1e, f). Our results are in agreement with high ROS levels and low DNA damage repair observed in
emphysema and shown above. Moreover, low ROS generation and high OGG1 expression in non–
smokers correlate with decreased DSBs in these individuals. We further wanted to determine the
level of DNA damage in ATII cells isolated from emphysema patients compared to control non–
smokers or smokers. We analyzed phosphorylation of H2AX (γH2AX), which is a sensitive
indicator of DSBs (REF), by Western blotting and immunohistofluorescence. We found significantly
higher γH2AX phosphorylation in ATII cells obtained from smokers in comparison with non–
smokers (p<0.05; Figs. 2a, b). Interestingly, ATII cells isolated from emphysema patients have lower
expression of γH2AX phosphorylation in comparison with smokers. We also determined γH2AX
phosphorylation in lung tissue sections by immunohistofluorescence using SP–A as a marker of
ATII cells. We obtained similar results showing higher γH2AX florescence intensity in ATII cells
obtained from smokers in comparison with control non–smokers and emphysema (p< 0.05; Figs. 2c,
d). Although, ATII cells isolated from emphysema patients have higher ROS levels (Figs. 1a, b),
they don't show a significant increase in γH2AX phosphorylation. This may suggest the impairment
of DSBs repair signaling leading to lack of the DNA damage repair in these cells. P53 is involved in
several pathways including apoptosis and cell cycle

Phosphorylation Is The Formation Of A High Energy Bond...
Phosphorylation is the formation of a high–energy bond between a phosphate group and a target
molecule in the presence of an enzyme. In a cellular environment, it is estimated that 1/10th to half
of the total proteins are phosphorylated to perform a specific function in the cell. The concept of
protein phosphorylation was first introduced by Edmond Fischer and Edwin Krebs in the year 1955,
where they elucidated the necessity of ATP and a kinase (Known then as "converting enzyme").
Interestingly, a reaction which involved protein phosphatases (PP) was reported a decade earlier, but
it was not characterized as PP reaction because of the inability to detect inorganic phosphate as a
product.1
Since the above mentioned early discoveries, it has been well established in eukaryotic cells that
reversible phosphorylation of proteins, executed by kinases and PP, regulate major signal
transduction cascades. The highly specific signaling and reversible nature of phosphorylation seems
to suggest that there would be similar number of protein kinases and PP, but sequencing of human
genome has revealed that about 3% of the genome codes for kinases and PP, out of which
serine/threonine phosphatases (PSP) are 2–5 times fewer than serine/threonine kinases (PSK). This
irregularity in between PSK and PSP can be explained by the combinatorial formation of PSP
holoenzyme formed in between common catalytic and varying regulatory subunits.1
This short review focuses on one of the major PSP, known

Mitochondria Research Paper
Mitochondria Each cell contains hundreds to thousands of mitochondria (1), which are located in the
fluid that surrounds the nucleus called cytoplasm. Mitochondria are organelles within cells that
convert the energy from food into a form that cells can use. Mitochondria produce energy through a
process called oxidative phosphorylation which is the final stage of cellular respiration. During
oxidative phosphorylation, an electron transport chain works in conjunction with chemiosmosis to
create energy molecules named adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using oxygen and simple sugars. In
the electron transport chain, an electrochemical gradient is formed by the chemical gradient from the
inside to the outside of a mitochondrion counteracting with the electrical gradient from the outside
to the inside of the mitochondrion. During chemiosmosis, the energy stored in the gradient is used to
make ATP. In addition to energy production, mitochondria play a role in several other cellular
activities such as regulating apoptosis which is the programmed self–destruction process of cells and
producing substances such as heme which is a component of hemoglobin, and cholesterol (2).
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Most DNA is nuclear DNA (nDNA) because it is packaged in
chromosomes within ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Human eyes are highly dependent on mitochondria for energy, thus are commonly affected by
mitochondrial defects. For instance, people with Kearns–Sayre syndrome have a single, large
deletion of mitochondrial DNA. The deletions range from 1,000 to 10,000 nucleotides, and the most
common deletion is 4,997 nucleotides (9). The mitochondrial DNA deletions result in the loss of
genes that produce proteins required for oxidative phosphorylation, causing a decrease in cellular
energy production

SA Being a Constituent of Plants Is Consumed by Herbivore...
SA being a constituent of plants is consumed by herbivores animals as well as humans
Introduction (Explain what are salicylates, its origin and importance in plants)
Salicylic acid (SA) is a Mono–hydroxy benzoic acid derived from the metabolism of Salicin, an
alcoholic beta–glucoside known for its anti–inflammatory properties isolated from willow bark tree.
Salicylic acid has well identified roles in plant growth, physiology and disease resistance.
In plants, Salicylic acid is important in the establishment of both local and systemic acquired
resistance (SAR) analogous to innate immunity in animals. It helps in accumulation of
pathogenesis–related (PR) proteins. Blocking SA accumulation by expressing Salicylate
hydroxylase which causes its degradation prevent induction of PR genes. When some parts of a
plant gets infected with viruses like Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV), locally produced SA sends signal
to all other regions to get ready for a potential infection. Methyl Salicylate is one of the important
signal for SAR derived from SA, which is not present in plant but is synthesized upon pathogen
infection. SA in cell is converted to methyl salicylate by an SA carboxyl methyltransferase and this
volatile derivative is an important long distance signal. Methyl Salicylate is then recognized by
Salicylic acid binding protein 2 (SABP2) enzyme, which exhibits 150 times more affinity to SA than
catalase which helps in conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. When SA

Glycolysis, The Breaking Down Of Glucose Essay
Glycolysis, the breaking down of glucose, occurs in all organisms. It yields 2
pyruvate (3 carbon sugar), 2 NADH and 4 ATP (2 net) per molecule of glucose. During
aerobic respiration the Pyruvate enters the Citric acid cycle in which 6 CO2 (1 molecule
of glucose has 6 carbons), 2 ATP, 8 NADH and 2 FADH are produced. NADH and FADH
are high energy electron carriers. During the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) this
energy is used to establish a proton gradient which powers the enzyme ATPSynthase to
phosphorylate ADP to ATP.
During anaerobic respiration instead of oxygen other molecules such as sulfate
are used as final electron acceptors. Those molecules have smaller reducing potentials
and therefore release less energy. Anaerobic respirations is therefore less effective.
Fermentation occurs without oxygen and does not involve an ETC. This means
NADH accumulates from glycolysis and thus stop it from reoccurring. In order to get rid
of the excess NADH during fermentation the product of glycolysis is being reduced by
NADH to give NAD+.
Cellular Respiration is the term used to describe the reactions in a living cell in
order to convert biochemical energy to ATP and release waste. Most of the steps are
catabolic reactions in which a bigger molecule gets broken down into smaller molecules
while releasing energy from it's bonds. This is the energy used by the cell to produce

ATP, one of multiple high energy compounds that enable the cell to fuel its processes

Case Study 2 WwWL
Case Study II –– Wrestling with Weight Loss: The Dangers of a Weight–Loss Drug
Part I
1. What do you know about the mitochondria?
The main function of the mitochondria is to convert fuel into a form of energy the cell can use.
Specifically, the mitochondria is where pyruvate ––derived from glucose–– is converted into ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate) through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration involves four stages:
glycolysis, the grooming phase, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The final two
stages listed occur in the mitochondria.
Part II
2. What are the consequences of a proton gradient and how could a gradient be used in the
mitochondrion? List all the possibilities that come to mind.
Protons have a strong ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
b. To the amount of ATP produced by the mitochondria?
The lack of a proton gradient would mean that protons would no longer diffuse through the ATP
synthase, as there is no difference in charge or concentration which would cause them to do so.
When working normally, as protons pass through the synthase, they lose some energy, which is then
used to bond ADP with Pi and form ATP. No proton gradient would mean no movement of protons
through the synthase, and therefore ADP would not get the energy it requires to form ATP.
Production of ATP in the mitochondria would greatly decrease, as this process (called oxidative
phosphorylation) is responsible for 90% of ATP production. Substrate–level phosphorylation in the
citric acid cycle would continue to produce ATP, but the overall production by the mitochondria
would be only 10% of normal as oxidative phosphorylation stops.
c. To the energy released in the movement of the protons?
The movement of protons would no longer be controlled by the carrier protein embedded within the
inner membrane of the mitochondria. Normally, the ATP synthase is able to use the potential energy
contained in the protons passing through it to produce ATP, but as was explained in the previous
question, protons would no longer be passing through the synthase. Uncontrolled movement of this
kind would mean any energy release would be uncontrolled as well, and therefore

Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Both substrate–level phosphorylation and chemiosmotic phosphorylation are mechanism that is
utilize by the cell to add a phosphate group onto the substrate ADP to form ATP. In substrate–level
phosphorylation, the phosphate is transfer from a phosphorylated compound to ADP forming ATP
with the help of an enzyme. The source of energy that drive substrate–level phosphorylation come
from energy released from the hydrolysis of the phosphorylated compound or also known as the
phosphate transfer potential, the energy is then coupled with the synthesis reaction of the new ATP.
Substrate–level phosphorylation can occur in both the cytoplasm of the cell as part of glycolysis, or
in the mitochondrial matrix as part of the citric acid cycle. Chemiosmotic

Identification and Characterizaation of Three GS Isoforms...
3. Results
3.1. Identification and characterization of three GS isoforms
Three different GS sequences (GS01, GS02 and GS03) have been identified through the sequencing
and blastx searching. All the sequences contain a complete coding sequence (CDS) region and 5′
and 3′–UTRs. In this study we have attempted the characterization of the multiple GS cDNAs
present. The characteristics details of the full–length cDNAs of GS01 (Accession No. JQ740737),
GS02 (Accession No. JQ740738) and GS03 (Accession No. JX457351) are given in Table 2.
Analysis with the UTRscan tool revealed the presence of one Musashi Binding Element (MBE) in
both GS01 and GS02 transcripts. But there was no MBE present in GS03 UTR. Conserved Domain
Database search (CD–search) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
NetPhos 2.0 analysis projected 9/11/11 serine, 2/3/2 threonine and 5/7/7 tyrosine phosphorylation
sites for GS01/GS02/GS03 proteins respectively. The homology modelling of the enzyme shows 12
identical subunits, arranged in two layers of 6. The secondary structure of GS consisted of 7 alpha
helix and 15 beta strands. The binding residues, predicted by the RaptorX binding web server, and
the corresponding ligands for the three different GS proteins are given in Table 3.
3.3. Phylogenetic analysis
The alignment of the multiple GS amino acid sequences with fishes, amphibians and mammalian
proteins is presented in Fig. . The homologous active site residues for GS in C. batrachus were
determined using the Salmonella typhimurium GS X–ray crystallography structure (Gill and
Eisenberg, 2001). The pairwise alignment shows presence of 15 of the 16 residues identified in
Salmonella. The residues are completely conserved among fishes, amphibians and mammals (Fig.).
With respect to the Salmonella, only three of 15 residues present in catfish are substituted (positions
194, 196 and 246). The phylogenetic tree clearly revealed
3.4. Differential expression of GS mRNA transcripts in NH4Cl–treated fish
There were significant increases of expression of different GS mRNA (GS01, GS02 and GS03)
transcripts in different tissues (liver, kidney, brain and muscle) following the 50 mM NH4Cl
treatment. In the brain, where

Cellular Respiration And Photosynthesis Essay
Adenosine triphosphate is made of the organic molecule adenosine bonded to a chain of three
phosphate groups. ATP is an organic phosphate molecule that is the principal source of energy for
cellular works. (Reece, et al., 2011) Energy is released by ATP when bonds between phosphate
groups are broken by hydrolysis, ATP thus becoming adenosine diphosphate. Animals and plants
produce and store ATP in the process of cellular respiration, but plants also do during
photosynthesis. (Reece, et al., 2011) This essay will detail cellular respiration and photosynthesis
focussing on oxidative and substrate–level phosphorylation and chemiosmosis processes.
Cellular respiration is the process during which glucose is broken down to provide energy to cells. It
happens in both animals and plants, and it can be divided in 3 stages: Glycolysis, Citric acid cycle
and Electron transport and chemiosmosis. (Reece, et al., 2011) Glycolysis happens in the cytosol
and begins the breaking of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate that are oxidised into acetyl CoA.
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, both of these processes use different sources of energy, mitochondria use chemical energy
from food while chloroplasts transform light energy into chemical energy used for the synthesis of
ATP. (Reece, et al., 2011) Another difference is that in chloroplasts, protons are pumped across the
thylakoid membrane from the from the stroma into the lumen and then back into the stroma through
ATP synthase (Allen, 2002), while in mitochondria, protons are pumped to the intermembrane space
and powers ATP synthase as they diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix. (Reece, et al., 2011)
Electrons also have a different origin, organic molecules in mitochondria, water in

Energy Metabolism Is Important For The Maintenance Of Life
Energy metabolism is a process that is essential in the maintenance of life and has obvious roles
with regards to sporting/exercise performance. The body can produce energy both aerobically and
anaerobically and the regulatory mechanisms underlying these pathways of energy modulation are
complex (40). Under aerobic conditions the Krebs cycle is crucial for energy production, the
hydrogen's removed during the cycle are transferred to the electron transport chain and the energy
released during electron transport is utilised in the formation of ATP (1). Oxygen's role in aerobic
respiration is to act as the final hydrogen/electron accepter to form water. If this is not present the
whole aerobic pathway cannot occur and so the body will rely on energy produced anaerobically.
The question instantly raised is to whether oxygen is ever in short supply, does it become a limiting
factor for energy metabolism? Or are other factors limiting? Can increasing or maintaining NAD+
concentrations sustain the action of the Krebs cycle and bring about the continuation of oxidative
phosphorylation and therefore reducing build up of lactate as a consequence? If this hypothesis were
to be true then this could have advantageous implications in sporting performance (Fig. 1).
Arterial oxygen content does not decrease at exercise intensities <75% of VO2max (49). VO2max is
a measure of the ability of working muscles to oxidise metabolic substrates, with eventually a
plateau in oxygen uptake occurring

A Research Study On Cellular Respiration Essay
A cellular poison is considered as a metabolic poison that inhibits cellular respiration, electron
transport chain and mitochondrial membrane. Cyanide poison is the poison that block the last
enzyme from entering the electron transport chain and mitochondrial membrane. This poison also
inhibits the formation of producing ATP. Without the formation ATP, ATP has to be formed through
the steps of glycolysis. During glycolysis, the process in cell respiration. It produces four ATP but it
uses two ATP and form two net ATP. Cyanide poison is the main reason why the formation ATP in
not complete. Research will show why that is.
The most effective method of ATP production is cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the
breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and producing molecules of ATP( The Free
Resource). There are three steps that involve cellular respiration: glycolyis, the Kreb cycle and
electron transport chain. Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose. It mostly occur in the cytosol of
the cell. During the process of glycolysis, a phosphate group from the ATP is transferred to glucose
to produce glucose 6 phosphate. Glucose 6 phosphate is converted into fructose 6 phosphate with
the help of an enzyme called isomerase. The enzyme phosphofructokinase change fructose 6
phosphate to fructose 1,6 biophosphate. Fructose 1,6 biophosphate is split into two sugar. Those
sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceradehyde 3 phosphate. The enzyme triophosphate

Muscle Respiration Lab Report
According to American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC), Acidosis is characterized by
PH of 7.35 or lower [1]. Acidosis develops when the rate of H+ production exceeds the rate of H+
removal/buffering.
There is release of protons and formation of acid salt sodium lactate during intense exercise as there
is raised production of lactic acid causing the cellular buffering capacity exceed resulting in
decrease in cellular PH. This chemical events has been assumed to be the cause of muscle fatigue
during vigorous exercise. There is lot of research evidence which shows that acidosis can be caused
by other reactions rather than lactate production [2].
ATP ========== ADP +P+ H+. This reaction takes place in the presence of ATPase enzyme.
This H+ can be buffered by Creatine: CrP + ADP + H+ ====== ATP + Cr. This reaction takes
place in the presence of Creatine kinase enzyme. Lactate: Pyruvate + NADH+H+==== Lactate +
NAD. This reaction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition, Pi begins to accumulate, providing added substrate for glycogenolysis and glycolysis,
further increasing substrate flux through glycolysis. These events lead to rapid increases in proton
release due to an increasing dependence on glycolysis for sustaining the cellular ATP concentration.
Consequently, the main cause of an increasing proton release is the greater rate of glycolytic flux,
plus the now increasing dependence on glycolytic ATP turnover. The increasing substrate flux
through glycolysis, accompanied by decreases in the cytosolic redox (NAD+/NADH) results in an
increased rate of lactate

The Role Of Bioenergetics On Disease And Use Of Small...
Role of Bioenergetics in Disease and use of Small Molecule Therapeutics
Name
Institutional Affiliations
Role of Bioenergetics in Disease and use of Small Molecule Therapeutics
Introduction
The study of bioenergetics includes and not limited to study of biological membranes incurred in
energy conversion and transfer. In particular, the study concentrates on structures acquired using X–
ray craystallography, molecular mechanisms of the photosynthesis processes, bacteria respiration,
mitochondrial, transport, motility and oxidative phosphorylation. Furthermore, areas of structural
biology, spectroscopy, molecular modelling and biophysics of the system applications are not left
out while studying the specific chemical process of a disease. Bioenergetics further spans in the
biology of mitochondrial that embodies biomedicine, features of mitochondrial disorders and energy
metabolism (Zheng et–al, 2010, p.519). Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, aging, cancer and
diabetes are among the well–known neurodegenerative illnesses studied under bioenergetics and use
of small molecule therapeutics.
Small molecule therapeutics is one of the scientific techniques designed to help visualize the
magnanimity of genomics data which is prodigious in the process of making drugs. When this
technique is used, genomics data can yield random number of proteins produced in a disease tissue.
By understanding the role played by bioenergetics in a particular

Mechanistic Analysis Of Biguanide Induced Inhibition Of...
Kevin Raible Advanced Molecular Biology Final Exam
TITLE
Mechanistic Analysis of Biguanide–Induced Inhibition of Oxidative Phosphorylation
ABSTRACT
Biguanide compounds are used clinically to treat a variety of conditions ranging from diabetes to
malaria. Despite showing efficacy the underlying mechanisms of how these compounds work is still
debated. It has be previously shown biguanides inhibit oxidative phosphorylation, specifically
through inhibiting complexes in the electron transport chain. In the current study we tested five
clinically relevant biguanides; metformin, phenformin, buformin, proguanil, cycloguanil and begin
to elucidate mechanistically how they inhibit mitochondrial function. Our results suggest that all ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
DISCUSSION
Our findings demonstrate that all five biguanide compounds tested inhibited oxidative
phosphorylation (OP) through an interaction with complex I in the electron transport chain (ETC).
Through Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) analysis we have shown that biguanides do not
inhibit the movement of electrons within complex I due to the normal activity of FeS clusters in the
presence of the biguanide compounds. We subsequently ruled out competitive inhibition of the
ubiquinone–binding site as a possible mechanism, by showing altered Michaelis–Menten kinetics in
the presence of decylubiquinone. These data indicate that inhibition is likely a result of an altered
catalytic function due to the interaction between the compounds and complex I. Biguanide–
dependent inhibition of complex I isolated from mammalian, yeast, and bacterial sources indicates a
conserved target of action. We hypothesized that biguanide inhibition may be occurring at the
enzymatic moiety of the matrix–facing ND3 subunit of complex I; where NADH oxidation occurs
facilitating the transmembrane transfer of hydrogen and the inter–ETC–complex electron exchange.
A specific residue, Cys39, located in an amphipathic region between the redox and proton–transfer
domains is particularly important in determining the functional confirmation of the protein. The
presence or absence of substrate is responsible for either the 'closed' active confirmation, or the
'open'

The Importance Of The Citric Acid Cycle
The Krebs cycle also known as the Citric Acid cycle, is the second part of the three steps in which
cellular respiration happens. The Krebs cycle was discovered and named after Hans Krebs, a
German scientist. The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix of the cell, occurring
between glycolysis, which breaks down glucose turning into pyruvate, and oxidative
phosphorylation, which is what creates ATP. This is processes where the body harvests energy from
the food we consume. The Krebs cycle takes in the energy stored in the bonds of acetyl CoA. The
energy taken in from the Krebs cycle is then passed on to oxidative phosphorylation, where it is
transformed to a usable form of cellular energy, ATP. We then use that energy to move, breathe, for
our hearts to beat, along with many other functions. The Electron transport chain is the third step in
the process of cellular respiration, after the Krebs cycle. "The main purpose of the electron transport
chain is to build up a surplus of hydrogen ions (protons) in the intermembrane space so that there
will be a concentration gradient compared to the matrix of the mitochondria."(Quia, N.D) The
electron transport chain is made up of four protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
The location of the Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion and the electron
transport chain is in the Inner Mitochondrial Matrix. Within the mitochondria, eight major steps take
place for the process of the

The Production Of Energy And Regulation Of Apoptosis Onset
Recessive Mutations in TWINKLE Cause Infantile Onset Spinal Cerebral Atrophy
Biology 2B03
November 23, 2014
Arthur Patterson
Student Number: 1300982
Abstract
The production of energy and regulation of apoptosis onset are some of the key roles of
mitochondria in the cell. These two functions are related in such that malfunctions of the oxidative
phosphorylation process can lead to release of apoptosis inducing proteins. In order to function
properly, the mitochondria requires many proteins encoded in the nuclear genome. Some genetic
diseases such as IOSCA, manifest symptoms because of large scale apoptosis or atrophy in specific
tissues due to a nuclear encoded mutant protein. A recessive Y508C missense mutation in C10orf2, a
region of DNA encoding mtDNA helicase TWINKLE, manifests as IOSCA. These individuals are
homozygous, however a number of different heterozygous individuals with a secondary mutation
have been documented with distinct similar phenotypes are described as a subclass of IOSCA.
Homozygous individuals develop symptoms approximately by one year as a result of atrophy of
specific structures in the hindbrain, posterior spinal cord and sensory axons. The additive atrophy
over time manifests in progressively worse symptoms eventually leading most affected individuals
to become deaf, wheel–chair bound, suffer spine and foot deformities and eventually bouts of
refractory epilepsy. Current treatment is merely symptomatic and not preventative. As the

The Two Component Stressors
Introduction
Bacteria are prone to various stressors so they need to sense and respond to these fluctuating
conditions in order to survive. Two–component plays an important role in the bacterial kingdom to
sense and adapt themselves to these varieties of stressors, for example oxidative stress, protein
misfolding, nutrient starvation and many more. It is first described by Ninfa and Magasanik (1986)
in the study of nitrogen starvation in Escherichia coli. Two–component system consists of a sensor
histidine kinase and its cognate response regulator (Koretke,K.K. 2000). Sensor histidine kinase is
bifunctional which means it can function as both kinase and phosphatase. It autophosphorylates
itself upon sensing a signal, whereby the phosphoryl group from ATP molecule is transferred to a
specific histine residue on the histidine kinase. It then acts as phosphodonor substrate for its cognate
response regulator. The cognate response regulators is acting as phosphatase to the histidine kinase
as it catalyses the transfer of the phosphoryl group from histidine kinase to its conserved aspartic
acid residue. Once phosphorylated, response regulator undergoes conformational change which
activates the output domain leading to either stimulation or repression of the targeted genes. As
mentioned earlier on, histidine kinase protein also acts as phosphatase for its cognate response
regulator if it is not stimulated to autophosphorylate.
This system has vast variations and the common

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