its one of the topic in B.Ed Educational Psychology paper.

1. ATTENTION

2. Nature and Meaning
• “Attention is a process of getting an
object of thought clearly before the
mind”
• Ross
• “Striving to cognize”
• McDougall

3. characteristics
• Purposive
• Selection
• Basis of selection
• Shift
• Attending and Motor Adjustment

4. Span of attention
• Refers to the number of independent, distinct
/ separate stimuli that can be attended to by
an individual, at a glance
• Known as perceptual span
• Apparatus name “ Tachitoscope”

5. • Distraction
Refers to attending to irrelevant stimuli that
are not part of the main assigned task.
• Inattention
Not paying to a particular stimulus or to any
stimulus.

6. • Shifting of attention
it shifts from one objects to another or one
aspect of the object to another aspect.
Division of attention
"Divided attention can occur in one or more
senses at a time.“

7. FACTORS OF ATTENTION
Objective/External Subjective/ Internal
physiological
condition
Emotions Interests Mental set
Intensity
Of the
stimulus
Novelty Size Repetition change Contrast
movement
Determinants of Attention

8. sensation
• The gateway of knowledge/ windows of the
mind and soul.
• Is the immediate result of a sense organ being
acted upon by appropriate stimuli.
perception
• Is the consciousness of particular things
presented to senses
- William James
Perception = sensation + Meaningful
interpretation

9. characteristics
• Meaningfully interpreted sensation
• Process of selection is involved in perception
• Determined by our past experiences
• Process on integration takes place
• Analysis & synthesis take place

10. Laws of perception
Law of pragnanz
Means compact but significant.
We always perceive any thing as a whole
configuration / pattern so that it is simple,
meaningful and stable.
Law of proximity
We perceive all closely situated / located
things as a group and its favored according to
the nearness of the parts.

11. Law of similarity
Other things being equal, the stimuli that are
similar, will have greater tendency to be
grouped as a single unit.
Law of closure
Indicated that closed or completed figures are
more stable than incomplete or unclosed
figures.

12. • Law of good continuation
Indicated that organization in perception
appears to be going infinitely in the same
direction.

13. Errors in perception
• Illusion
its wrong or mistaken perceptions which fail to
correspond with the situation as objectively
assessed.
• Hallucination
Its false perception. I has no sensory basis and it
sis a dream image often mistaken for perception.

14. Memory
• Woodworth and Marquis define
A mental power which consists in learning,
retaining and remembering what has
previously been learnt.
Stimulus response acquiring of an
experience retention time gap recall
• Four elements of memory are
• Learning
• Retention
• Recall
• Recognition

15. The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of
memory storage

16. Storage system
Environ
mental
Input
Sensory
Register
Short- Term Store
(S.T.S)
Temporary working
Memory
Long – Term Store
(L.T.S)
Permanent
Memory - Store
Response - Outlet
Visual
Auditory
Haptic
Control
Process
Rehearsal
Organization
Interval plans

17. • Brief preservation of information in original
sensory form
• Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
– George Sperling (1960)
Sensory Memory

18. Sperling’s (1960) sensory memory

19. • Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or
minus 2
– Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as
a single unit
• Limited duration – about 20 seconds without
rehearsal
– Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing
or thinking about the information
Short Term Memory (STM)

20. Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study
of short-term memory

21. Forgetting
• “Forgetting is failing to retain to recall what
has been acquired “
- Nunn
“Means failure at any time to recall an
experience when attempting to do so, / to
perform an action previously learned.”
- James Drever

22. Causes of forgetting
• Lack of interest
• Disuse of activity
• Lapse of time
• interference
• Lack of reorganization
• Motivated forgetting
• Emotional disturbance
• Fatigue

23. Theories of forgetting
• Theory of decay

24. Decay Theory
• It is a process of fading with the passage of time.
• Decay theory suggests that these traces
disintegrate over time if they are not reactivated
for use
- Only relevant to LTM

25. Limitations of Decay Theory
• Fails to explain why some memories fade and
others are maintained for life
• Doesn’t explain our ability to recover seemingly
forgotten memories – this can happen through re-
learning or a retrieval cue

26. Interference Theory
• The tendency for new memories to impair the
retrieval of older memories and vice versa
• Proposes that forgetting in LTM results from
other memories interfering with the retrieval of
information targeted for recall, especially when
memories are similar

28. Types of Interference
• Retroactive Interference: Refers to the
tendency for new information to interfere with
the retrieval of previously learned information
(think: retro = backward)
• Proactive Interference: Refers to the tendency
for previously learned information to interfere
with the retrieval of recently learned
information (think: proactive = forward)

29. Motivated Forgetting
• Forgetting in LTM occurs because of a conscious
or unconscious desire to block out painful or
threatening memories
• Repression: Occurs unconsciously or without your
awareness
• Suppression: When you actively and consciously
attempt to put something out of awareness – you
could choose to remember it

30. Theory of consolidation
• Importance of undisturbed period for memory
traces to become durable and permanent.
• If the newly formed traces are disturbed and
no time is given for consolidation, they will be
wiped out.

31. • Motivation to learn
• Meaningful material
• SQ3R
• Spacing the learning period
• Recitation
• Over – learning
• Rhymes and logical associations
• Mnemonic devices
• Multisensory learning
• Periodical rest and sleep
• Pro – active & retro–active
• Organized manner

32. Memory Disorders
• Is the result of damage to neuro-anatomical
structures that hinders the storage, retention and
recollection of memories.
• Common memory lapses / S.T. memory loss
• Memory slip
• Alcohol – related dementia
• Mental blocks
• Long-term memory loss
• Dementia
• Alzheimer’s diseases
• Vascular dementia
• Post – traumatic memory loss

33. Imagination
• Meaning of Imagination:
• Memory is the exact reproduction of the
contents of past experience in the same order
in which they were experienced in the past.
Imagination consists in reproducing the
contents of past experience and arranging
them in a new order different from that in
which they were originally experienced.

34. Types of Imagination
• Passive Imagination:
• Active Imagination:
• Receptive Imagination:
• Creative Imagination:
• Intellective Imagination:
• Practical Imagination:
• Esthetic Imagination:

35. Reasoning
• Sherman defined, “reasoning is a process of
thinking during which the individual is aware
of a problem identifies, evaluates, and
decides upon a solution”.
• Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a
purpose or goal in mind” —Garrett.

36. Types of Reasoning:
• Reasoning may be classified into two types.
• 1. Inductive reasoning:
• It is a specialized thinking aimed at the
discovery or construction of a generalized
principle by making use of particular cases,
special examples and identifying of elements
or relations.

37. • Deductive reasoning:
• It is the ability to draw some logical
conclusions from known statement or
evidences. Here one starts with already
known or established generalized statement
or principle and applies it to specific cases. For
example, all human beings are mortal you are
a human being, therefore, you are mortal.

38. • INTRODUCTION • Problem solving is an
instructional method or technique where by
the teacher and pupils attempt in a conscious,
planned and purposeful effort to arrive of
some explanation or solution to some
educationally significant difficulty for the
purpose of finding a solution.

39. • What is problem-solving?
• Problem solving is a teaching strategy that
employs the scientific method in searching for
information. Problem solving: arriving at
decisions based prior knowledge and
reasoning.

40. • STEPS OF PROBLEM SOLVING