the theory of information processing

1. Information Processing Theory
Memory

2. As you interact with the
presentation, write an outline of
the main ideas
( titles, subtiltes…)

3. Definition of Memory
• An internal record or representation of some prior
event or experience
• A set of mental processes that receives, encodes,
stores, organizes, alters and retrieves information over
time

4. Extended definition
Memory is the faculty of the mind by
which data or information
is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the
retention of information over time for the purpose of
influencing future action. If past events could not be
remembered, it would be impossible for language,
relationships, or personal identity to develop. Memory loss is
usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia

5. Traditional Three-Stage Model
• Model focuses on storing information for different lengths of
time
• Three stages are sensory, short-term memory and long-term
memory

6. Sensory memory
• Sensory memory holds information, derived from the senses, less
than one second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an
item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of
observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is
out of cognitive control and is an automatic response.
• With very short presentations, participants often report that they
seem to "see" more than they can actually report.
• Purpose: to retain exact image of sensory information long enough to
focus on important info and transfer it to next stage
• All senses have a sensory memory
• Duration depends on the sense involved

7. Short-Term Memory
• Short-term memory is also known as working memory. Short-term
memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute
without rehearsal. Its capacity, however, is very limited
• In 1956, George A. Miller (1920–2012) conducted experiments
showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items. (Hence,
the title of his famous paper, "The Magical Number 7±2.") Modern
perspectives estimate the capacity of short-term memory to be lower,
typically on the order of 4–5 items
• Memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking.
For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could
chunk the digits into three groups
• Purpose - temporarily stores info until it is sent to LTM

8. Long term memory
• The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has
a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information
is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, while the total capacity of
long-term memory has yet to be established, it can store much larger
quantities of information. Furthermore, it can store this information
for a much longer duration, potentially for a whole life span. For
example, given a random seven-digit number, one may remember it
for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in
short-term memory. On the other hand, one can remember
telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this
information is said to be stored in long-term memory.
• Purpose is to keep info stored for long periods of time
• Unlimited capacity and duration

9. Memory Process Model
• Encoding, Storage, Retrieval Model
• How is info changed as it moves through these operations?
• Process can be compared to a computer

10. Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
• Encoding: Process of translating info into neural codes that will be
retained in memory
• Storage: The process of retaining neural coded info over time
• Retrieval: The process of recovering info from memory storage

11. Conceptualization of the Human Memory
(taken from Gredler, 1997)

12. Concept of chunking and the capacity of the
STM
• STM can hold between 5-9 chunks of information
• A chunk is any meaningful unit
• A chunk can be digits, words, people’s faces, etc.
• Chunking information aids memory by breaking it down into manageable
size
• Size of each chunk unit can vary
• Example, 7323545254 vs 732-354-5254
• Experts have developed chunks (schemas) of information that allow them
to better handle complexity by recognizing patterns
• Instructors must chunk information to facilitate learning

13. Example
• 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 = 16 chunks
• 10 10 00 10 01 11 00 11
= 8 chunks
• 1010 0010 0111 0011
= 4 chunks

14. Irregular verbs
Infinitive Simple past Past participle
Short verbs Short verb Short verb
d t t
ow ew own
I a u

15. Concept of Information Processing
• Encoding=Representing information
• Retention=Holding information
• Retrieval=Getting information back

16. Factors Influencing Attention
(Ormrod, 1995)
• Size/ amplitude
• Novelty
• Intensity
• Internal factor
-Incongruity (something that doesn’t make sense)
-Emotion
-Personal significance

17. Amplitude
the quantity of information that we can pay attention to at the
same time and the quantity of tasks that we can do
simultaneously. It is important to keep in mind that attention
is a limited resource and although you can pay attention to
more than one thing at a time, there will come point where
this is no longer possible.

18. Novelty: newer or strange stimuli attract more of
our attention.

19. Intensity:
Intensity is understood as the amount of attention resources
which are paying attention to a given stimulus. That is to say,
the level of resources that we direct to a given stimulus can
fluctuate, being able to carry out tasks practically without
paying attention (automatic tasks) and others demanding high
attention resources (controlled tasks).

20. Internal factors (internal determiners): come from the individual and
therefore, depend on each person. Some examples are:
• Interests: we concentrate more on stimuli that interests us.
• Emotion: stimuli that provoke stronger emotions attract more
attention. However, it must be kept in mind that positive moods
contribute to focusing attention resources, but negative moods make
concentration more difficult.
• Organic state: depends on the physical state that the person is in. So,
states of tiredness, discomfort, fever, etc. will make mobilising
attention more difficult. If, on the other hand, a person is in a state
relating to survival, for example, thirst or hunger, stimuli related with
the satiation of these needs will attract more attention resources.

21. What diseases are related to attention?
• Aprosexia: maximum reduction of attention ability, total absence of attention.
• Hypoprosexia: decrease in attention ability. Within this category the following
can be distinguished:
- Distractibility: abrupt changes or marked instability in attention.
- Emotional unstable attention: inconstant and changing attention
performance.
- Inhibition: inability to mobilise attention.
- Neglect: neglect syndrome usually manifests as lack of attention, akinesia
(loss or lack of movement) and hemispatial neglect (being unaware of half of the
space that surrounds us).
- Fatigue: exhaustion of attention as a consequence of cerebral factors, that is
to say, being caused by traumas, tumours, dementia processes, etc.

22. Factors that Contribute to Forgetting
• Inadequate Impression at the Time of Learning:
The reason for inadequate impression is lack of attention and
inadequate learning will is necessary for good memory. Forced
learning results in no learning because forced learning distracts
our attention.
• Laps of Time:
With the passage of time what is learned or experienced is for-
gotten. This is a passive decay. The memory traces formed in the
brain gets faded and becomes weather with the passage of time.

23. Interference
There are two types of interface, proactive interface and
retroactive interface:
• Proactive interference:
When something learnt earlier distrusts recall of something you
are learning how. In other words, it can be explained as the
interference of past-learnt material in recalling the newly learnt
material.
• Retroactive interference:
When learning now makes it harder to recall something you
learned earlier. Here recently learnt material interferences in
recalling of past-learnt material.

24. • Nature of the Material Learned:
Amount of forgetting also varies with the nature of the
material learned. Humans remember things that are
meaningful better than things that are not.
• Methods Used to Learn:
Apart from the nature of the material we learn, systematic
and efficient methods used in learning also influence our rate
of forgetting.

25. Theories of Forgetting
•Decay Theory
•Interference Theory
•Encoding Failure

26. Decay theory
• The Decay theory is a theory that proposes that memory
fades due to the mere passage of time. Information is
therefore less available for later retrieval as time passes and
memory, as well as memory strength, wears away. When an
individual learns something new, a neurochemical "memory
trace" is created. However, over time this trace slowly
disintegrates.
• Actively rehearsing information is believed to be a major
factor counteracting this temporal decline

27. Interference theory
• Proactive interference:
When something learnt earlier distrusts recall of something
you are learning how. In other words, it can be explained as
the interference of past-learnt material in recalling the newly
learnt material.
• Retroactive interference:
When learning now makes it harder to recall something you
learned earlier. Here recently learnt material interferences in
recalling of past-learnt material.

28. Encoding failure theory
• Encoding is the process of turning information into memory.
Much of the research on memory suggests that encoding plays
a significant role in subsequent retrieval. In other words,
successful encoding increases the chances of successful
retrieval. Poor encoding results in poor retrieval.