Types of Probability Sampling - Mass Media Research.pptx

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Quantitative research uses a static or standardized set of questions. All respondents are asked the same questions. Although follow-up questions (and skips) can be designed into a questionnaire, they must be included in the questionnaire or measurement instrument before the research project begins. Interviewers conducting the interview are not allowed to stray from the questionnaire. Qualitative research uses a flexible questioning approach. Although a basic set of questions is designed to start the project, the researcher can change questions or ask follow-up questions at any time.

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Content analysis alone cannot serve as the basis for making statements about the effects of content on an audience. A study of Saturday morning cartoon programs on television might reveal that 80% of these programs contain commercials for sugared cereal, but this finding alone does not allow researchers to claim that children who watch these programs will want to purchase sugared cereals. An additional study of the viewers is necessary

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There are two broad types of error present in all research: Sampling error: or error related to selecting a sample from a population. A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire population of data and the results found in the sample do not represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population. Sampling error can be reduced by increasing the sample size. If the sample size n is equal to the population size N, then the sampling error is zero. Non-Sampling error: It is an error created by every other aspect of a research study, such as measurement errors, data analysis errors, the influence of the research situation itself, or even error from an unknown source that can never be identified and control or eliminated. Random errors are (like the name suggests) completely random. They are unpredictable and can't be replicated by repeating the experiment again.

Research Error in Mass Media Research.pptx

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Perhaps the most commonly used scale in mass media research is the Likert scale, also called the summated rating approach. A number of statements are developed with respect to a topic, and respondents can strongly agree, agree, be neutral, disagree, or strongly disagree with the statements. Each response option is weighted, and each subject’s responses are added to produce a single score on the topic.

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Thurstone scales are also called equalappearing interval scales because of the technique used to develop them and are typically used to measure the attitude toward a given concept or construct. To develop a Thurstone scale, a researcher first collects a large number of statements (Thurstone recommends at least 100) that relate to the concept or construct to be measured. Next, judges rate these statements along an 11-category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of favorableness toward the concept. The items are then ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the judges and are used to construct a questionnaire of 20 to 30 items that are chosen more or less evenly from across the range of ratings.

Thurstone Scales - Mass Media Research.pptx

Muhammad Awais

Exploratory factor analysis is a statistical technique that is used to reduce data to a smaller set of summary variables and to explore the underlying theoretical structure of the phenomena. It is used to identify the structure of the relationship between the variable and the respondent. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a multivariate statistical procedure that is used to test how well the measured variables represent the number of constructs. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) are similar techniques, but in exploratory factor analysis (EFA), data is simply explored and provides information about the numbers of factors required to represent the data. In exploratory factor analysis, all measured variables are related to every latent variable. But in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), researchers can specify the number of factors required in the data and which measured variable is related to which latent variable. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a tool that is used to confirm or reject the measurement theory.

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Determining an adequate sample size is one of the most controversial aspects of sampling. How large must a sample be to provide the desired level of confidence in the results? Unfortunately, there is no simple answer. The size of the sample required for a study depends on at least one or more of the following seven factors: (1) project type, (2) project purpose, (3) project complexity, (4) amount of error tolerated, (5) time constraints, (6) financial constraints, and (7) previous research in the area. However, projects intended to answer significant questions (those designed to provide information for decisions involving large sums of money or decisions that may affect people’s lives) require high levels of precision and, therefore, large samples.

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Systematic sampling is a simple random sampling with a shortcut selection procedure. Everything is the same except that instead of using a list of random numbers, we first calculate a sampling interval to create a quasi-random selection method. The sampling interval (i.e., 1 in k, where k is some number) tells us how to select elements from a sampling frame by skipping elements in the frame before selecting one for the sample.

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One goal of scientific research is to describe the nature of a population—a group or class of subjects, variables, concepts, or phenomena. In some cases, an entire class or group is investigated, as in a study of prime-time television programs during the week of September 10–16. The process of examining every member in a population is called a census. In many situations, however, an entire population cannot be examined due to time and resource constraints. Studying every member of a population is also generally cost-prohibitive and may, in fact, confound the research because measurements of large numbers of people often affect measurement quality The usual procedure in these instances is to take a sample from the population.

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Choose a topic. Define your research question. Your literature review should be guided by a central research question. Remember, it is not a collection of loosely related studies in a field but instead represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way. Decide on the scope of your review. How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover?

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this technique is used to measure the meaning an item has for an individual. Research indicated that three general factors—activity, potency, and evaluation—were measured by the semantic differential. Communication researchers were quick to adapt the evaluative dimension of the semantic differential for use as a measure of attitude. To use the technique, a name or a concept is placed at the top of a series of seven-point scales anchored by bipolar attitudes. The bipolar adjectives that typically “anchor” such evaluative scales are pleasant/ unpleasant, valuable/worthless, honest/ dishonest, nice/awful, clean/dirty, fair/unfair, and good/bad. However, we recommend that a unique set of anchoring adjectives be developed for each particular measurement situation.

Semantic Differential Scales - Mass Media Research.pptx

Muhammad Awais

Guttman scaling, also called scalogram analysis, is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuum in such a way that a person who agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or find acceptable all other items expressing a less extreme position. For example, here is a hypothetical four-item Guttman scale: 1. Indecent programming on TV is harmful to society. 2. Children should not be allowed to watch indecent TV shows. 3. Television station managers should not allow indecent programs on their stations. 4. The government should ban indecent programming from TV.

Guttman Scale - Mass Media Research.pptx

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They can be used to investigate problems in realistic settings. The cost of surveys is reasonable when one considers the amount of information gathered (some online surveys are free). A large amount of data can be collected with relative ease from a variety of people. Surveys allow researchers to examine many variables. Surveys are not constrained by geographic boundaries; they can be conducted almost anywhere.

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Things we observe are the observable realities, which could be physical or abstract. For purposes of identification of reality we try to give a name to it. By using the name we communicate with others and over time it becomes part of our language. A concept is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name. In other words a concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words. Learning concepts is like learning language.

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