The present study evaluated the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in Kpean Community in Khana Local Government Area of Rivers State. Soil samples were collected at a depth of 0-50cm3 using plastic auger while tuber crops and vegetables were harvested from the same spot as the soils. Findings from this study showed an increase in soil temperature, moisture, electrical conductivity and organic matter content of crude oil impacted soil compared to control (P<0.05).soil><0.05).><0.05)><0.05). The results of this study indicates that crude oil pollution of agricultural farmlands in Kpean Community is yet to be remedied even after 20 years following oil spillage and the soil still remain unsuitable for crop production. Hence, proper remediation of the studied area is paramount in order to reduce metal accumulation and subsequent exposure of the populace to metal poisoning via food chain.

1. Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria
IRJBB
Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil
quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana
local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria
Akubugwo E.I.1
, Elebe E.U.2
, Osuocha K.U3
1,2,3
Department of Biochemistry, Abia State University Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria.
The present study evaluated the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in
Kpean Community in Khana Local Government Area of Rivers State. Soil samples were collected
at a depth of 0-50cm
3
using plastic auger while tuber crops and vegetables were harvested from
the same spot as the soils. Findings from this study showed an increase in soil temperature,
moisture, electrical conductivity and organic matter content of crude oil impacted soil compared
to control (P<0.05).Soil pH ranged from acidic in the crude oil impacted soil to slightly acidic in
the control while soil anions levels were significantly decreased compared to control (P<0.05).
Soil enzyme activities of crude oil impacted soils decreased significantly. Crops grown on
impacted soils accumulated significant heavy metals compared to control (P<0.05) and a decrease
in proximate composition of vegetables and crops were obtained in test samples compared to
control (P<0.05). The results of this study indicates that crude oil pollution of agricultural
farmlands in Kpean Community is yet to be remedied even after 20 years following oil spillage and
the soil still remain unsuitable for crop production. Hence, proper remediation of the studied area
is paramount in order to reduce metal accumulation and subsequent exposure of the populace to
metal poisoning via food chain.
Keywords: Crude oil, exploration, soil quality, crops.
INTRODUCTION
Soil pollution due to oil exploration in Niger Delta, Nigeria
has created consciousness on pollution status of the
environment. Soil is the most valuable component of the
farming ecosystem and environmental sustainability
largely depends on proper soil management (Osuocha et
al., 2013b). Sustainable use of agricultural soil on which
plants depend is absolutely necessary for agricultural
productivity. Osuocha et al., (2016) reported that soil
represents a dynamic system in which continuous
interaction takes place between soil minerals, organic
matter and organisms that influence physicochemical and
biological properties of terrestrial systems. Plants as
essential components of the ecosystem and agrosystems
represent the first component of the terrestrial food chain
due to their capacity of toxic metal accumulation when
they grow on soils polluted with such metals (Osuocha et
al., 2015). Contamination of foods by heavy metals has
become an inevitable challenge. Soil pollution due to oil
spillage is contributing to the presence of harmful
element such as cadmium, lead and mercury in food crop
produce. The entry into food chain by these metals may
lead to increased susceptibility and exposure of the
populace to metal poisoning.
*Corresponding author: Dr. Osuocha Kelechi Uzoma,
Department of Biochemistry, Abia State University Uturu,
Abia State, Nigeria. Email: osuochak@gmail.com
International Research Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Vol. 3(1), pp. 044-050, May, 2016. © www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: 2167-0438x
Research Article

2. Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria
Akubugwo et al. 044
Figure 1. Map of Khana LGA, Showing Study Area (Kpean Community and Sites of Samples Collections.
This study aims at evaluating the impact of over 20 years
of oil spillage on soil quality and its effect on selected
crops and vegetables grown in these areas.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
This study was carried out with samples (soils, tuber
crops and vegetables) obtained from Kpean community
of Khana Local Government Area of Rivers State. The
rural settlers are mainly peasant farmers with most farm
produce as cassava, vegetables, yam and cocoyam.
While oil exploration and production were the major
industrial activities in Kpean Community of Rivers State,
Nigeria (Fig. 1).
Sample collection
Soil samples and commonly cultivated vegetables and
tuber crops were collected and harvested from farmlands
in Kpean Community in Khana Local Government Area of
Rivers State, Nigeria. Soil samples were collected from
the four cardinal points- North, East, West, South and the
epi centre while the control samples were collected and
harvested from an areas devoid of oil exploration.
Samples of soils were collected with plastic auger 100m
away from the epi centre in each of the four cardinal
points at a depth of 0-50cm and packaged in bags for
laboratory analysis. Samples of the following tuber and
vegetable cultivars were harvested from the same spots
where the soil samples were collected: Cassava (Manihot
spp), Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta), Yam (Diascoria
rotundata), Water leaf (Talinum. triangulare ) and Fluted
pumpkin (Taliferia occidentalis ).

3. Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria
Int. Res. J. Biochem. Biotechnol. 045
Method of Analysis
Soil temperature was determined at the site of soil
samples collection using mercury in glass thermometer
(APHA, 1998). The soil pH was determined by the
method of Bates (1954) using air dried soil samples. Soil
moisture and chloride content was determined by the
method of APHA, (1998). Soil sulphate and phosphate
content was determined according to the method
described by Dewis and Freita’s (1970). Soil organic
carbon was determined by the method of Walkely and
Black (1934). Soil electrical conductivity was determined
using digital electrical conductivity meter according to the
method described by Whitney (1998). While soil enzymes
such as Alkaline phosphatase, soil dehydrogenase
activities were determined according to Tabatabai (1982)
using calorimetric end point method. Soil hydrogen
peroxidase was determined with titration method
according to Alef and Nannipieri, (1995). Heavy metals in
soil and plant samples were determined by method
described in APHA (1998) while moisture, ash, lipid,
carbohydrate composition of plant samples were
determined by the method of James (1995) While the
method of Change (2003) was used for protein
determination.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results of the physiochemical properties of soil samples
from different sites in Kpean community affected by crude
oil spillage are presented in Table 1. Soil temperature
plays a vital role in many biological processes that occurs
in soils. Temperature of impacted soils ranging from
26.60 to 27.28 were relatively higher compared to control
25.50 (P<0.05). These Variations in soil temperature as
observed in different location of the impacted soil may be
due to biochemical reactions following oil pollution. This
finding is in line with a similar observation made by
Akubugwo et al., (2010) who reported increase in soil
temperature in refined oil spillage soil in Isuikwuato
Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria. Naranjo
et al., (2004) also reported that change in soil
temperature will have impact on plant growth, biomass
and activities of microorganism.
Soil pH is considered a master variable that affect
virtually all soil properties: chemical, physical and
biological (Singh et al., 2004, Akubugwo et al., 2007;
Osuocha et al., 2015). The pH of crude oil impacted
soils ranging from 5.92 to 6.65 were significantly (P<0.05)
lower compared to control 7.12 (Table 1). This observed
reduction in pH could be attributed to the impact of crude
oil spillage. This finding is in line with similar reports of
Osuji and Adesiyan (2005) who posited low acidic pH in
crude oil contaminated soils.
Electrical conductivity is defined as the measure of the
amount of dissolved salt in a given soil (Singh et
al.,2004).High electrical conductivity indicates more
soluble salts in the soil. The electrical conductivity of
crude oil impacted soils were significantly higher
compared to control (P<0.05). The electrical conductivity
values obtained were higher than the recommended
ideal soil electrical conductivity value(0.2-1.2mScm
-1
)
accepted for optimum plants growth. This finding
agreed with similar result of Arias et al, (2005) who
posited that high electrical conductivity may occur as a
result of contamination from anthropogenic sources,
such as application of chemicals, industrial wastes, poor
irrigation and excessive use of fertilizer which affect
seed germination, plant growth and soil water balance.
Electrical conductivity values between 0.2 -1.2 dSm
-1
are
generally accepted for plant growth. This implies that
crude oil impacted soils studied have high electrical
conductivity values above the recommended values.
Moisture content is defined as the direct capacity of the
soil to hold water (Singh et al., 2004). Results from this
study revealed that moisture content of crude oil
impacted soil were significantly higher than the control
soil (P<0.05). This may be due to the oil pollution or due
to predisposition of the area under study. This findings
are in consonance with the reports of Li et al., (2005) and
Wyskowka et al.,(2000) who reported change in soil
moisture properties due to oil contamination and that high
moisture content can have drastic effect on the organic
matter compositions through indirect reduction of soil
ventilation. Results of the present study also showed
significant reduction in the levels of anions (chloride,
phosphate and sulphate, calcium carbonate and carbon
content).This may be due to the variations in level of the
exchangeable ions. Organic carbon of the impacted soil
increased significantly compared to control (P<0.05).
These observed increase may be attributed to the
metabolic processes following oil spill that facilitate
agronomical addition of organic carbon from petroleum
hydrocarbon. (Osuji and Onojake., 2006). This
observation is also in line with report of Lee et al., (2002)
on crude oil polluted soil.
Soil enzymes are the direct mediators for biological
catabolism and as such could be easily applied in
assessment of soil quality. The oxidoreductase enzymes
assayed in this study (dehydrogenase, alkaline
phosphatase and hydrogen peroxidase) indicate a
decrease in activity in the impacted soil compared to
control soil ,which could be attributed to the impact of oil
pollution. The decrease in activities of soil enzymes is
similar to the results reported by Zhang et al., (2005);
Wyzskowska and kucharisk (2000) and Malachowska-
Jutsz et al.,(1997.) who reported decrease in enzyme
activity of soils contaminated with crude oil. In soil
polluted by petroleum spill, Zhang et al.,(2005) reported
undesirable reduction in the activities of these enzymes
which indicate low activities of microorganism in the
polluted soil.

4. Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria
Akubugwo et al. 047
Table 1. Physicochemical parameters of crude oil polluted kpean Community soils studied.
Parameters Temperature
(
0
c)
pH Electrical
conductivity(
dSm-
1
)
Moisture (%) Chloride(gkg
-
1
)
Phosphate(gk
g
-1
)
Sulphate(
gkg
-1
)
Organic
carbon(
gkg
-1
)
Calcium
carbonate(m
gkg
-1
).
Control 25.500.00
a
7.120.01
a
37.270.01
a
55.080.01
a
4.990.01
a
20.330.01
a
36.130.01
a
0.040.01
a
14.100.01
a
Site A 26.270.01
b
5.920.01
b
62.000.01
b
31.720.01
b
2.130.01
b
10.090.01
b
30.120.01
b
0.040.01
a
0.220.01
b
Site B 26.830.01
b
6.340.01
c
52.330.01
c
42.550.01
c
2.490.01
c
12.190.01
c
17.910.01
c
1.050.01
c
0.040.01
c
Site C 27.120.01
c
5.710.01
b
25.000.01
d
22.060.01
d
2.480.01
c
8.110.01
d
14.660.01
d
2.600.01
b
0.080.01
d
Site D 26.600.01
b
5.750.01
b
47.330.01
e
24.300.01
d
2.300.01
d
14.250.01
e
22.200.01
e
2.540.01
d
1.060.01
e
Site E 27.280.01
c
6.650.01
c
66.000.01
a
51.670.01
e
5.670.01
e
11.770.01
f
31.050.01
f
1.080.01
c
0.250.01
f
Values are the mean of triplicate determination ±standard deviation. Means in the same column having different alphabet are significantly different (P<0.05). Site A = North, Site B= South, Site C=
West, Site D= East, Site E= Center
Table 2. Soil enzyme activities of crude oil polluted kpean Community
Enzymes Dehydrogenase
(mg/g/ 6h)
Hydrogen peroxidase
(mg/g/3h)
Alkaline phosphatase (µmol)
Control 21.14±0.01
a
3.17±0.01
a
2.16±0.01
a
Site A 11.16±0.01
b
1.36±0.01
b
1.31±0.01
b
Site B 8.72±0.01
c
1.24±0.01
c
0.71±0.01
c
Site C 12.06±0.01
d
0.32±0.01
d
1.91±0.01
d
Site D 5.27±0.01
e
1.31±0.01
e
0.63±0.01
e
Site E 4.05±0.01
f
1.02±0.01
f
0.90±0.01
f
Values are the mean of triplicate determination.
Means in the same column, having the different alphabet are significantly different (P<0.05).
Site A=North, Site B=South, Site C=West, Site D=East , Site E=Center
Table 3. Soil heavy metals concentrations (mg/kg) of crude oil polluted Kpean Community soil
Values represent mean of triplicate determination ± standard deviation.
Means in the same column having the different alphabet are statistically significant (P‹0.05) when compared. Site A=North, Site B=South, Site C=West, Site D=East, Site E=Center.
Heavy metals Lead
(mg/kg)
Zinc
(mg/kg )
Cadmium (mg/kg) Nickel
s (mg/kg)
Chromium (mg/kg) Manganese (mg/kg)
Control 0.038
a
0.059
a
0.014
a
0.046
a
0.027
a
0.029
a
Site A 1.143±0.01
b
3.74±0.01
b
0.33±0.01
b
2.36±0.01
b
1.29±0.01
b
2.18±0.01
b
Site B 1.147±0.01
b
1.30±0.01
c
0.16±0.01
c
3.28±0.01
c
4.59±0.01
c
1.58±0.01
c
Site C 3.28±0.01
c
2.64±0.01
d
3.52±0.01
d
4.64±0.01
d
0.96±0.01
d
2.137±0.01
d
Site D 2.109±0.01
d
2.38±0.01
e
2.39±0.01
e
1.86±0.01
e
3.45±0.01
e
5.41±0.01
e
Site E 2.789±0.01
e
1.02±0.01
f
4.25±0.01
f
1.86±0.01
e
2.29±0.01
f
2.29±0.01
f

5. Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria
Akubugwo et al. 048
Table 4.Heavy metals concentrations (mg/kg) in tuber and vegetables crops grown in crude oil polluted kpean community
Diascoriarotundata colocasia esculenta Manihot esculenta Telferia occidentalis Talinium triangulare
Heavy
metals
(mg/kg)
Control Test Control Test Control Test Control Test Control Sample
Lead(Pb) 0.108±0.01
a
0.149±0.01
a
0.002±0.01
a
0.022±0.01
a
0.010±0.01
a
0.039±0.01
a
0.030±0.01
a
0.097±0.01
a
0.019±0.01
a
0.053±0.01
a
Zinc(Zn) 0.023±0.01
b
0.090±0.01
b
0.031 ±0.01
b
0.280±0.01
b
0.012±0.01
b
0.235±0.01
b
0.024
±0.01
b
0.415±0.01
b
0.043
±0.01
b
0.060±0.01
b
Cadmium(C
d)
0.043±0.01
c
0.266±0.01
c
0.036±0.01
c
0.317±0.01
c
0.049±0.01
c
0.201±0.01
c
0.040±0.01
c
0.293±0.01
c
0.020±0.01
c
0.053±0.01
a
Nickel (Ni) 0.018±0.01
d
0.173±0.01
d
0.053±0.01
d
0.218±0.01
d
0.023±0.01
d
0.045±0.01
d
0.053±0.01
d
0.293±0.01
d
0.013±0.01
d
0.028±0.01
c
Chromium(C
r)
0.003±0.01
e
0.065±0.01
e
0.023±0.01
e
0.185±0.01
e
0.073±0.01
e
0.290±0.01
d
0.023±0.01
e
0.073±0.01
e
0.025±0.01
e
0.050±0.01
d
Manganese(
Mn)
0.005 ±0.01
f
0.023±0.01
f
0.030±0.01
f
0.169±0.01
f
0.011±0.01
e
0.450±0.01
f
0.015±0.01
f
0.0711±0.01
f
0.028±0.01
f
0.055±0.01
e
Values represent mean of triplicate determinations± Standard deviation. Means in the same column having different alphabet are statistically significant (P<0.05).
Table 5. Proximate composition (%) of tuber and vegetable crops grown in soils of crude oil polluted kpean community.
Diascoria Rotundata colocasia esulenta Manihot esculenta Telferia occidentalis Talium triangulare
Control Test Control Test Control Test Control Test Control Sample
Moisture (%) 68.40±0.01
a
67.13±0.01
a
65.57±0.01
a
60.27±0.01
a
67.90±0.01
a
65.08±0.01
a
31.13±0.01
a
29.00±0.01
a
27.12±0.01
a
23.50±0.01
a
Protein (%) 4.20±0.01
b
4.15±0.01
b
3.13±0.01
b
3.06±0.01
b
3.74±0.01
b
3.14±0.01
b
23.05±0.01
b
22.24±0.01
b
25.18±0.01
b
25.32±0.01
b
Lipid (%) 0.14±0.01
c
0.13±0.01
c
0.79±0.01
c
0.20±0.01
c
0.71±0.01
c
0.18±0.01
c
1.19±0.01
c
1.05±0.01
c
2.55±0.01
c
2.45±0.01
c
Fibre (%) 0.73±0.01
d
0.67±0.01
d
0.90±0.01
d
0.28±0.01
d
0.77±0.01
d
0.38±0.01
d
1.79±0.01
d
1.00±0.01
d
1.70±0.01
d
2.00±0.01
d
Totalcarbohydrate(
%)
26.05±0.01
e
25.49±0.01
e
25.54±0.01
e
24.03±0.01
e
26.20±0.01
e
26.05±0.01
e
42.11±0.01
e
40.97±0.01
e
42.61±0.01
e
40.05±0.01
e
Ash content (%) 0.35±0.01
f
0.78±0.01
f
0.97±0.01
f
0.23±0.01
f
1.45±0.01
f
0.83±0.01
f
0.82±0.01
f
0.23±0.01
f
1.40±0.01
f
0.28±0.01
f
Values represent mean of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation
Means in the same columns with different alphabet are statistically significant (p<0.05).
Oil pollution generally increases the
concentrations of heavy metals (Zhang et al.
2005). Therefore, the concentration of heavy
metals (Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Mn) in polluted soil
samples, tubers crops (yam, cocoyam, and
cassava) and vegetable crops (fluted pumpkin
and water leaf) were higher than those in the
unpolluted soils in this study. The increase in
heavy metal concentration may be due to
hydrocarbon pollution which is in line with the
observation of Kakulu et al.,(1985 ) who opined
that crude petroleum contributed to a large
extent metal pollutions in the Niger Delta area
of Nigeria.
Proximate analysis is the most common analysis
done for nutritional testing (FAO, 2001).Results
show that proximate composition of tuber crops
and vegetable crops from polluted soils were
significantly lower compared to control (P<0.05).
This may be due to the impact of crude oil spill (oil
explorations activities) which may have negatively

6. Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria
Akubugwo et al. 049
affected soil conditions required for optimum plant growth
and yield. This observation is in consonance with the
findings of Adenipekun and Kassim (2006) that spent
engine oil pollution negatively affected the proximate and
nutritional composition of Celosia argenta plant.
Ogbuechi (2010) observed that spent engine oil pollution
had a negative effect on nutrient composition of cowpea
(Vigna unguiculata). Results of this study also validates
similar reports by Odebunmi et al.,(2007) that crude oil
negatively affected the proximate composition and
nutritional component of Dioscorea rotundata (white yam)
and colocasia esculenta (white cocoyam). Thus, these
results further validates that, there is observed
relationship between the inhibitory effect of oil pollution
and plant quality and yield.
CONCLUSION
This study evaluated impact of crude oil exploration on
soil quality and food crops grown in Kpean Community of
Khana Local Government Area of Rivers state. Results of
this study revealed that petroleum oil spillage negatively
affected the physical and chemical parameters, enzyme
activities and increased the level of heavy metals in soils
and food crops. Nutritional composition of tuber crops
and vegetables were adversely affected compared to
control, indicating the pollution status of the soils where
these plant crops are cultivated. Results of this study
indicate that crude oil pollution of agricultural farmlands in
Kpean Community is yet to be remedied even after 20
years of the spillage. Hence, proper remediation of the
studied area is paramount in order to reduce metal
accumulation and subsequent exposure of the populace
to metal poisoning via food chain.
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Accepted 14 December, 2015.
Citation: Akubugwo EI, Elebe EU, Osuocha KU (2016).
Studies on the impact of crude oil exploration on soil
quality and crops grown in Kpean community in Khana
local government area of Rivers State, Nigeria.
International Research Journal of Biochemistry and
Biotechnology, 3(1): 044-050.
Copyright: © 2016 Akubugwo et al. This is an open-
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