2. DATA – facts and other relevant materials, past and
present, serving as basis for study & analysis
DATA COLLECTION METHOD – the strategy and system
used to gather information on elements of the research
DATA SOURCE – the individual or institution from which the
evaluation data are collected (e.g., participants, parents, records,
etc.) – (primary or secondary)
QUANTITATIVE DATA – numeric information that is
subject to statistical analysis
QUALITATIVE DATA – text-based information that provides
descriptive details, often collected from interviews, focus
groups, or observations
3. TYPES OF DATA
Data relating to human beings/Personal data-
› Demographic and socio economic characteristics of individuals:
age, gender, race, caste, social class, religion, marital status,
education, occupation, income, family size etc.
› Behavioural variables: attitudes, opinions, awareness,
knowledge, practice, intentions etc..
Organizational data: Origin, Ownership, Objectives, resources
functions, performance, growth etc..
Territorial data: population, occupational pattern, infrastructure,
degree of development, villages, cities, state,….
4. IMPORTANCE OF DATA
Basis for analysis
Relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine quality
of findings
Basis for testing hypotheses
Required for constructing measurement scales and tables for
analysis.
5. SOURCES OF DATA
Primary sources : original sources directly
collected by researcher, not collected earlier.
Methods- observation, interviewing, questionnaire
etc..
Secondary sources: readily available, complied
statistical statements and reports.
Eg: Census reports, annual reports, government
reports.. Published and unpublished data.
6. FEATURES OF SECONDARY DATA
Readymade and readily available do not require
any processing
Researcher has no control over content of data
colleted and form of classification. (can limit the
research value)
Not limited by time & space – researcher need not
have been present when and where they were
gathered.
7. Uses of secondary data
Reference purpose
A bench marks against which findings of a research may be
tested.
Used as the sole source of information for a research project.
Advantages of Secondary data:
secured quickly and cheaply
Can cover wider geographical area and longer reference
period without extra cost.
Broadens the data base, useful for generalizations.
Enables verification of findings of primary data.
8. Limitations of secondary data
Available data may not meet our specific needs
Data may not be accurate and reliable
Data is not up-to-date or outdated
Information about the whereabouts (location)of sources
may not be available .
10. OBSERVATION
Observation as a method includes seeing , hearing and
perceiving.
Observation is a classic method of scientific enquiry
Meaning
Observation is a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon
in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data
for a particular study
11. Observation becomes scientific when
a) Serves a formulated research purpose
b) Is planned deliberately
c) Recorded systematically
d) Is subject to checks and controls on validity and
reliability
12. Observation - features
Both Physical & mental activity
Selective
Purposive and not casual
Captures the natural social context in which the person’s
behaviour occurs
Obseravtion Should be exact and based on tools of research
14. Direct observation
In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behaviour
as it occurs. The observer may or may not normally attempt to
control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The
observer merely records what takes place.
Indirect observation
This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and
the recordings is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic
device
15. Non-participant
The observer does not normally question or communicate with
the people being observed. He or she does not participate.
Participant
In this observation, the observer is a part of the phenomenon or
group which is observed and he acts as both an observer and a
participant
16. Controlled & Uncontrolled observation
Controlled observation is carried out in a
laboratory or in a field. It is structured as to what,
how and when to observe, exercising control over
external and internal variables by adopting
experimental design.
Uncontrolled observation does not involve
control over variables. Used for descriptive
research.
17. OBSERVATION TOOLS
Schedules – constructed on the basis of objectives,
hypotheses, data requirements of the study
Field observation log- form of diary or cards. Rough notes
are later transferred to full log. Flexible, allows
rearrangement.
Mechanical devices- cameras, tape recorders, videotape,
etc..permanent record of events
18. Advantages of observation
First hand information collected by researcher directly
Data collected in a natural setting
Suitable to study subjects who are unable to formulate
meaningfully
Less demanding on the subjects
Mechanical devices may be used to collect accurate data,
and for long periods.
19. LIMITATIONS
Cannot study past events or activities
Not suitable for studying opinions and attitudes
Difficulty in obtaining a representative sample
Cannot be used at the convenience of the researcher. He
has to wait for the event to take place.
Slow & expensive process.
20. Interviewing
Defined as a two - way systematic conversation between an
investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining
information relevant to a specific study.
Involves not only conversation but also learning from the
respondents gestures, facial expressions and his/ her
environment
21. Importance of interviewing
Suitable to gather information from illiterates.
Collection of wide range of data:
a) Covers demographic data
b) Personal and intimate information – person’s
opinions, attitudes, values, past experiences etc…
Helps investigator to seek clarification
22. Advantages of interview
Depth and detail of information
Interviewer can control as well as improve the percentage
and quality of responses
Can gather supplementary information such as economic
level, motives and feelings
Can use special scoring devices, visual material to improve
the quality of interviewing
Flexible and adaptable
23. Disadvantages
Costly both in money and time
Skill of the interviewer
Respondent’s bias
Geographical limitations
25. Types of interview
1. Structured / directive interview
Carried out with a detailed standardized schedule
Same questions are put to all respondents and in the same
order, which also promotes reliability
Used in large scale formalized surveys
26. 2. Unstructured / Non-directive interview
Also called in-depth interview
Detailed pre-planned schedule is not used
Interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely
Questions are not standardized
27. 3. Focused interview
Semi structured interview
Attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effect of a
given experience to which the respondents have been
exposed.
Interview is focused on the subjective experiences of the
respondent
28. 4. Clinical interview
Its concerned with broad feelings or motivations or
with the course of the individual’s life experiences
Eg:- personal history interview in social case works
,prisons , psychiatric clinics
Respondents are encouraged to talk freely about them
29. 5. Telephone interviewing
Non- personal method of data collection
Helpful when
1. Population is listed in phone directory
2. Responses to few simple questions
3. Respondents are scattered
30. Interviewing process
Preparation
Introduction
Developing rapport
Carrying the interview forward
Recording the interview
Closing the interview
31. EXPERIMENTATION
An experiment is a trial or special observation made to
confirm or disprove something
It aims at studying the effect of a independent variable on
a dependent variable.
Experimentation is a research process used to study the
casual relationships between variables
Application/Types:
› Laboratory experiment
› Field experiment
32. PLANNING AND CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Determine the hypothesis to be tested and the independent and
dependent variables involved
Identify their measurable dimensions
Make experimental conditions as nearly as real life conditions
33. Advantages
Determine casual relationship between variables
The element of human errors is reduced to the minimum
It generally yields exact measurements and can be repeated
for verifying results
34. Disadvantages
Artificiality
Not helpful in determining opinions, motives and intensions
of persons
Experimentation with human beings is extremely limited
Cost of experimentation can overweigh the available
resources
Applied only to studies of present and not past.
35. Panel method
Data is collected from the same sample
respondents at intervals either by mail or by
personal interview.
The period over which the panel members are
contacted for information may spread over several
months or years
36. Advantages of panel
Accuracy
Before – after designs for field – based studies
Its possible to study trends in events, behaviour or
attitudes
It provides evidence on casual relationship between
variables
Facilitates depth interviewing
37. Disadvantages
Very expensive
Difficult to set up a representative panel
Panel conditioning
Quality can decline due to decreasing interest
38. Mail survey
Involves sending questionnaire to the respondents
with a request to complete them and return them
by post
Can be used in case of educated respondents only
It should preferably contain closed- end and
multiple choice questions
39. Advantages
Less costly than personal interviews
Can cover extensive geographical areas
Contacting various sets of people
The respondent can complete the questionnaire at
their convenience
Provides more anonymity
Free from interview bias
Personal and economic data may be given more
accurately
40. disadvantages
Scope is less in countries were literacy rate is low
Response rate is low
The cause for non - response is not known
Information on Personal characteristics and
environment of the respondent cannot be secured
incomplete responses
41. Simulation
Form of observational method
Simulation is a theoretical model of the element, relation
and processes which symbolize some referent system
Abelson defines simulation as “ the exercise of a flexible
limitation of process and outcomes for the purpose of
clarifying or explaining the mechanism involved.”